No More Learning

? The Essay as Form*
by T. W. Adorno
"Destined, to see the illuminated, not the light. "
Goethe, Pandora
That in Germany the essay is decried as a hybrid; that it is lacking a convincing tradition; that its strenuous requirements have only rarely been met: all this has been often remarked upon and censured. "The essay form has not yet, today, travelled the road to independence which its sister, poetry, covered long ago; the road of development from aprimitive, undifferentiated unitywith science, ethics, and art. "' But neither discontent with this situation, nor discontent with the mentality that reacts to the situation by fencing up art as a preserve for the irrational, identifying knowledge with organized science and ex- cludingas impure anything that does not fit this antithesis: neither dis- content has changed anything in the customary national prejudice. The bestowal of the garland "writer" still suffices to exclude from academia the person one is praising. Despite the weighty perspicacity that Simmel and the young Lukics, Kassner and Benjamin entrusted to the essay, to the speculative investigation of specific, culturally pre- determined objects,' the academic guild only has ptience for phi- losophy that dresses itself up with the nobility oft e universal, the everlasting, and today - when possible - with the primal; the cultural artifact is of interest only to the degree that it serves to exemplify
* Adorno's "Der Essay als Form" was written between 1954 and 1958 and first pub- lished as the lead essay of Nota zur Literatur I in 1958. It is now contained in Adorno, Gesammelte Schnzen, 1 1 (~;ankfurtam Main: Suhrkamp, 1974). The essay is published here in English with the permission of SuhrkampVerlag.
1. George Lukiics, Soul and Form, trans. Anna Bostock (Cambridge: MIT, 1974), p. 13.
2. Ibid. ,p. 10. "Theessayisalwaysconcernedwithsomethingalreadyformed,orat best, with something that has been; it is part of its essence that it does not draw some- thing new out of an empty vacuum, but only gives a new order to such things as once lived. And because he only newly orders them, not forming something new out of the formless, he is bound to them; he must alwaysspeakg'thetruth" about them, find, that is, the expression for their essence. "
? 1 5 2 The Essay a s Form
universal categories, or at the very least allows them to shine through - however little the particular is thereby illuminated. The stubborn- ness with which this stereotypical thought survives would be as puz- zling as its emotional rootedness if it were not fed by motives that are stronger than the painful recollection of how much cultivation is miss- ing from a culture that historically scarcely recognizes the homme de lettres. In Germany the essay provokes resistance because it is reminiscent of the intellectual freedom that, from the time of an unsuccessful and lukewarm Enlightenment, since Leibniz's day, all the way to the pres- ent has never really emerged, not even under the conditions of formal freedom; the German Enlightenment was always ready to proclaim, as its essential concern, subordination under whatever higher courts. The essay, however, does not permit its domain to be prescribed. Instead of achieving something scientifically, or creating something artistically, the effort of the essay reflects a childlike freedom that catches fire, without scruple, on what others have already done. The essay mirrors what is loved and hated instead of presenting the intel- lect, on the model of a boundless work ethic, as creatio ex nihilo. Luck and play are essential to the essay. It does not begin with Adam and Eve but with what it wants to discuss; it says what is at issue and stops where it feels itselfcomplete - not where nothing is left to say. Therefore it is classed among the oddities. Its concepts are neither deduced from any firstprinciplenordotheycomefullcircleandarriveatafinalprinciple. Its interpretations are not philologically hardened and sober, rather - according to the predictable verdict of that vigilant calculating reason that hires itself out to stupidity as a guard against intelligence - it overinterprets. Due to a fear of negativityper se, the subject's effort to break through what masks itself as objectivity is branded as idleness. Everything is supposedly much simpler. The person who interprets instead of unquestioningly accepting and categorizing is slapped with the charge of intellectualizing as if with a yellow star; his misled and decadent intelligence is said to subtilize and project meaning where there is nothing to interpret. Technician or dreamer, those are the alternatives. Once one lets oneself be terrorized by the prohibition of going beyond the intended meaning of a certain text, one becomes the dupe of the false intentionality that men and things harbor of them- selves. Understanding then amounts to nothing more than unwrap- ping what the author wanted to say, or, if need by, tracking down the individual psychological reactions that the phenomenon indicates. Butjust as it is scarcely possible to figure out what someone at a certain time and place felt and thought, such insights could not hope to gain anything essential. The author's impulses are extinguished in the objective substance they grasp. The objective abundance of signifi-
