His especial
contribution
was to point out the significance of the muscular sensations, in which the fundamental facts of the mental life which correspond to spontane ous bodily motion are to be found.
Windelband - History of Philosophy
writings in 10 vols.
, Mannheim, 184« ff.
").
Ludwig Feuerbach (1804-1872 ; Gedanken über Tod und Unsterblichkeit, IS}»: Philosophie und Christentum, 1839; Wesen des Chrislenthums, 1841 ; U>w» der Religion, 1846; Theogonie, 1857 ; Works, 10 vols.
, Leips.
1840 ff.
).
Cf.
K.
Grün (L.
F.
, Leips.
1874), David Friedrich Strauss (1808-1874 ; Das Lei** Jesu, 1835; Christliche Glaubenslehre, 1840 f.
; Der Alte und der neue Glaube,
1872 ; Works, 12 vols. , Berlin, 1876 ff. ). Cf. A. Hausrath, D. F. Str. und die Theologie seiner Zeit (Heidelberg, 1876 and 1878).
From the Materialism controversy are to be mentioned : K. Moleschott (Kreislauf des Lebens, 1852), Rudolph Wagner (Ueber Wissen und Glauben, 1854; Der Kampf um die Seele, 1857), C. Vogt (Köhlerglaube und Wissen schaft, 1854 ; Vorlesungen über den Menschen, 1863), L. Büchner (Kraft und Stoff, 1855) [Force and Matter, Lond. l.
Related to this materialism was the development of the extreme Sensualism in the form in which it was presented by H. Czolbe (1819-1873; Neue Dar stellung des Sensualismiis, 1855 ; Grundzüge, der extensionalen Erkenntniss- theorie, 1875), and by F. Ueberweg (1826-1871), who was originally more closely related to Beneke (cf. A. Lange, History of Materialism, IL). In a similar relation stood the so-called Monism which E. Haeckel (born 1814 ; Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte, 1868 ; Welträlhsel, nth ed. 1900 : cf. Loots, Anti-Haeckel, 1900, and Fr. Paulsen, E. ' H. als Philosoph. Preuss. Jahrl*. 1900) has attempted to develop, and finally the socialistic Philosophy of His tory, whose founders are Fr. Engels (Ludwig Feuerbach und der Ausgang der klassischen deutschen Philosophie, 1888 ; Der Ursprung der Familie, des Pri- vateigenthums und des Staates, 1884) and Karl Marx (Das Kapital, 1867 ff. . Capital, 1801); cf. on Engels and Marx, R. Stammler, Wirthschaft und Hecht, 1896 ; L. Wolfmann, Der historische Materialistnus, 1900.
By far the most important among the epigones of the German Philosophy was Rudolph Herrn. Lotze (1817-1881 ; Metaphysik, 1841 ; Logik, 1842 ; Medi- cinische Psychologie, 1842; Mikrokosmus, 1856 ff. ; System der Philosophie. 1. Logik, 1874 ; IL Metaphysik, 1870) [Microcosmus, tr. by Hamilton and Jones, Edin. and N. Y. 1885 ; Logic and Metaphysics, 2 vols, each, tr. ed. by B. ßosan- quet, Oxford, 1884, also 1888 ; Outlines, ed. by G. T. Ladd, Boston, 1886 ff. ). Cf. O. Caspari, H. L. in seiner Stellung zur deutschen Philosophie (188;? ); E. v. Hartmann, L. 's Philosophie (Berlin, 1888); H. Jones, Phüos. of /. . , 189i
Interesting side phenomena are : G. T. Fechner (1801-1887 ; Nanna, 1848; Physical, und philos. Atomenlehre, 1865; Elemente der Psychophysik, 1860; Drei Motive des Glaubens, 1868 ; Vorschule der Ästhetik, 1876 ; Die Tagesan sicht gegenüber der Nachtansicht, 1879) and Eug. Dühring (born 1833 ; Natür liche Dialektik, 1865 ; Werth des Lebens, 1866 ; Logik und Wissenschafistheorie
Philosophy of the Nineteenth Century. 688
IP'S). — The following from the Catholic aide have taken part in the develop ment of philosophy : Fr. Hermea (1775-1831 ; Einleitung in die christkatho-
lische Theologie, 1819), Beruli. Bolaano (1781-1848;
1837), Anton GUnther (1785-1803; Ges. Schriften, Vienna, 1881), and Wil-
helm Roaenkrants (1824-1874 ; Wissenschaft des Wi*»en», 1860).
I'hiloaophic interest in Germany, which was much crippled about the middle of the century, has strongly revived, owing to the union of the study of Kant with the demands of natural science. The former, called forth by Kuno Fischer's work (1800). evoked a movement which has been characterized in various aspects a. « Neo-Kantianlam. To it belong, as principal members, A. Lange (1828- 1876; History of Materialism, 1800) and (). Liebmann (born 1840; Analyst* der Wirklichkeil, 3 Aufl. , 1900). In theology it was represented by Alb. Hitachi ( Theologie und Metaphysik, 1881). [A. T. Swing, Theol. of A. S. 1901. ]
Theoretical Physics became significant for philosophy through the work prin cipally of Rob. Mayer (Bemerkungen liber die Krafte der unbelebten Natur, 1845 ; Ueber das mtchanische ^Equivalent der Warme, 1850 ; cf. on him A.
Riehl in the Sigvsart-Abhandlungen, 1900) and H. Helmholts (Physiologische Optik, 1886 ; Sensations of Tone, 1876 ; Thatsaehen der Wahrnehmung, 1879). Beginning with physiology, Willhelm Wundt (born 1837) has developed a
comprehensive system of philosophy. From his numerous writings may be men tioned Orundziige der physiologischen Psychologic, 1878 f„ 4th ed. 1893 [Outlines of Physiological Psychology, Eng. tr. in prep, by E. Titcnenor] ; Logii, 18801. ; Ethik. 1886 [Eng. tr. by Titchenor, Washburn, and Gulliver] ; The Facts of the Moral Life, Ethical Systems, 1897 ; Principles of Morality, 1901 ; System der Philosophic, 1889 ; Orundriss der Psychologic, 1897 [Eng. tr. by Judd, Out lines of Psychology, 1897] ; VUlkerpsychologie, 1900.
Wissenschaflslehre,
The Kantian theory of knowledge was met by Realism in J. v. Kirchmann (Philosophic des Wissens, 1804), and by Positivism in C. Goring (System der kritisrhcn Philosophic, 1874 f. ), E. Laas (Jdealismus und Positicismus, 1879 ft. ), and in part too in A. Riehl (Der philosnphische Kriticismus, 1876 ff. [Eng. tr. of Part III. by A. Fairbanks, 1894, Science and Metaphysics]). A similar tendency was followed by R. Avenarius (Kritik der reinen Erfahrung, 1888- 1890; Der menschliche Weltbegriff, 1891).
As in the first-named authors the concepts of natural science were especially authoritative, so on the other hand the interests of the historical view of the world have normative value for investigators such as Rudolf Eucken (Die Ein- hrit des (ieisteslcbens, 1888 ; Der Kampfvm einen geistigen Lebensinhalt, 1896),
II. Glogau (Abriss der philosuphischen Gnmdicissenschaften, 1880), and W.
Ollthey (Einleitung in die Geistcswissenschaflen,
A mediating standpoint is taken by Christian Sigwart (Logik, 2d ed. 1893;
[Eng. tr. by Helen Dendy, 1896]).
Two authors who occupy a position in closer relation to general literature
are —
E. ▼. Hartmann (born 1842), who excited general attention by his Philosophy
of the Unconscious, 1869 [Eng. tr. by Coupland, 1884]. This was followed by a long series of writings, of which the most important are Das Unbeteusste r«n» Standpunkt der Deseendenztheorie, 1872; Phdnnmenologie des sittlichrn
Beicusstseins, 1879 ; Die Religion ilrs Geistes, 1882 ; ^Esthetik, 1886 f. ; Katego- rtrnlehre, 1897 ; Geschichte der Metaphysik, 1900. These works represent a more and more completely scientific standpoint. As representing a popular philosophy, in part pessimistic, in part mystical, may be named as typical, Mainlander (Philosophic der ErISsung, 1874 f. ) on the one hand, and on the other, Duprel {Philosophic der Myttik, 1884 f).