? cations encapsulated within each spiritual phenomenon, if it is to reveal itself, requires from the person receiving them precisely that spontaneity of subjective fantasy that is chastised in the name of objec- tive discipline. Nothing can be interpreted out of aworkwithout at the same time being interpreted into it. The criteria of this process are the compatibility of the interpretation with the text and with itself and its power to release the object's expression in the unity of its elements. The essay thereby acquires an aesthetic autonomy that is easily criti- cized as simply borrowed from art, though it distinguishes itself from art through its conceptual character and its claim to truth free from aesthetic semblance. Lukscs failed to recognize this when he called the essay an art form in a letter to Leo Popper that serves as the introduc- tion to Soul and Form. 3 Neither is the positivist maxim superior to Lukscs' thesis, namely the maxim which maintains that what is written about art may claim nothing of art's mode of presentation, nothing, that is, of its autonomy of form. The positivist tendency to set up every possible examinable object in rigid opposition to the knowing subject remains - in this as in every other instance - caught up with the rigid separation ofform and content: for it is scarcely possible to speakofthe aesthetic unaesthetically, stripped of any similarity with its object, without becoming narrow-minded and a priori losing touch with the aesthetic object. According to a positivist procedure the content, once rigidly modelled on the protocol sentence, should be indifferent to its presentation. Presentation should be conventional, not demanded by the matter itself. Every impulse of expression - as far as the instinct of scientific purism is concerned - endangers an objectivity that is said to spring forth after the subtraction of the subject; such expression would thus endanger the authenticity of the material, which is said to prove itself all the better the less it relies on form, even though the measure of form is precisely its ability to render content purely and without addition. In its allergy to forms, as pure accidents, the scien- tific mind approaches the stupidly dogmatic mind. Positivism's ir- responsibly bungled language fancies itself to be responsibly objective and adaquate to the matter at hand; the reflection on the spiritual becomes the privilege of the spiritless.
None of these offspring of resentment are simply untruth. If the essay disdains to begin by deriving cultural products from something underlying them, it embroils itself only more intently in the culture industry and it falls for the conspicuousness, successand prestige ofprod- ucts designed for the market place. Fictional biographies and all the related commercial writing are no mere degeneration but the perma-
3. LukPcs, "On the Nature and Form of the Essay," in Soul and Form, pp. 1-18.
? 154 The Essayas Form
nent temptation of a form whose suspicion toward false profundity is no defense against its own turning into skillful superficiality. The essay's capitulation is already evident in Sainte-Beuve,from whom the genre of the modern essay really stems. Such works - alongwith prod- ucts like the biographical sketches of Herbert E ~ l e n b e r gt,h~e German model for a flood of cultural trash-literature, all the way to the films about Rembrandt, Toulouse-Lautrec, and the Holy Bible - have pro- moted the neutralizing transformation of cultural artifacts into com- modities, a transformation which, in recent cultural history, has ir- resistably seized up all that which in the eastern bloc is shamelessly called "the cultural heritage. " This process is perhaps most striking in the instance of Stefan Zweig, who in his youth wrote several discerning essays, and who finally, in his book on Balzac, stooped so low as to de- scribe the psychology of the creative artist. Such writing does not criticize basic abstract concepts, mindless dates, worn-out clich6s, but implicitly and thereby with the greater complicity, it presupposes them. The detritus of an hermeneutic psychology is fused with com- mon categories drawn from the Weltanschauung of the cultural philis- tines, categories like those of personality and the irrational. Such essays mistake themselves for that kind of feuilleton journalism with which mistake themselves for that kind of feuilleton journalism with which the enemies of form confuse the form of the essay. Torn itself becomes unfree and sets itself to work in the service of the socially performed needs of its customers. The moment of irresponsibility, in itself an aspect of every truth that does not exhaust itself in respon- sibility toward the status quo, will account for itselfwhen faced with the needs of the established consciousness; bad essays are no less con- formist than bad dissertations. Responsibility, however, respects not only authorities and committees but the object itself.
The bad essay chats about people instead of opening up the mat- ter at hand; in this the essay form is somewhat complicitous. The separation of knowledge from art is irreversible. Only the naivetC of the literary entrepreneur takes no notice of this separation; he thinks of himself as at least an organizational genius, and simply chews up good art-works into bad ones. With the objectification of the world in the course of progressing demythologization, science and art have separated from each other. A consciousness in which perception and concept, image and sign would be one is not, if it ever existed, to be re- created with a wave of the wand; its restitution would be a return to chaos. Only as the completion of the mediating process would such a
4. [Herbert Eulenberg (1876-1949),author of Schattenbilder (Silhouettes), a collec- tion of biograptlical miniatures of notables published in 1910. Translator's foot- note. ]
? consciousness be thinkable, as a utopia just as that on which idealist philosophers since Kant had bestowed the name of creative intuition, and which failed them whenever actual knowledge appealed to it. When philosophy supposes that by borrowing from art it can do away with objectifying thought and its history - with what is usually termed the antithesis of subject and object - and indeed expects that being itselfwould speak out of a poetic montage of Parmenides andJungnic- kel,5it only approximates a washed-out pseudo-culture. With peasant cunninglegitimated as primordiality, it refuses to honor the obligation of conceptual thought to which it has subscribed as soon as it has employed concepts in statements andjudgments. At the same time its aesthetic element remains a second-hand thinned-out cultural rem- iniscence of Holderlin or Expressionism, o r possibly of art nouveau,simply because no thought can entrust itself to language as boundlessly and blindly as the idea of a primal utterance deceptively suggests. Out of the violence that image and concept do to one another in such writings springs the jargon of authenticity in which words tremble as though possessed, while remaining secretive about that which possesses them. The ambitious transcendence of language beyond its meaning results in a meaninglessness that can easily be seized upon by a positivism to which one thinks oneself superior; and yet, one falls victim to pos- itivism precisely through that meaninglessness that positivism criti- cizes and which one shares with it. The playing chips of both are the same. Under the spell of such developments, language, where in the sciences it still dares to stir, approximates pseudo-art; and only that scientist proves, negatively, his fidelity to the aesthetic who in general resists language and instead of degrading the word to a mere paraphrase of his calculations prefers the charts that uninhibitedly admit the reification of consciousness and so produces a sort of form for reification without resorting to any apologetic borrowing from art. Of course art was always so interwoven with the dominant tendency of the Enlightenment that it has, since antiquity, incorporated scientific discoveries in its technique. Yet quantity becomes quality. When tech- nique is made absolute in the art-work; when construction becomes total, eliminating what motivates it and what resists it, expression; when art claims to be science and makes scientific criteria its standard, it sanctions a crude preartistic manipulation of raw material as devoid of meaning as all the talk about "Being" (Seyn) in philosophical seminars. It allies itselfwith that reification against which it is the func- tion of functionless art, even today, to raise its own however mute and
5. [Ludwig Heinrich Jungnickel (b. 1881 in Vienna), painter and handicraft artist well known for his animal woodcuts. This and the following passage refer to Heidegger. Translator's note. ]
? 156 The Essay as Form
objectified protest.