Fr. VVilh. ITietaaoba (1844-1900), whose development in its changing stages h characterised by the following selection from his numerous writings, of which the complete edition la published in Lelpsic, 1895 ff. : Die Geburt der TragSdis nm dem Grille der Musik, 1872; Unzritgrmassc Betrachtungcn, 1873-1876;
Mrnsfhliehrs — Allrvmensrhliches, 1876-1880 ; Also sprach Zarathustra, 1883 f ; Jensrits ron Gut und B6sc, 1886 ; Zur Genealogie der Moral, 1887 ; Gbtsendam- merung. 1889. [Eng. tr. by A. Tille, 1896 ff. . Thus spake Zarathustra • Beyond
Good and Bad : Genealogy of Morals. ] Cf. Al. Riehl, . \iettsehe, Stuttgart, Id ed. 1897. [P. Cams In The Monist. IX. 672 ff. ; G. N. Dolson in Cornell
Com. to Phu\ HI]
1883).
634 Philosophy of the Nineteenth Century [Part VII
§ 44. The Controversy over the Soul.
A characteristic change in the general scientific relations during the nineteenth century has been the constantly progressing loosening and separation of psychology from philosophy,1 which may now be regarded as in principle complete. This followed from the rapid decline of metaphysical interest and metaphysical production, which appeared in Germany, especially, as a natural reaction from the high tension of speculative thought. Robbed thus of a more general base of support, in its effort to give itself a firm footing as purely empir ical science, psychology had at first but little power of resistance against the inroad of the method of natural science, according to which it should be treated as a special province of physiology or general biology. About this question a number of vigorous move ments grouped themselves.
1. At the beginning of the century a brisk interchange of thought obtained between the French Ideology and the later developments of the English Enlightenment philosophy which had split into asso ciational psychology and the common sense doctrine : in this inter change, however, France bore now the leading part. Here the antithesis which had existed in the French sensualism from the be ginning between Condillac and Bonnet (cf. p. 458), came out more sharply. With Destutt de Tracy, and even as yet with Laromiguiere, it does not come to a sharp decision. On the other hand, Cabanis is the leader of the materialistic line : his investigation as to the interconnec tion of the physical and the psychical (moral) nature of man, after con sidering the various influences of age, sex, temperament, climate, etc, comes to the result that the psychical life is everywhere determined by the body and its physical relations. With the organic functions thus reduced solely to mechanical and chemical processes, at least in prin ciple, it seemed that the soul, now superfluous as vital force, had also outlived its usefulness as the agent and supporter of consciousness.
In carrying out these thoughts other physicians, for example Broussais, gave to materialism a still sharper expression : the intel lectual activity is "one of the results" of the brain functions. Hence men eagerly seized upon the strange hypothesis of phre nology, with which Gall professed to localise at definite places in the brain all the particular " faculties," which empirical
psychology had provided up to that time. It was not merely an interesting diversion to hear in public that a more or less vigorous development
of special psychical powers could be recognised in the skull; the
1 Cf. W. Windelband, Ueber den gegemoartigen Stand der psychologitchf* Forschung (I-eips. 1876).
|44. J Controversy over the Soul: Ideology. t>35
thought was connected with this, especially among physicians, that now the materiality of the so-called soul-life was discovered, with out doubt In England especially, as is shown by the success of Combe's writings, the phrenological superstition called out very great interest and promoted a purely physiological psychology, in the line of that of Hartley. It was John Stuart Mill who first brought his countrymen back to Hume's conception of associational psychology. Without asking what matter and mind are in them selves, the student should proceed from the fact that the corporeal and mental states form two domains of experience, completely inca pable of comparison, and that psychology as the science of the laws of mental life must study the facts of the latter in themselves, and may not reduce them to the laws of another sphere of existence. Alex ander Bain, attaching himself to Mill's standpoint, developed the associational psychology farther.
His especial contribution was to point out the significance of the muscular sensations, in which the fundamental facts of the mental life which correspond to spontane ous bodily motion are to be found. This associational psychology has thus nothing in common with a materialistic view of the soul ; nevertheless the mechanism of ideas and impulses is the only prin ciple recognised for the purpose of explaining the mental processes.
2. The opposition to the materialistic psychology comes much more sharply to the fore in those lines of thought which emphasise the activity of consciousness as a unity. Following de Tracy's example Laromignitre's Ideology distinguished carefully between the " modifications," which are the mere consequence of bodily exci tations, and the " actions " of the soul, in which the soul proves its independent existence, even in perception. In the school of Mont jollier they still believed in the " vital force. " Barthez regarded this as separate from body and soul, as a something completely unknown : Bichat distinguished the " animal " from the " organic " life by the characteristic of spontaneous " reaction. " This element in psychology came to full development through Maine de Hirun. The acute, subtle mind of this philosopher received many suggestions from English and German philosophy ; with reference to the latter his acquaintance with Kant's and Fichte's doctrines —though only a superficial one — and with the virtualism of Bouterwek, who was named with remarkable frequency in Paris, is to be emphasised. 1
1 The line* of communication were here not merely literary (Villers, Pege>ando, etc. ), but In a strong decree personal. Of great Importance among other thing* waa the preaence of the Schlegela in Paris, especially the lectures of Frederick Schlegel. In Pari* itself the society of Auteuil, to which also the Swiss embassador Stapfer, a prominent medium of Influence, belonged, was of importance.
636 Philosophy of the Nineteenth Century. [Part VIL
The fundamental fact on which Maine de Biran bases his theory, later called spiritualism, is that in the will we immediately experi ence at once our own activity and the resistance of the " Non-Moi '* (primarily our own body). The reflection of personality upon this its own activity forms the starting-point of all philosophy: inner experience furnishes the form, experience of that which resists fur nishes the matter. From this fundamental fact the conceptions force, substance, cause, unity, identity, freedom, and necessity are developed. Thus Maine de Biran builds upon psychology a meta physical system, which frequently reminds of Descartes and Male- branche, but replaces the cogito ergo sum, by a volo ergo sum; just for this reason he exerts himself especially to fix securely the boundary lines between psychology and physiology, and particularly to exhibit the conception of inner experience (sens intime) as the clear and self-evident basis of all mental science, of which the self- consciousness of the willing and choosing personality appeared to him to be the fundamental principle. These significant thoughts, directed against the naturalistic one-sidedness of the eighteenth century, were supplemented by Maine de Biran for his own faith by a mystical turn, which finds the highest form of life in the giving up and losing of personality in the love of God. This sup plementation was made especially toward the close of his life. His scientific doctrine, on the contrary, found further points of contact, in part with the Scottish, and in part with the German philosophy, through his friends, such as Ampere, Jouffroy, and Cousin. In this process, much of the original character was lost in consequence of the eclectic appropriation of material. This was shown externally
in the fact that his theory, as thus modified, especially in the in structional form which it received through Cousin, was freely called Spiritualism. In fact, the original character of the theory, which might better have been called Voluntarism, was changed by the intellectualistic additions which Cousin especially brought to it from the German philosophy of identity. At a later time, Ravais- son, and in a still more independent fashion, closely related to the Kantian criticism, Eenouvier, sought to hark back from eclecticism to Maine de Biran. 1
3. Voluntarism has been on the whole, perhaps, the most strongly marked tendency of the psychology of the nineteenth century. It is the form in which empirical science has appropriated Kant's and
1 A similar position is occupied in Italy by Gallupi. Among the "facts of consciousness" which he makes the basis of philosophy, he regards the au tonomy of the ethical will as the determining factor, while Rosmini has retained the older intellectualism.
% 44. ] Controverty over the Soul : Voluntaritm. 637
Fichte's transfer of the standpoint of philosophy from the theoretical over to the practical reason. In Germany the principal influences on this side have been Fichte's and 'Schopenhauer's metaphysics. Both these authors make the essential nature of man to consist in the will, and the colouring which such a point of view gives to the whole the ory of the world could only be strengthened by the course of German history in our century, and by the transformation in the popular mind which has accompanied it The importance of the practical, which has been enhanced to the highest degree, and the repression of the theoretical, which is not without its dangers, have appeared more and more as the characteristic features of the age.
This tendency made its appearance in a scientific form with Beneke, who in spite of his dependence in part upon English philos ophy and in part upon Herbart, gave a peculiar turn to his exposi tion of the associational psychology (cf. above, p. 586) by conceiving the elements of the mental life as active processes or impulses ( Triebe). He called them " elementary faculties " ( Urvermogen), and maintained that these, originally set into activity by stimuli, bring about the apparently substantial unity of the psychical nature by their persistence as traces {Spuren), and by their reciprocal adjust ment in connection with the continual production of new forces. The soul is accordingly a bundle — not of ideas, as with Hume, but — of impulses, forces, and "faculties. " On the other hand, all real significance is denied to the faculties in the older sense of classifica tions of the mental activities (cf. above, p. 577). To establish this doctrine inductively by a methodical elaboration of the facts of inner perception is regarded by Beneke as the only possible presupposition for the philosophical disciplines, such as logic, ethics, metaphysics,
and the philosophy of religion. In this procedure he passes on to a theory of the values which belong to stimuli (the so-called "things"), on account of the increase or diminution of the impulses.