But although art and science have separated from each other in his-
tory, their opposition is not to be hypostatized. The disgust for anach- ronistic eclecticism does not sanctify a culture organized according to departmental specialization. In all of their necessity these divisions simply attest institutionally to the renunciation of the whole truth. The ideals of purity and cleanliness bear the marks of a repressive order; these ideals are shared by the bustle of authentic philosophy aiming at eternal values, a sealed and flawlessly organized science, and by a con- ceptless, intuitive art. Spirit must pass a competency test to assure that it will not overstep the offical culture or cross its officially sanctioned borders. The presupposition is that all knowledge can potentially be converted into science. Theories of knowledge that distinguish pre- scientific from scientific consciousness have therefore grasped this dis- tinction as one of degree only. The fact that this convertibility has remained a mere assertion and that living consciousness has never really been transformed into scientific consciousness, points to the precariousness of the transition itself, to a qualitative difference. The simplestreflection onthelifeofconsciousnesswouldrevealjust how little acts of knowledge, which are notjust arbitrary premonitions, can be completely caught by the net of science. The work of Marcel Proust, no more lacking than Bergson's in scientific-positivistic elements, is a single effort to express necessary and compelling perceptions about men and their social relations which science can simply not match, while at the same time the claim of these perceptions to objectivity would be neither lessened nor left up to vague plausibility. The mea- sure of such objectivity is not the verification ofasserted theses through repeated testing, but individual experience, unified in hope and dis- illusion. Experience, reminiscing, gives depth to its observations by confirming or refuting them. But their individually grasped unity, in which the whole surely appears, could not be divided up and re- organized under the separatedpersonaeand apparatuses of psychology and sociology. Under the pressure of the scientific spirit and of'an ever- present desire latent in every artist, Proust attempted, by means of a scientificallymodelled technique,asortofexperimentation, tosaveor reproduce a form of knowledge that was still considered valid in the days of bourgeois individualism when the individual consciousness still trusted itself and was not yet worried about organizational cen- sure: the knowledge of an experienced man, that extinct homme de lettres, whom Proust once again conjures up as the highest form of the dilet- tante. No one would have thought to dismiss as unimportant, acciden- tal or irrational the observations of an experienced man because they are only his own and as such do not lend themselves readily to scientific
? generalization. Those ofhis discoveries which slip through the meshes of science certainly elude science itself. Science, as cultural science (Geis- teswissenschaj? ), negates what it promises to culture: to open up its artifacts from within. The young writer who wants to learn at college what an art-work is, what linguistic form, aesthetic quality, even aes- thetic technique are, will only haphazardly learn anything at all about the matter; at best he will pick up information ready culled from whatever modish philosophy and more or less arbitrarily slapped on to the content of works currently under discussion. If he turns, how- ever, to philosophical aesthetics he is beleagured with highly abstract propositions that have neither a connection with the works he wants to understand, nor with the content after which he is groping. The divi- sion of labor within the kosmos noetikos (intelligible world) into art and science is not, however, altogether responsible for this situation; the internal boundaries between art and science will not be obviated by good will or over-arching planning. Rather, the spirit irretrievably modeled on the pattern of the control of nature and material produc- tion forgoes both recollection of any surpassed phase that would promise any other future and any transcendence vis-2-vis the frozen relations of production; this cripples the technical intelligence's own specialized procedure precisely with regard to its specific objects.
With regard to scientificprocedure and itsphilosophic groundingas method, the essay, in accordance with its idea, draws the fullest conse- quences from the critique of the system. Even the empiricist doctrines that grant priority to open, unanticipated experience over firm, con- ceptual ordering remain systematic to the extent that they investigate what they hold to be the more or less constant pre-conditions of knowledge and develop them in as continuous a context as possible. Since the time of Bacon, who was himselfan essayist, empiricism - no less than rationalism - has been "method. " Doubt about the uncon- ditional priority of method was raised, in the actual process of thought, almost exclusively by the essay. It doesjustice to the consciousness of non-identity, without needing to say so, radically un-radical in refrain- ing from any reduction to a principle, in accentuating the fragmentary, the partial rather then the total. "Perhaps the great Sieur d e Montaigne felt something like this when he gave his writings the wonderfully elegant and apt title of Essays. The simple modesty of this word is an arrogant courtesy. The essayist dismisses his own proud hopes which sometimes lead him to believe that he has come close to the ultimate: he has, after all, no more to offer than explanations of the poems of others, or at best of his own ideas. But he ironically adapts himself to this smallness - the eternal smallness of the most profound work of the intellect in face of life - and even emphasizes it with ironic modes-
? 158 TheEssayasFonn
ty. "6Theessay does not obey the rules ofthegameof organized science and theory that, following Spinoza's principle, the order of things is identical with that of ideas. Since the airtight order of concepts is not identical with existence, the essay does not strive for closed, deductive or inductive, construction. It revolts above all against the doctrine - deeply rooted since Plato - that the changing and ephemeral is unworthy of philosophy; against that ancient injustice toward the tran- sitory, by which it is once more anathematized, conceptually. The essay shys away from the violence of dogma, from the notion that the result of abstraction, the temporally invariable concept indifferent to the individual phenomenon grasped by it, deserves ontological digni- ty. The delusion that theordoidearum (orderof ideas) should be theordo rerum (order of things) is based on the insinuation that the mediated is unmediated. Just as little as a simple fact can be thought without a con- cept, because to think it always already means to conceptualize it, it is equally impossible to think the purest conceptwithout reference to the factual. Even the creations of phantasy that are supposedly indepen- dent of space and time, point toward individual existence - however far they may be removed from it. Therefore the essay is not intimidated by the depraved profundity which claims that truth and history are incompatible. If truth has in fact a temporal core, then the full histori- cal content becomes an integral moment in truth; the a posteriori be- comes concretely the apriori, as only generally stipulated by Fichte and his followers. The relation to experience - and from it the essay takes as much substance as does traditional theory from its categories - is a relation to all of history; merely individual experience, in which con- sciousness begins with what is nearest to it, is itself mediated by the all- encompassing experience of historical humanity; the claim that social- historical contents are nevertheless supposed to be only indirectly important compared with the immediate life of the individual is a sim- ple self-delusion of an individualistic society and ideology. The de- preciation of the historically produced, as an object of theory, is therefore corrected by the essay. There is no salvaging the distinction of a first philosophy from a mere philosophy of culture that assumes the former and builds on it, a distinction with which the taboo on the essay is rationalized theoretically. The intellectual process which can- onizes a distinction between the temporal and the timeless is losing its authority. Higher levels of abstraction invest thought neither with a greater sanctity nor with metaphysical content; rather, the metaphysi- cal content evaporates with the progress of abstraction, for which the
6. Lukics, p. 9.
? essay attempts to make reparation. The usual reproach against the essay, that it is fragmentary and random, itself assumes the giveness of totality and thereby the identity of subject and object, and it suggests that man is in control of totality. But the desire ofthe essay is not to seek and filter the eternal out of the transitory; it wants, rather, to make the transitory eternal. Its weakness testifies to the non-identity that it has to express, as well as to that excess of intention over its object, and thereby it points to that utopia which is blocked out by the classifica- tion of the world into the eternal and the transitory. In the emphatic essay, thought gets rid of the traditional idea of truth.
The essay simultaneously suspends the traditional concept of meth- od. Thought acquires its depth from penetrating deeply into a matter, not from referring it back to something else. In this the essay becomes polemical by treating what is normally held to be derived, without however pursuing its ultimate derivation. The essay freely associates what can be found associated in the freely chosen object. It does not insist stubbornly on a realm transcending all mediations - and they are the historical ones in which the whole of society is sedimented - rather the essay seeks truth contents as being historical in themselves. It does not concern itself with any supposed primeval condition in order to contravene society's false sociality, which, just because it tolerates nothing not stamped by it, ultimately tolerates nothing in- dicative of it own omnipresence and necessarily cites, as its ideological complement, that nature which its own praxis eliminates. The essay silently abandons the illusion that thought can break out of thesis into
physis, out of culture into nature. Spellbound by what is fixed and admittedly deduced, by artifacts, the essay honors nature by confirm- ing that it no longer exists for human beings. The essay's Alexan- drianism replies to the fact that by their very existence the lilac and the nightingale, wherever the universal net allows them to survive, only want to delude us that life still lives. The essay abandons the main road to the origins, the road leading to the most derivative, to being, the ideology that simply doubles that which already exists; at the same time the essay does not allow the idea of immediacy, postulated by the very concept of mediation, to disappear entirely. All levels of the mediated are immediate to the essay, before its reflection begins.