Fortlage gave metaphysical form to the psychological method and theory of Beneke, by incorporating it into Fichte's Science of Know ledge. He, too, conceives of the soul and all things in their relations as a system of impulses or forces, and perhaps no one has carried through so sharply as he the conception that the source of substantial existence is the activity of the will, — an activity which is devoid of any substrate. 1 He regarded the essential nature of the psychical pro cesses as follows : From original functions arise contents which grow into synthetic union, remain, become established, and thus produce the forms of psychical reality. He thus pointed out once more the way
> CI C. Fortlage, Btitrtge mr Ptyehologii (Leips. 1876), p. 40.
638 Philotophy of the Nineteenth Century. [Part VII
by which alone metaphysics can be freed from the schema of material processes which are conceived as movements of unchangeable sub stances, such as atoms. But, at the same time, there were in these theories suggestions for the thought that the processes of ideation, of attention, and of evaluation in judgments, must be regarded as functions of the " impulse " which issues in question and assent or re jection. In the later development, indeed, the psychological analysis of the thinking process has penetrated even to the realm of logic, and here has often averted attention from the proper problems of that science. In the last decades especially, psychology as method and theory has had a luxurious development similar to that in the eighteenth century, and in its degenerate forms it has led to the same manifestations of the most superficial popular philosophy.
4. In England, also, the traditional psychological method and standpoint remain in control; nor was this dominance essentially affected by the transformation which Hamilton gave to the Scottish tradition under the influence of German philosophy and particularly of Kant. He, too, defends the standpoint of inner experience and regards it as affording the standard for all philosophical disciplines. Necessity and universality are to be found only in the simple, imme diately intelligible facts of consciousness which are present in every one. But in these facts — and to these belong also all individual perceptions of the presence of an external thing — it is only the finite, in finite relations and conditions, which comes to our knowl edge. It is in this sense, and without reference to the Kantian con ception of the phenomenal, that human knowledge is regarded by Hamilton as limited to experience of the finite. Of the Infinite and Absolute, i. e. , of God, man has only a moral certainty of faith. Sci ence, on the contrary, has no knowledge of this " Unconditioned," because it can think only what it first distinguishes from another in order then to relate it to another (cf. Kant's conception of synthesis). Mansel brought this " Agnosticism " into the service of revealed theology, making a still stronger and more sceptical employment of the Kantian theory of knowledge. He shows that religious dogmas are absolutely incomprehensible for human reason, and maintains that just on this account they are also incapable of attack. The unknowableness of the ■' Absolute " or the " Infinite," as Hamilton had taught still plays an important role in other philosophical
tendencies in England e. g. in Herbert Spencer's system (cf. below,
45).
As set over against psychology, which has to do only with the
facts of consciousness, Hamilton treats logic, aesthetics, and ethics, which correspond to the three classes of psychical phenomena, as the
§
;
it,
f 44. ]
Controvert^ over the tfoul : Hamilton. 639
theory of the laws under which facts stand ; yet he does not attain complete clearness as to the normative character of this legislation, and so the philosophical disciplines also remain entangled in the method of psychology. In working out his system, Hamilton's logical theory became one of the most clearly denned
produc tions of formal logic. The problem of logic for him is to set forth systematically the relations which exist between concepts, and he
limits the whole investigation to relations of quantity, going quite beyond the principle of the Aristotelian analysis (cf. above, pp. 135 f. ). Every judgment is to be regarded as an equation, which declares what the relation is between what is comprised in the one concept, and what is comprised in the other. For example, a judgment of subordination, " the rose is a flower,"' must take the form : "
All S = some P," " all roses = some flowers. " The peculiarity of this is
that the predicate is "quantified," whereas previous logical theory has quantified the subject only. When all judgments were thus reduced to the form of equations, obtaining between the contents of two concepts, inferences and conclusions appeared to be operations of reckoning, performed with given magnitudes. This seemed to be the complete carrying through of the principle of the terminis- tic logic, as it was formulated by Occam (cf. above, p. 342), Hobbes (p. 404), and Condillac (p. 478). The new analysis or logical cal culus has spread since the time of Hamilton, and become a broad held for the intellectual gymnastics of fruitless subtlety and ingenu
ity. For it is evident that such a logic proceeds from only a single
one among the numerous relations which are possible between con
cepts and form the object of judgments. Moreover, the relation in question is one of the least important ; the most valuable relations
of logical thought are precisely those which fall outside this kind of analysis. But the mathematical exactness with which this logic has / seemed to develop its code of rules has enlisted in its behalf a series
of vigorous investigators, and that not merely in England. They have, however, overlooked the fact that the living, actual thought of man knows nothing of this whole formal apparatus, so neatly elaborated.
5. In the debates over these questions in France and England the religious or theological interett in the conception of the substance of the joul is naturally always a factor : the same interest stood in the foreground in the very violent controversies which led in Germany to the dissolution of the Hegelian school. They turned essentially about the personality of God and the immortality of the tottl. Hegel- ianisru could not continue as " Prussian state-philosophy " unless it maintained the " identity of philosophy with religion. " The am>
640 Philosophy oj> the Nineteenth Century. [PaktVII
biguous mode of expression of the master, who had no direct interest in these questions, enveloped as it was in the dialectical formalism, favoured this contest as to the orthodoxy of his teaching. In fact, the so-called "right wing" of the school, to which prominent theologians like Gabler, Goschel, and Hinrichs belonged, tried to keep this orthodoxy : but while it perhaps might remain doubtful how far the " coming-to-itself of the Idea " was to be interpreted as the personality of God, it became clear, on the other side, that in the system of perpetual Becoming and of the dialectical passing over of all forms into one another, the finite personality could " scarcely raise a plausible claim to the character of a " substance and to immortality in the religious sense.
This motive forced some philosophers out of the Hegelian school to a " theistic " view of the world, which, like that of Maine de Biran, had for its centre the conception of personality, and with regard to finite personalities inclined to the Leibnizian Monadology. The younger FiclUe termed these mental or spiritual realities Urpositionen
The most important carrying-out of the thought of this group was the philosophical system of Chr. Weisse, in which the conception of the possible is placed ontologically above that of
Being, to the end of deriving all Being from freedom, as the self-
[prime-positions].
production of personality
In the relation between the possible and the actual, we have here
repeated the antithesis set up by Leibniz, between the ciritfs iter- nelles, and the viritis de fait, and likewise the problems which Kant brought together in the conception of the " specification of Nature " (cf. above, p. 566). Within the " possibilities " which cannot be thought away, the actual is always ultimately such that it might be conceivably otherwise; i. e. it is not to be deduced, it must be re garded as given through freedom. Law and fact cannot be reduced to each other.
Carrying out this view in a more psychological manner, Ulrid regarded the self as the presupposition for the distinguishing activ ity, with which he identified all consciousness, and out of which he developed his logical, as well as his psychological, theory.
6. The orthodoxy, which at the time of the Restoration was grow ing in power and pretension, was attacked by the counter-party with the weapons of Hegelianism, and in this contest Ruge served as leader in public support of both religious and political liberalism. How pantheistical ly and Spinozistically the idealistic system was apprehended by this wing is best seen from Feuerbach's Thoughts on Death and Immortality, where the divine infinitude is praised as the ultimate ground of man's life, and man's disappearance in the same
(Fichte).
1 44. ] Controversy over the Sold : Materialitm. 641
as the true immortality and blessedness. From this ideal pantheism Feuerbach then rapidly advanced to the most radical changes of his doctrine. He felt that the panlogistic system could not explain the individual things of Nature : though Hegel had called Nature the realm of the accidental or contingent, which is incapable of keeping the conception pure. This inability, thought Feuerbach, inheres rather in the conception which man makes to himself of things : the general conceptions in which philosophy thinks are no doubt incapable of understanding the real nature of the individual thing. Therefore Feuerbach now inverts the Hegelian system, and the result is a nominalistic materialism. The actual reality is the individual known to the senses; everything universal, everything mental or spiritual, is but an illusion of the individual. Mind or spirit is " Nature in its otherness. " In this way Feuerbach gives his purely anthropological explanation of religion. Man regards his own generic nature — what he wishes to be himself — as God.
This " theory of the wish," is to free humanity from all supersti tion and its evil consequences, after the same fashion as the theory of Epicurus (cf. above, p. 188). The epistemology of this " philoso phy of the future " can be only sensualism ; its ethics only eudse- mouism: the impulse to happiness is the principle of morals, and the sympathetic participation in the happiness of another is the fundamental ethical feeling.