As the essay denies any primeval givens, so it refuses any definition of its concepts. Philosophy has completed the fullest critique of defini- tion from the most diverse perspectives, including those of Kant, Hegel and Nietzsche. But science has never adopted this critique. While the movement beginning with Kant, a movement against the scholastic residues in modern thought, replaces verbal definition with an understanding of concepts as part of the process in which they are
? 160 The Essay as Form
temporally embodied, the individual sciences insist stubbornly on the pre-critical job of definition - and do so for the sake of the undis- turbed security of their operation. In this regard the neopositivists, who identify philosophy with scientific method, agree with Scholas- ticism. The essay, in contrast, takes the anti-systematic impulse into its own procedure, and introduces concepts directly, "immediately," as it receives them. They gain their precision only through their relation to one another. In this, however, the essay gets some support from the concepts themselves. For it is a mere superstition of a science ex- clusively concerned with the appropriation of raw materials to believe that concepts are in themselves undetermined, that they are first deter- mined by their definition. Science requires the image of the concept as atabula rasa, in order to secure its claim to domination; the claim to be the sole power at the head of the table. Actually, all concepts are already implicitly concretized through the language in which they stand. The essay begins with such meanings and, itself being essen- tially language, it forces these meanings on farther; it wants to help language, in its relation to concepts, to grasp these concepts reflectively in the way that they are already unconsciously named in language. That effort is already envisaged by the procedure of meaning-analysis in phenomenology; only there the relation of concepts to language is fetishized. The essay remains as skeptical of this as it is of definition. Without apology the essay draws on itself the reproach that it does not know beyond a doubtjust what is to be understood as the real content of concepts. For the essay perceives that the longing for strict defini- tions has long offered, through fixating manipulations of the mean- ings of concepts, to eliminate the irritating and dangerous elements of things that live within concepts. Yet the essay can neither do without general concepts - even language that does not fetishize the concept cannot do without concepts - nor does it treat them arbitrarily. It thereforetakesthematterofpresentationmoreseriouslythandothose procedures that separate out method from material and are indifferent to the way they represent their objectified contents. Thehow of expres- sion should rescue, in precision, what the refusal to outline sacrifices, without, however, betraying the intended matter to the arbitrariness of previously decreed significations. In this Benjamin was an unequaled master. Such precision, however, cannot remain atomistic. Not less, but more than the process of defining, the essay urges the reciprocal interaction of its concepts in the process of intellectual experience. In the essay, concepts do not build a continuum of operations, thought does not advance in a single direction, rather the aspects of the argu- ment interweave as in a carpet. The fruitfulness of the thoughts de- pends on the density of this texture. Actually, the thinker does not
? think, but rather transforms himself into an arena of intellectual ex- perience, without simplifying it. While even traditional thought draws its impulses from such experience, such thought by its form eliminates the remembrance of these impulses. The essay, on the other hand, takes them as its model, without simply imitating them as reflected form; it mediates them through its own conceptual organization; it proceeds, so to speak, methodically unmethodically.
The way in which the essay appropriates concepts is most easily comparable to the behavior of a man who is obliged, in a foreign coun- try, to speak that country's language instead of patching it together from its elements, as he did in school. He will read without a dic- tionary. If he has looked at the same word thirty times, in constantly changing contexts, he has a clearer grasp of it than he would if he looked up all the word's meanings; meanings that are generally too narrow, considering they change depending on the context, and too vague in view of the nuances that the context establishes in every individual case. Just as such learning remains exposed to error, so does the essay as form; it must pay for its affinity with open intellectual experience by the lack of security, a lack which the norm of established thought fears like death. It is not so much that the essay ignores indis- putable certainty, as that it abrogates the ideal. The essay becomes true in its progress, which drives it beyond itself, and not in a hoarding obsession with fundamentals. Its concepts receive their light from ater- minus ad quem hidden to the essay itself, and not from an obvious ter- minus a quo. In this the very method of the essay expresses the utopian intention.
The positivist tendency to set up every possible examinable object in rigid opposition to the knowing subject remains - in this as in every other instance - caught up with the rigid separation ofform and content: for it is scarcely possible to speakofthe aesthetic unaesthetically, stripped of any similarity with its object, without becoming narrow-minded and a priori losing touch with the aesthetic object. According to a positivist procedure the content, once rigidly modelled on the protocol sentence, should be indifferent to its presentation. Presentation should be conventional, not demanded by the matter itself. Every impulse of expression - as far as the instinct of scientific purism is concerned - endangers an objectivity that is said to spring forth after the subtraction of the subject; such expression would thus endanger the authenticity of the material, which is said to prove itself all the better the less it relies on form, even though the measure of form is precisely its ability to render content purely and without addition. In its allergy to forms, as pure accidents, the scien- tific mind approaches the stupidly dogmatic mind. Positivism's ir- responsibly bungled language fancies itself to be responsibly objective and adaquate to the matter at hand; the reflection on the spiritual becomes the privilege of the spiritless.
None of these offspring of resentment are simply untruth. If the essay disdains to begin by deriving cultural products from something underlying them, it embroils itself only more intently in the culture industry and it falls for the conspicuousness, successand prestige ofprod- ucts designed for the market place. Fictional biographies and all the related commercial writing are no mere degeneration but the perma-
3. LukPcs, "On the Nature and Form of the Essay," in Soul and Form, pp. 1-18.
? 154 The Essayas Form
nent temptation of a form whose suspicion toward false profundity is no defense against its own turning into skillful superficiality. The essay's capitulation is already evident in Sainte-Beuve,from whom the genre of the modern essay really stems. Such works - alongwith prod- ucts like the biographical sketches of Herbert E ~ l e n b e r gt,h~e German model for a flood of cultural trash-literature, all the way to the films about Rembrandt, Toulouse-Lautrec, and the Holy Bible - have pro- moted the neutralizing transformation of cultural artifacts into com- modities, a transformation which, in recent cultural history, has ir- resistably seized up all that which in the eastern bloc is shamelessly called "the cultural heritage. " This process is perhaps most striking in the instance of Stefan Zweig, who in his youth wrote several discerning essays, and who finally, in his book on Balzac, stooped so low as to de- scribe the psychology of the creative artist. Such writing does not criticize basic abstract concepts, mindless dates, worn-out clich6s, but implicitly and thereby with the greater complicity, it presupposes them. The detritus of an hermeneutic psychology is fused with com- mon categories drawn from the Weltanschauung of the cultural philis- tines, categories like those of personality and the irrational. Such essays mistake themselves for that kind of feuilleton journalism with which mistake themselves for that kind of feuilleton journalism with which the enemies of form confuse the form of the essay. Torn itself becomes unfree and sets itself to work in the service of the socially performed needs of its customers. The moment of irresponsibility, in itself an aspect of every truth that does not exhaust itself in respon- sibility toward the status quo, will account for itselfwhen faced with the needs of the established consciousness; bad essays are no less con- formist than bad dissertations. Responsibility, however, respects not only authorities and committees but the object itself.
The bad essay chats about people instead of opening up the mat- ter at hand; in this the essay form is somewhat complicitous. The separation of knowledge from art is irreversible. Only the naivetC of the literary entrepreneur takes no notice of this separation; he thinks of himself as at least an organizational genius, and simply chews up good art-works into bad ones. With the objectification of the world in the course of progressing demythologization, science and art have separated from each other. A consciousness in which perception and concept, image and sign would be one is not, if it ever existed, to be re- created with a wave of the wand; its restitution would be a return to chaos. Only as the completion of the mediating process would such a
4. [Herbert Eulenberg (1876-1949),author of Schattenbilder (Silhouettes), a collec- tion of biograptlical miniatures of notables published in 1910. Translator's foot- note. ]
? consciousness be thinkable, as a utopia just as that on which idealist philosophers since Kant had bestowed the name of creative intuition, and which failed them whenever actual knowledge appealed to it. When philosophy supposes that by borrowing from art it can do away with objectifying thought and its history - with what is usually termed the antithesis of subject and object - and indeed expects that being itselfwould speak out of a poetic montage of Parmenides andJungnic- kel,5it only approximates a washed-out pseudo-culture. With peasant cunninglegitimated as primordiality, it refuses to honor the obligation of conceptual thought to which it has subscribed as soon as it has employed concepts in statements andjudgments. At the same time its aesthetic element remains a second-hand thinned-out cultural rem- iniscence of Holderlin or Expressionism, o r possibly of art nouveau,simply because no thought can entrust itself to language as boundlessly and blindly as the idea of a primal utterance deceptively suggests. Out of the violence that image and concept do to one another in such writings springs the jargon of authenticity in which words tremble as though possessed, while remaining secretive about that which possesses them. The ambitious transcendence of language beyond its meaning results in a meaninglessness that can easily be seized upon by a positivism to which one thinks oneself superior; and yet, one falls