After materialism had shown so illustrious a metaphysical pedi gree, others employed for its advantage the anthropological mode of argument which had been in use in French literature since Lamettrie, and which seemed to become still stronger through the progress of physiology. Feuerbach had taught : man is what he eats (ist teas er isst) ! And so once more the dependence of the mind upon the body was interpreted as a materialising of the psychical activity ; thinking and willing were to be regarded as secretions of the brain, similar to the secretions of other organs. A companion for this theory appeared in the guise of a purely sensualistio theory of knowledge, as it was developed by Czolbe independently of metaphysical assumptions; although at a later time Czolbe himself reached a view of the world which bordered closely upon materialism. For, since he regarded knowledge as a copy of the actual, he came ultimately to ascribe to ideas themselves spatial extension, and, in general, to regard space at the supporter of all attributes, giving it the place of Spinoza's substance.
So the materialistic mode of thought began to spread in Germany also, among physicians and natural scientists, and this condition of affairs came to light at the convention of natural scientists at Got
642 Philosophy of the Nineteenth Century. [Pari VLL
tingen in 1864. The contradiction between the inferences of natural science and the " needs of the heart " (Gemiith) became the theme of a controversy which was continued in writing also, in which Carl Vogt championed the absolute sovereignty of the mechanical view of the world, while Rudolph Wagner, on the contrary, professed to gaiu at the bounds of human knowledge the possibility for a faith that rescued the soul and its immortality. This effort,1 which with extreme unaptness was termed " book-keeping by double entry," had subsequently its chief effect in creating among natural scientists who saw through the one-sidedness of materialism, but could not befriend the teleology of idealism, a growing inclination toward Kant, into whose thing-in-itself they thought the needs of the heart and soul might be permitted to make their escape. When, then, in 1860, Kuno Fischer's brilliant exposition of the critical philosophy ap peared, then began the "return to Kant" which was afterwards destined to degenerate into literary-historical micrology. To the natural-science temper, out of which it arose, Albert Lange's History
of Materialism, gave expression.
Many misunderstandings, to be sure, accompanied this move
ment when even great natural scientists like Helmholtz* confused transcendental idealism with Locke's theory of signs and doctrine of primary and secondary qualities. Another misunderstanding appeared somewhat later, when a conspicuous school of theology, under the leadership of Ritschl, adopted the doctrine of the " thing- in-itself," in a form analogous to the position of English agnosticism.
The philosophical revival of Kantianism, which has permeated the second half of the century, especially since Otto Liebmann's impressive book, Kant and the Epigones (1865), presents a great variety of views, in which we find repeated all shades of the oppos ing interpretations which Kant's theory met at its first appearance The empirical and the rationalistic conceptions of knowledge and experience have come again into conflict, and their historical, as well as their systematic, adjustment has been the ultimate ground of the pragmatic necessity which has brought about gradually a return to Fichte. To-day there is once more an idealistic metaphysics in process of formation, as the chief representative of which we may regard Rudolf Eucken.
i It is not without interest to note the fact that this motif was not far removed from the French materialists. Of Cabanis and of Broussais we have expression*. made at the close of their life, which are in this spirit, and even of a mystical tendency.
* Cf. H. Helmholtz, Phyttologische Optik, 26, and, especially. The Fact* of Ptrception (Berlin, 1879).
1 44. ] Controvert! /
over the Soul: Lotze. 643
Hut in all these forms, this Neo-Kantiau movement, with' its earnest work upon the problem of knowledge, has had the result of rendering the superficial metaphysics of materialism evidently inad equate and impossible, and hence has led to its rejection. Even where Kant's doctrine was given an entirely empirical, and indeed positivistic turn, or even in the fantastic reasonings of so-called " solipsism," the thought of regarding consciousness as an accessory function of matter was rejected as an absurdity. Rather we find the opposite one-sided view that primary reality is to be ascribed only to inner perception, in contrast with outer perception.
Materialism was thus overcome in science; it lives in popular expo sitions, such as Buchner's " Force and Matter " (Kraft und Stoff), or in the more refined form of Strauss's " Old and New Faith " ' (Alter und neuer Olaube); it lives on also as theory of life in just those circles which love to enjoy the " results of science " from the most agreeable hand. For this superficial culture, materialism has found its characteristic exposition in Haeckel's works and his so-called u monism. "
For psychology as science, however, it became necessary to re nounce the conception of a soul-substance for the basis as well as fur the goal of its investigation, and as a science of the laws of the psychical life "to build only upon inner or outer experience. So we came by our psychology without a soul," which is free from all metaphysical assumptions — or means to be.
7. A deeper reconciliation of the above antitheses was given by Istttc from the fundamental thoughts of German idealism. The vital and formative activity which constitutes the spiritual essence
of all this real world has as its end, the good. The mechanism of nature is the regular form in which this activity works in the realisation of its end. Natural science has doubtless no other prin ciple than that of the mechanical, causal connection, and this principle is held to apply to organisms also; but the beginnings of metaphysics, like those of logic, lie only in ethics. In carrying out this teleologiail idealism, motifs from all the great systems of German philosophy accord to a new, harmonious work; every individual real entity has its essential nature only in the living relations in which it stands to other real entities; and these relations which constitute the con
nected whole of the universe are possible only if all that is, is grounded as a partial reality in a substantial unity, and if thus all
> The evidence of descent (mm the Hegelian dialectic ia Keen al«n in this, the noat ingenious form which materialism can And, — I. Kiiapp'x Jlrrht*phil<>»»- phir (1867) might perhaps be classed with it, — (or all higher forma of mental life are treated aa the attiring of nature to go beyond herself.
644 Philosophy of the Nineteenth Century. [Part Vlt
that takes place between individuals is to be apprehended as pur poseful realisation of a common life goal. By the powerful uni versality with which he mastered the material of facts and the forms of scientific elaboration in all the special disciplines Lotze was specially fitted to carry out fully this fundamental metaphysical thought, and in this respect, also, his personality as well as what he taught, joins worthily on to the preceding epoch. His own attitude is best characterised by its conception of knowledge as a vital and purposive interaction between the soul and the other " substances. " The " reaction " of the soul is combined with the excitation which proceeds from " things. " On the one side, the soul develops its own nature in the forms of perception, and in the general truths which come to consciousness with immediate clearness and evidence on the occasion of the stimulus from things; on the other hand, the partici pation of the subject makes the world of ideas a phenomenal appear ance. But this appearance or phenomenal manifestation, as the purposive inner life, is by no means mere illusion. It is rather a realm of worths or values, in which the good is realising itself. The coming to actual reality of this world of consciousness is the most important result of the interaction of substances. It is the ulti mate and truest meaning of the world-process. From these funda mental thoughts, Lotze, in his Logic, has conceived the series of forms of thought as a systematic whole, which develops out of the problems or tasks of thinking. In his Metaphysics, he has developed
/ and defined his view of the world with fineness and acuteness in his treatment of conceptions, and with most careful consideration in all directions. The view is that of teleological idealism. The third part of the system, the ethics, has unfortunately not been completed in this more rigorous form. As a substitute, we have the convic tions of the philosopher and his mature comprehension of life and history presented in the fine and thoughtful expositions of the Microcosmus.
8. Another way of escape from the difficulties of the natural- science treatment of the psychical life was chosen by Fechner. He would look upon body and soul as the modes of phenomenal mani festation — completely separated and different in kind, but in constant correspondence with each other — of one and the same unknown reality ; and follows out this thought in the direction, that every physical connection has a mental series or system of connections corresponding to although the latter are known through percep tion only in the case of our own selves. As the sensations which correspond to the excitation of particular parts of the nervous sys tem, present themselves as surface waves in the total wave of oui
it,
S 44. ] Controversy over the Soul : Fechner. 645
individual consciousness, so we may conceive that the consciousness of a single person is in turn but the surface wave of a more general consciousness, — say that of the planetary mind: and if we continue this line, we come ultimately to the assumption of a universal total- ctmsciousness in Ood, to which the universal causal connection of the atoms corresponds. Moreover, according to Fechner, the connection of inner and outer experience in our consciousness makes it possible to investigate the laws of this correspondence. The science of this is psycho-physics. It is the first problem of this science to find out ■method* for measuring psychical quantities, in order to obtain laws that may be formulated mathematically. Fechner brings forward principally the method of just perceptible differences, which defines as the unit of mass the smallest difference that is still perceptible between intensities of sensation, and assumes this to be equal everywhere and in all cases.
On the basis of this assumption, which to be sure is quite arbi trary, it seemed possible to give a mathematical formulation to the so-called " Weber-Fechner law. " This was stated as follows : The intensities of different sensations are to each other as the logarithms of the intensities of their stimuli. The hope was thus awakened by Fechner that through the indirect measurement of psychical
magnitudes a mathematical statement could be given by scientific methods for the psycho-physical, perhaps even for the psychological laws, and in spite of the numerous and serious objections which it encountered, this hope has had great success in promoting experi mental study during the past decades in many laboratories estab lished for this purpose. Yet it cannot be said that the outcome for a new and deeper comprehension of the mental life has kept pace with the activity of experimentation. 1
The revival of the Spinozistic parallelism has likewise met greater and greater difficulties. With Fechner it was dogmatically intended since he claimed complete metaphysical reality for the contents of sense-perception.
1872 ; Works, 12 vols. , Berlin, 1876 ff. ). Cf. A. Hausrath, D. F. Str. und die Theologie seiner Zeit (Heidelberg, 1876 and 1878).
From the Materialism controversy are to be mentioned : K. Moleschott (Kreislauf des Lebens, 1852), Rudolph Wagner (Ueber Wissen und Glauben, 1854; Der Kampf um die Seele, 1857), C. Vogt (Köhlerglaube und Wissen schaft, 1854 ; Vorlesungen über den Menschen, 1863), L. Büchner (Kraft und Stoff, 1855) [Force and Matter, Lond. l.
Related to this materialism was the development of the extreme Sensualism in the form in which it was presented by H. Czolbe (1819-1873; Neue Dar stellung des Sensualismiis, 1855 ; Grundzüge, der extensionalen Erkenntniss- theorie, 1875), and by F. Ueberweg (1826-1871), who was originally more closely related to Beneke (cf. A. Lange, History of Materialism, IL). In a similar relation stood the so-called Monism which E. Haeckel (born 1814 ; Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte, 1868 ; Welträlhsel, nth ed. 1900 : cf. Loots, Anti-Haeckel, 1900, and Fr. Paulsen, E. ' H. als Philosoph. Preuss. Jahrl*. 1900) has attempted to develop, and finally the socialistic Philosophy of His tory, whose founders are Fr. Engels (Ludwig Feuerbach und der Ausgang der klassischen deutschen Philosophie, 1888 ; Der Ursprung der Familie, des Pri- vateigenthums und des Staates, 1884) and Karl Marx (Das Kapital, 1867 ff. . Capital, 1801); cf. on Engels and Marx, R. Stammler, Wirthschaft und Hecht, 1896 ; L. Wolfmann, Der historische Materialistnus, 1900.
By far the most important among the epigones of the German Philosophy was Rudolph Herrn. Lotze (1817-1881 ; Metaphysik, 1841 ; Logik, 1842 ; Medi- cinische Psychologie, 1842; Mikrokosmus, 1856 ff. ; System der Philosophie. 1. Logik, 1874 ; IL Metaphysik, 1870) [Microcosmus, tr. by Hamilton and Jones, Edin. and N. Y. 1885 ; Logic and Metaphysics, 2 vols, each, tr. ed. by B. ßosan- quet, Oxford, 1884, also 1888 ; Outlines, ed. by G. T. Ladd, Boston, 1886 ff. ). Cf. O. Caspari, H. L. in seiner Stellung zur deutschen Philosophie (188;? ); E. v. Hartmann, L. 's Philosophie (Berlin, 1888); H. Jones, Phüos. of /. . , 189i
Interesting side phenomena are : G. T. Fechner (1801-1887 ; Nanna, 1848; Physical, und philos. Atomenlehre, 1865; Elemente der Psychophysik, 1860; Drei Motive des Glaubens, 1868 ; Vorschule der Ästhetik, 1876 ; Die Tagesan sicht gegenüber der Nachtansicht, 1879) and Eug. Dühring (born 1833 ; Natür liche Dialektik, 1865 ; Werth des Lebens, 1866 ; Logik und Wissenschafistheorie
Philosophy of the Nineteenth Century. 688
IP'S). — The following from the Catholic aide have taken part in the develop ment of philosophy : Fr. Hermea (1775-1831 ; Einleitung in die christkatho-
lische Theologie, 1819), Beruli. Bolaano (1781-1848;
1837), Anton GUnther (1785-1803; Ges. Schriften, Vienna, 1881), and Wil-
helm Roaenkrants (1824-1874 ; Wissenschaft des Wi*»en», 1860).
I'hiloaophic interest in Germany, which was much crippled about the middle of the century, has strongly revived, owing to the union of the study of Kant with the demands of natural science. The former, called forth by Kuno Fischer's work (1800). evoked a movement which has been characterized in various aspects a. « Neo-Kantianlam. To it belong, as principal members, A. Lange (1828- 1876; History of Materialism, 1800) and (). Liebmann (born 1840; Analyst* der Wirklichkeil, 3 Aufl. , 1900). In theology it was represented by Alb. Hitachi ( Theologie und Metaphysik, 1881). [A. T. Swing, Theol. of A. S. 1901. ]
Theoretical Physics became significant for philosophy through the work prin cipally of Rob. Mayer (Bemerkungen liber die Krafte der unbelebten Natur, 1845 ; Ueber das mtchanische ^Equivalent der Warme, 1850 ; cf. on him A.
Riehl in the Sigvsart-Abhandlungen, 1900) and H. Helmholts (Physiologische Optik, 1886 ; Sensations of Tone, 1876 ; Thatsaehen der Wahrnehmung, 1879). Beginning with physiology, Willhelm Wundt (born 1837) has developed a
comprehensive system of philosophy. From his numerous writings may be men tioned Orundziige der physiologischen Psychologic, 1878 f„ 4th ed. 1893 [Outlines of Physiological Psychology, Eng. tr. in prep, by E. Titcnenor] ; Logii, 18801. ; Ethik. 1886 [Eng. tr. by Titchenor, Washburn, and Gulliver] ; The Facts of the Moral Life, Ethical Systems, 1897 ; Principles of Morality, 1901 ; System der Philosophic, 1889 ; Orundriss der Psychologic, 1897 [Eng. tr. by Judd, Out lines of Psychology, 1897] ; VUlkerpsychologie, 1900.
Wissenschaflslehre,
The Kantian theory of knowledge was met by Realism in J. v. Kirchmann (Philosophic des Wissens, 1804), and by Positivism in C. Goring (System der kritisrhcn Philosophic, 1874 f. ), E. Laas (Jdealismus und Positicismus, 1879 ft. ), and in part too in A. Riehl (Der philosnphische Kriticismus, 1876 ff. [Eng. tr. of Part III. by A. Fairbanks, 1894, Science and Metaphysics]). A similar tendency was followed by R. Avenarius (Kritik der reinen Erfahrung, 1888- 1890; Der menschliche Weltbegriff, 1891).
As in the first-named authors the concepts of natural science were especially authoritative, so on the other hand the interests of the historical view of the world have normative value for investigators such as Rudolf Eucken (Die Ein- hrit des (ieisteslcbens, 1888 ; Der Kampfvm einen geistigen Lebensinhalt, 1896),
II. Glogau (Abriss der philosuphischen Gnmdicissenschaften, 1880), and W.
Ollthey (Einleitung in die Geistcswissenschaflen,
A mediating standpoint is taken by Christian Sigwart (Logik, 2d ed. 1893;
[Eng. tr. by Helen Dendy, 1896]).
Two authors who occupy a position in closer relation to general literature
are —
E. ▼. Hartmann (born 1842), who excited general attention by his Philosophy
of the Unconscious, 1869 [Eng. tr. by Coupland, 1884]. This was followed by a long series of writings, of which the most important are Das Unbeteusste r«n» Standpunkt der Deseendenztheorie, 1872; Phdnnmenologie des sittlichrn
Beicusstseins, 1879 ; Die Religion ilrs Geistes, 1882 ; ^Esthetik, 1886 f. ; Katego- rtrnlehre, 1897 ; Geschichte der Metaphysik, 1900. These works represent a more and more completely scientific standpoint. As representing a popular philosophy, in part pessimistic, in part mystical, may be named as typical, Mainlander (Philosophic der ErISsung, 1874 f. ) on the one hand, and on the other, Duprel {Philosophic der Myttik, 1884 f).
Fr. VVilh. ITietaaoba (1844-1900), whose development in its changing stages h characterised by the following selection from his numerous writings, of which the complete edition la published in Lelpsic, 1895 ff. : Die Geburt der TragSdis nm dem Grille der Musik, 1872; Unzritgrmassc Betrachtungcn, 1873-1876;
Mrnsfhliehrs — Allrvmensrhliches, 1876-1880 ; Also sprach Zarathustra, 1883 f ; Jensrits ron Gut und B6sc, 1886 ; Zur Genealogie der Moral, 1887 ; Gbtsendam- merung. 1889. [Eng. tr. by A. Tille, 1896 ff. . Thus spake Zarathustra • Beyond
Good and Bad : Genealogy of Morals. ] Cf. Al. Riehl, . \iettsehe, Stuttgart, Id ed. 1897. [P. Cams In The Monist. IX. 672 ff. ; G. N. Dolson in Cornell
Com. to Phu\ HI]
1883).
634 Philosophy of the Nineteenth Century [Part VII
§ 44. The Controversy over the Soul.
A characteristic change in the general scientific relations during the nineteenth century has been the constantly progressing loosening and separation of psychology from philosophy,1 which may now be regarded as in principle complete. This followed from the rapid decline of metaphysical interest and metaphysical production, which appeared in Germany, especially, as a natural reaction from the high tension of speculative thought. Robbed thus of a more general base of support, in its effort to give itself a firm footing as purely empir ical science, psychology had at first but little power of resistance against the inroad of the method of natural science, according to which it should be treated as a special province of physiology or general biology. About this question a number of vigorous move ments grouped themselves.
1. At the beginning of the century a brisk interchange of thought obtained between the French Ideology and the later developments of the English Enlightenment philosophy which had split into asso ciational psychology and the common sense doctrine : in this inter change, however, France bore now the leading part. Here the antithesis which had existed in the French sensualism from the be ginning between Condillac and Bonnet (cf. p. 458), came out more sharply. With Destutt de Tracy, and even as yet with Laromiguiere, it does not come to a sharp decision. On the other hand, Cabanis is the leader of the materialistic line : his investigation as to the interconnec tion of the physical and the psychical (moral) nature of man, after con sidering the various influences of age, sex, temperament, climate, etc, comes to the result that the psychical life is everywhere determined by the body and its physical relations. With the organic functions thus reduced solely to mechanical and chemical processes, at least in prin ciple, it seemed that the soul, now superfluous as vital force, had also outlived its usefulness as the agent and supporter of consciousness.
In carrying out these thoughts other physicians, for example Broussais, gave to materialism a still sharper expression : the intel lectual activity is "one of the results" of the brain functions. Hence men eagerly seized upon the strange hypothesis of phre nology, with which Gall professed to localise at definite places in the brain all the particular " faculties," which empirical
psychology had provided up to that time. It was not merely an interesting diversion to hear in public that a more or less vigorous development
of special psychical powers could be recognised in the skull; the
1 Cf. W. Windelband, Ueber den gegemoartigen Stand der psychologitchf* Forschung (I-eips. 1876).
|44. J Controversy over the Soul: Ideology. t>35
thought was connected with this, especially among physicians, that now the materiality of the so-called soul-life was discovered, with out doubt In England especially, as is shown by the success of Combe's writings, the phrenological superstition called out very great interest and promoted a purely physiological psychology, in the line of that of Hartley. It was John Stuart Mill who first brought his countrymen back to Hume's conception of associational psychology. Without asking what matter and mind are in them selves, the student should proceed from the fact that the corporeal and mental states form two domains of experience, completely inca pable of comparison, and that psychology as the science of the laws of mental life must study the facts of the latter in themselves, and may not reduce them to the laws of another sphere of existence. Alex ander Bain, attaching himself to Mill's standpoint, developed the associational psychology farther.
His especial contribution was to point out the significance of the muscular sensations, in which the fundamental facts of the mental life which correspond to spontane ous bodily motion are to be found. This associational psychology has thus nothing in common with a materialistic view of the soul ; nevertheless the mechanism of ideas and impulses is the only prin ciple recognised for the purpose of explaining the mental processes.
2. The opposition to the materialistic psychology comes much more sharply to the fore in those lines of thought which emphasise the activity of consciousness as a unity. Following de Tracy's example Laromignitre's Ideology distinguished carefully between the " modifications," which are the mere consequence of bodily exci tations, and the " actions " of the soul, in which the soul proves its independent existence, even in perception. In the school of Mont jollier they still believed in the " vital force. " Barthez regarded this as separate from body and soul, as a something completely unknown : Bichat distinguished the " animal " from the " organic " life by the characteristic of spontaneous " reaction. " This element in psychology came to full development through Maine de Hirun. The acute, subtle mind of this philosopher received many suggestions from English and German philosophy ; with reference to the latter his acquaintance with Kant's and Fichte's doctrines —though only a superficial one — and with the virtualism of Bouterwek, who was named with remarkable frequency in Paris, is to be emphasised. 1
1 The line* of communication were here not merely literary (Villers, Pege>ando, etc. ), but In a strong decree personal. Of great Importance among other thing* waa the preaence of the Schlegela in Paris, especially the lectures of Frederick Schlegel. In Pari* itself the society of Auteuil, to which also the Swiss embassador Stapfer, a prominent medium of Influence, belonged, was of importance.
636 Philosophy of the Nineteenth Century. [Part VIL
The fundamental fact on which Maine de Biran bases his theory, later called spiritualism, is that in the will we immediately experi ence at once our own activity and the resistance of the " Non-Moi '* (primarily our own body). The reflection of personality upon this its own activity forms the starting-point of all philosophy: inner experience furnishes the form, experience of that which resists fur nishes the matter. From this fundamental fact the conceptions force, substance, cause, unity, identity, freedom, and necessity are developed. Thus Maine de Biran builds upon psychology a meta physical system, which frequently reminds of Descartes and Male- branche, but replaces the cogito ergo sum, by a volo ergo sum; just for this reason he exerts himself especially to fix securely the boundary lines between psychology and physiology, and particularly to exhibit the conception of inner experience (sens intime) as the clear and self-evident basis of all mental science, of which the self- consciousness of the willing and choosing personality appeared to him to be the fundamental principle. These significant thoughts, directed against the naturalistic one-sidedness of the eighteenth century, were supplemented by Maine de Biran for his own faith by a mystical turn, which finds the highest form of life in the giving up and losing of personality in the love of God. This sup plementation was made especially toward the close of his life. His scientific doctrine, on the contrary, found further points of contact, in part with the Scottish, and in part with the German philosophy, through his friends, such as Ampere, Jouffroy, and Cousin. In this process, much of the original character was lost in consequence of the eclectic appropriation of material. This was shown externally
in the fact that his theory, as thus modified, especially in the in structional form which it received through Cousin, was freely called Spiritualism. In fact, the original character of the theory, which might better have been called Voluntarism, was changed by the intellectualistic additions which Cousin especially brought to it from the German philosophy of identity. At a later time, Ravais- son, and in a still more independent fashion, closely related to the Kantian criticism, Eenouvier, sought to hark back from eclecticism to Maine de Biran. 1
3. Voluntarism has been on the whole, perhaps, the most strongly marked tendency of the psychology of the nineteenth century. It is the form in which empirical science has appropriated Kant's and
1 A similar position is occupied in Italy by Gallupi. Among the "facts of consciousness" which he makes the basis of philosophy, he regards the au tonomy of the ethical will as the determining factor, while Rosmini has retained the older intellectualism.
% 44. ] Controverty over the Soul : Voluntaritm. 637
Fichte's transfer of the standpoint of philosophy from the theoretical over to the practical reason. In Germany the principal influences on this side have been Fichte's and 'Schopenhauer's metaphysics. Both these authors make the essential nature of man to consist in the will, and the colouring which such a point of view gives to the whole the ory of the world could only be strengthened by the course of German history in our century, and by the transformation in the popular mind which has accompanied it The importance of the practical, which has been enhanced to the highest degree, and the repression of the theoretical, which is not without its dangers, have appeared more and more as the characteristic features of the age.
This tendency made its appearance in a scientific form with Beneke, who in spite of his dependence in part upon English philos ophy and in part upon Herbart, gave a peculiar turn to his exposi tion of the associational psychology (cf. above, p. 586) by conceiving the elements of the mental life as active processes or impulses ( Triebe). He called them " elementary faculties " ( Urvermogen), and maintained that these, originally set into activity by stimuli, bring about the apparently substantial unity of the psychical nature by their persistence as traces {Spuren), and by their reciprocal adjust ment in connection with the continual production of new forces. The soul is accordingly a bundle — not of ideas, as with Hume, but — of impulses, forces, and "faculties. " On the other hand, all real significance is denied to the faculties in the older sense of classifica tions of the mental activities (cf. above, p. 577). To establish this doctrine inductively by a methodical elaboration of the facts of inner perception is regarded by Beneke as the only possible presupposition for the philosophical disciplines, such as logic, ethics, metaphysics,
and the philosophy of religion. In this procedure he passes on to a theory of the values which belong to stimuli (the so-called "things"), on account of the increase or diminution of the impulses.
Fortlage gave metaphysical form to the psychological method and theory of Beneke, by incorporating it into Fichte's Science of Know ledge. He, too, conceives of the soul and all things in their relations as a system of impulses or forces, and perhaps no one has carried through so sharply as he the conception that the source of substantial existence is the activity of the will, — an activity which is devoid of any substrate. 1 He regarded the essential nature of the psychical pro cesses as follows : From original functions arise contents which grow into synthetic union, remain, become established, and thus produce the forms of psychical reality. He thus pointed out once more the way
> CI C. Fortlage, Btitrtge mr Ptyehologii (Leips. 1876), p. 40.
638 Philotophy of the Nineteenth Century. [Part VII
by which alone metaphysics can be freed from the schema of material processes which are conceived as movements of unchangeable sub stances, such as atoms. But, at the same time, there were in these theories suggestions for the thought that the processes of ideation, of attention, and of evaluation in judgments, must be regarded as functions of the " impulse " which issues in question and assent or re jection. In the later development, indeed, the psychological analysis of the thinking process has penetrated even to the realm of logic, and here has often averted attention from the proper problems of that science. In the last decades especially, psychology as method and theory has had a luxurious development similar to that in the eighteenth century, and in its degenerate forms it has led to the same manifestations of the most superficial popular philosophy.
4. In England, also, the traditional psychological method and standpoint remain in control; nor was this dominance essentially affected by the transformation which Hamilton gave to the Scottish tradition under the influence of German philosophy and particularly of Kant. He, too, defends the standpoint of inner experience and regards it as affording the standard for all philosophical disciplines. Necessity and universality are to be found only in the simple, imme diately intelligible facts of consciousness which are present in every one. But in these facts — and to these belong also all individual perceptions of the presence of an external thing — it is only the finite, in finite relations and conditions, which comes to our knowl edge. It is in this sense, and without reference to the Kantian con ception of the phenomenal, that human knowledge is regarded by Hamilton as limited to experience of the finite. Of the Infinite and Absolute, i. e. , of God, man has only a moral certainty of faith. Sci ence, on the contrary, has no knowledge of this " Unconditioned," because it can think only what it first distinguishes from another in order then to relate it to another (cf. Kant's conception of synthesis). Mansel brought this " Agnosticism " into the service of revealed theology, making a still stronger and more sceptical employment of the Kantian theory of knowledge. He shows that religious dogmas are absolutely incomprehensible for human reason, and maintains that just on this account they are also incapable of attack. The unknowableness of the ■' Absolute " or the " Infinite," as Hamilton had taught still plays an important role in other philosophical
tendencies in England e. g. in Herbert Spencer's system (cf. below,
45).
As set over against psychology, which has to do only with the
facts of consciousness, Hamilton treats logic, aesthetics, and ethics, which correspond to the three classes of psychical phenomena, as the
§
;
it,
f 44. ]
Controvert^ over the tfoul : Hamilton. 639
theory of the laws under which facts stand ; yet he does not attain complete clearness as to the normative character of this legislation, and so the philosophical disciplines also remain entangled in the method of psychology. In working out his system, Hamilton's logical theory became one of the most clearly denned
produc tions of formal logic. The problem of logic for him is to set forth systematically the relations which exist between concepts, and he
limits the whole investigation to relations of quantity, going quite beyond the principle of the Aristotelian analysis (cf. above, pp. 135 f. ). Every judgment is to be regarded as an equation, which declares what the relation is between what is comprised in the one concept, and what is comprised in the other. For example, a judgment of subordination, " the rose is a flower,"' must take the form : "
All S = some P," " all roses = some flowers. " The peculiarity of this is
that the predicate is "quantified," whereas previous logical theory has quantified the subject only. When all judgments were thus reduced to the form of equations, obtaining between the contents of two concepts, inferences and conclusions appeared to be operations of reckoning, performed with given magnitudes. This seemed to be the complete carrying through of the principle of the terminis- tic logic, as it was formulated by Occam (cf. above, p. 342), Hobbes (p. 404), and Condillac (p. 478). The new analysis or logical cal culus has spread since the time of Hamilton, and become a broad held for the intellectual gymnastics of fruitless subtlety and ingenu
ity. For it is evident that such a logic proceeds from only a single
one among the numerous relations which are possible between con
cepts and form the object of judgments. Moreover, the relation in question is one of the least important ; the most valuable relations
of logical thought are precisely those which fall outside this kind of analysis. But the mathematical exactness with which this logic has / seemed to develop its code of rules has enlisted in its behalf a series
of vigorous investigators, and that not merely in England. They have, however, overlooked the fact that the living, actual thought of man knows nothing of this whole formal apparatus, so neatly elaborated.
5. In the debates over these questions in France and England the religious or theological interett in the conception of the substance of the joul is naturally always a factor : the same interest stood in the foreground in the very violent controversies which led in Germany to the dissolution of the Hegelian school. They turned essentially about the personality of God and the immortality of the tottl. Hegel- ianisru could not continue as " Prussian state-philosophy " unless it maintained the " identity of philosophy with religion. " The am>
640 Philosophy oj> the Nineteenth Century. [PaktVII
biguous mode of expression of the master, who had no direct interest in these questions, enveloped as it was in the dialectical formalism, favoured this contest as to the orthodoxy of his teaching. In fact, the so-called "right wing" of the school, to which prominent theologians like Gabler, Goschel, and Hinrichs belonged, tried to keep this orthodoxy : but while it perhaps might remain doubtful how far the " coming-to-itself of the Idea " was to be interpreted as the personality of God, it became clear, on the other side, that in the system of perpetual Becoming and of the dialectical passing over of all forms into one another, the finite personality could " scarcely raise a plausible claim to the character of a " substance and to immortality in the religious sense.
This motive forced some philosophers out of the Hegelian school to a " theistic " view of the world, which, like that of Maine de Biran, had for its centre the conception of personality, and with regard to finite personalities inclined to the Leibnizian Monadology. The younger FiclUe termed these mental or spiritual realities Urpositionen
The most important carrying-out of the thought of this group was the philosophical system of Chr. Weisse, in which the conception of the possible is placed ontologically above that of
Being, to the end of deriving all Being from freedom, as the self-
[prime-positions].
production of personality
In the relation between the possible and the actual, we have here
repeated the antithesis set up by Leibniz, between the ciritfs iter- nelles, and the viritis de fait, and likewise the problems which Kant brought together in the conception of the " specification of Nature " (cf. above, p. 566). Within the " possibilities " which cannot be thought away, the actual is always ultimately such that it might be conceivably otherwise; i. e. it is not to be deduced, it must be re garded as given through freedom. Law and fact cannot be reduced to each other.
Carrying out this view in a more psychological manner, Ulrid regarded the self as the presupposition for the distinguishing activ ity, with which he identified all consciousness, and out of which he developed his logical, as well as his psychological, theory.
6. The orthodoxy, which at the time of the Restoration was grow ing in power and pretension, was attacked by the counter-party with the weapons of Hegelianism, and in this contest Ruge served as leader in public support of both religious and political liberalism. How pantheistical ly and Spinozistically the idealistic system was apprehended by this wing is best seen from Feuerbach's Thoughts on Death and Immortality, where the divine infinitude is praised as the ultimate ground of man's life, and man's disappearance in the same
(Fichte).
1 44. ] Controversy over the Sold : Materialitm. 641
as the true immortality and blessedness. From this ideal pantheism Feuerbach then rapidly advanced to the most radical changes of his doctrine. He felt that the panlogistic system could not explain the individual things of Nature : though Hegel had called Nature the realm of the accidental or contingent, which is incapable of keeping the conception pure. This inability, thought Feuerbach, inheres rather in the conception which man makes to himself of things : the general conceptions in which philosophy thinks are no doubt incapable of understanding the real nature of the individual thing. Therefore Feuerbach now inverts the Hegelian system, and the result is a nominalistic materialism. The actual reality is the individual known to the senses; everything universal, everything mental or spiritual, is but an illusion of the individual. Mind or spirit is " Nature in its otherness. " In this way Feuerbach gives his purely anthropological explanation of religion. Man regards his own generic nature — what he wishes to be himself — as God.
This " theory of the wish," is to free humanity from all supersti tion and its evil consequences, after the same fashion as the theory of Epicurus (cf. above, p. 188). The epistemology of this " philoso phy of the future " can be only sensualism ; its ethics only eudse- mouism: the impulse to happiness is the principle of morals, and the sympathetic participation in the happiness of another is the fundamental ethical feeling.
After materialism had shown so illustrious a metaphysical pedi gree, others employed for its advantage the anthropological mode of argument which had been in use in French literature since Lamettrie, and which seemed to become still stronger through the progress of physiology. Feuerbach had taught : man is what he eats (ist teas er isst) ! And so once more the dependence of the mind upon the body was interpreted as a materialising of the psychical activity ; thinking and willing were to be regarded as secretions of the brain, similar to the secretions of other organs. A companion for this theory appeared in the guise of a purely sensualistio theory of knowledge, as it was developed by Czolbe independently of metaphysical assumptions; although at a later time Czolbe himself reached a view of the world which bordered closely upon materialism. For, since he regarded knowledge as a copy of the actual, he came ultimately to ascribe to ideas themselves spatial extension, and, in general, to regard space at the supporter of all attributes, giving it the place of Spinoza's substance.
So the materialistic mode of thought began to spread in Germany also, among physicians and natural scientists, and this condition of affairs came to light at the convention of natural scientists at Got
642 Philosophy of the Nineteenth Century. [Pari VLL
tingen in 1864. The contradiction between the inferences of natural science and the " needs of the heart " (Gemiith) became the theme of a controversy which was continued in writing also, in which Carl Vogt championed the absolute sovereignty of the mechanical view of the world, while Rudolph Wagner, on the contrary, professed to gaiu at the bounds of human knowledge the possibility for a faith that rescued the soul and its immortality. This effort,1 which with extreme unaptness was termed " book-keeping by double entry," had subsequently its chief effect in creating among natural scientists who saw through the one-sidedness of materialism, but could not befriend the teleology of idealism, a growing inclination toward Kant, into whose thing-in-itself they thought the needs of the heart and soul might be permitted to make their escape. When, then, in 1860, Kuno Fischer's brilliant exposition of the critical philosophy ap peared, then began the "return to Kant" which was afterwards destined to degenerate into literary-historical micrology. To the natural-science temper, out of which it arose, Albert Lange's History
of Materialism, gave expression.
Many misunderstandings, to be sure, accompanied this move
ment when even great natural scientists like Helmholtz* confused transcendental idealism with Locke's theory of signs and doctrine of primary and secondary qualities. Another misunderstanding appeared somewhat later, when a conspicuous school of theology, under the leadership of Ritschl, adopted the doctrine of the " thing- in-itself," in a form analogous to the position of English agnosticism.
The philosophical revival of Kantianism, which has permeated the second half of the century, especially since Otto Liebmann's impressive book, Kant and the Epigones (1865), presents a great variety of views, in which we find repeated all shades of the oppos ing interpretations which Kant's theory met at its first appearance The empirical and the rationalistic conceptions of knowledge and experience have come again into conflict, and their historical, as well as their systematic, adjustment has been the ultimate ground of the pragmatic necessity which has brought about gradually a return to Fichte. To-day there is once more an idealistic metaphysics in process of formation, as the chief representative of which we may regard Rudolf Eucken.
i It is not without interest to note the fact that this motif was not far removed from the French materialists. Of Cabanis and of Broussais we have expression*. made at the close of their life, which are in this spirit, and even of a mystical tendency.
* Cf. H. Helmholtz, Phyttologische Optik, 26, and, especially. The Fact* of Ptrception (Berlin, 1879).
1 44. ] Controvert! /
over the Soul: Lotze. 643
Hut in all these forms, this Neo-Kantiau movement, with' its earnest work upon the problem of knowledge, has had the result of rendering the superficial metaphysics of materialism evidently inad equate and impossible, and hence has led to its rejection. Even where Kant's doctrine was given an entirely empirical, and indeed positivistic turn, or even in the fantastic reasonings of so-called " solipsism," the thought of regarding consciousness as an accessory function of matter was rejected as an absurdity. Rather we find the opposite one-sided view that primary reality is to be ascribed only to inner perception, in contrast with outer perception.
Materialism was thus overcome in science; it lives in popular expo sitions, such as Buchner's " Force and Matter " (Kraft und Stoff), or in the more refined form of Strauss's " Old and New Faith " ' (Alter und neuer Olaube); it lives on also as theory of life in just those circles which love to enjoy the " results of science " from the most agreeable hand. For this superficial culture, materialism has found its characteristic exposition in Haeckel's works and his so-called u monism. "
For psychology as science, however, it became necessary to re nounce the conception of a soul-substance for the basis as well as fur the goal of its investigation, and as a science of the laws of the psychical life "to build only upon inner or outer experience. So we came by our psychology without a soul," which is free from all metaphysical assumptions — or means to be.
7. A deeper reconciliation of the above antitheses was given by Istttc from the fundamental thoughts of German idealism. The vital and formative activity which constitutes the spiritual essence
of all this real world has as its end, the good. The mechanism of nature is the regular form in which this activity works in the realisation of its end. Natural science has doubtless no other prin ciple than that of the mechanical, causal connection, and this principle is held to apply to organisms also; but the beginnings of metaphysics, like those of logic, lie only in ethics. In carrying out this teleologiail idealism, motifs from all the great systems of German philosophy accord to a new, harmonious work; every individual real entity has its essential nature only in the living relations in which it stands to other real entities; and these relations which constitute the con
nected whole of the universe are possible only if all that is, is grounded as a partial reality in a substantial unity, and if thus all
> The evidence of descent (mm the Hegelian dialectic ia Keen al«n in this, the noat ingenious form which materialism can And, — I. Kiiapp'x Jlrrht*phil<>»»- phir (1867) might perhaps be classed with it, — (or all higher forma of mental life are treated aa the attiring of nature to go beyond herself.
644 Philosophy of the Nineteenth Century. [Part Vlt
that takes place between individuals is to be apprehended as pur poseful realisation of a common life goal. By the powerful uni versality with which he mastered the material of facts and the forms of scientific elaboration in all the special disciplines Lotze was specially fitted to carry out fully this fundamental metaphysical thought, and in this respect, also, his personality as well as what he taught, joins worthily on to the preceding epoch. His own attitude is best characterised by its conception of knowledge as a vital and purposive interaction between the soul and the other " substances. " The " reaction " of the soul is combined with the excitation which proceeds from " things. " On the one side, the soul develops its own nature in the forms of perception, and in the general truths which come to consciousness with immediate clearness and evidence on the occasion of the stimulus from things; on the other hand, the partici pation of the subject makes the world of ideas a phenomenal appear ance. But this appearance or phenomenal manifestation, as the purposive inner life, is by no means mere illusion. It is rather a realm of worths or values, in which the good is realising itself. The coming to actual reality of this world of consciousness is the most important result of the interaction of substances. It is the ulti mate and truest meaning of the world-process. From these funda mental thoughts, Lotze, in his Logic, has conceived the series of forms of thought as a systematic whole, which develops out of the problems or tasks of thinking. In his Metaphysics, he has developed
/ and defined his view of the world with fineness and acuteness in his treatment of conceptions, and with most careful consideration in all directions. The view is that of teleological idealism. The third part of the system, the ethics, has unfortunately not been completed in this more rigorous form. As a substitute, we have the convic tions of the philosopher and his mature comprehension of life and history presented in the fine and thoughtful expositions of the Microcosmus.
8. Another way of escape from the difficulties of the natural- science treatment of the psychical life was chosen by Fechner. He would look upon body and soul as the modes of phenomenal mani festation — completely separated and different in kind, but in constant correspondence with each other — of one and the same unknown reality ; and follows out this thought in the direction, that every physical connection has a mental series or system of connections corresponding to although the latter are known through percep tion only in the case of our own selves. As the sensations which correspond to the excitation of particular parts of the nervous sys tem, present themselves as surface waves in the total wave of oui
it,
S 44. ] Controversy over the Soul : Fechner. 645
individual consciousness, so we may conceive that the consciousness of a single person is in turn but the surface wave of a more general consciousness, — say that of the planetary mind: and if we continue this line, we come ultimately to the assumption of a universal total- ctmsciousness in Ood, to which the universal causal connection of the atoms corresponds. Moreover, according to Fechner, the connection of inner and outer experience in our consciousness makes it possible to investigate the laws of this correspondence. The science of this is psycho-physics. It is the first problem of this science to find out ■method* for measuring psychical quantities, in order to obtain laws that may be formulated mathematically. Fechner brings forward principally the method of just perceptible differences, which defines as the unit of mass the smallest difference that is still perceptible between intensities of sensation, and assumes this to be equal everywhere and in all cases.
On the basis of this assumption, which to be sure is quite arbi trary, it seemed possible to give a mathematical formulation to the so-called " Weber-Fechner law. " This was stated as follows : The intensities of different sensations are to each other as the logarithms of the intensities of their stimuli. The hope was thus awakened by Fechner that through the indirect measurement of psychical
magnitudes a mathematical statement could be given by scientific methods for the psycho-physical, perhaps even for the psychological laws, and in spite of the numerous and serious objections which it encountered, this hope has had great success in promoting experi mental study during the past decades in many laboratories estab lished for this purpose. Yet it cannot be said that the outcome for a new and deeper comprehension of the mental life has kept pace with the activity of experimentation. 1
The revival of the Spinozistic parallelism has likewise met greater and greater difficulties. With Fechner it was dogmatically intended since he claimed complete metaphysical reality for the contents of sense-perception.