victim to pos- itivism precisely through that meaninglessness that positivism criti- cizes and which one shares with it. The playing chips of both are the same. Under the spell of such developments, language, where in the sciences it still dares to stir, approximates pseudo-art; and only that scientist proves, negatively, his fidelity to the aesthetic who in general resists language and instead of degrading the word to a mere paraphrase of his calculations prefers the charts that uninhibitedly admit the reification of consciousness and so produces a sort of form for reification without resorting to any apologetic borrowing from art. Of course art was always so interwoven with the dominant tendency of the Enlightenment that it has, since antiquity, incorporated scientific discoveries in its technique. Yet quantity becomes quality. When tech- nique is made absolute in the art-work; when construction becomes total, eliminating what motivates it and what resists it, expression; when art claims to be science and makes scientific criteria its standard, it sanctions a crude preartistic manipulation of raw material as devoid of meaning as all the talk about "Being" (Seyn) in philosophical seminars. It allies itselfwith that reification against which it is the func- tion of functionless art, even today, to raise its own however mute and
5. [Ludwig Heinrich Jungnickel (b. 1881 in Vienna), painter and handicraft artist well known for his animal woodcuts. This and the following passage refer to Heidegger. Translator's note. ]
? 156 The Essay as Form
objectified protest.
But although art and science have separated from each other in his-
tory, their opposition is not to be hypostatized. The disgust for anach- ronistic eclecticism does not sanctify a culture organized according to departmental specialization. In all of their necessity these divisions simply attest institutionally to the renunciation of the whole truth. The ideals of purity and cleanliness bear the marks of a repressive order; these ideals are shared by the bustle of authentic philosophy aiming at eternal values, a sealed and flawlessly organized science, and by a con- ceptless, intuitive art. Spirit must pass a competency test to assure that it will not overstep the offical culture or cross its officially sanctioned borders. The presupposition is that all knowledge can potentially be converted into science. Theories of knowledge that distinguish pre- scientific from scientific consciousness have therefore grasped this dis- tinction as one of degree only. The fact that this convertibility has remained a mere assertion and that living consciousness has never really been transformed into scientific consciousness, points to the precariousness of the transition itself, to a qualitative difference. The simplestreflection onthelifeofconsciousnesswouldrevealjust how little acts of knowledge, which are notjust arbitrary premonitions, can be completely caught by the net of science. The work of Marcel Proust, no more lacking than Bergson's in scientific-positivistic elements, is a single effort to express necessary and compelling perceptions about men and their social relations which science can simply not match, while at the same time the claim of these perceptions to objectivity would be neither lessened nor left up to vague plausibility. The mea- sure of such objectivity is not the verification ofasserted theses through repeated testing, but individual experience, unified in hope and dis- illusion. Experience, reminiscing, gives depth to its observations by confirming or refuting them. But their individually grasped unity, in which the whole surely appears, could not be divided up and re- organized under the separatedpersonaeand apparatuses of psychology and sociology. Under the pressure of the scientific spirit and of'an ever- present desire latent in every artist, Proust attempted, by means of a scientificallymodelled technique,asortofexperimentation, tosaveor reproduce a form of knowledge that was still considered valid in the days of bourgeois individualism when the individual consciousness still trusted itself and was not yet worried about organizational cen- sure: the knowledge of an experienced man, that extinct homme de lettres, whom Proust once again conjures up as the highest form of the dilet- tante. No one would have thought to dismiss as unimportant, acciden- tal or irrational the observations of an experienced man because they are only his own and as such do not lend themselves readily to scientific
? generalization. Those ofhis discoveries which slip through the meshes of science certainly elude science itself. Science, as cultural science (Geis- teswissenschaj? ), negates what it promises to culture: to open up its artifacts from within. The young writer who wants to learn at college what an art-work is, what linguistic form, aesthetic quality, even aes- thetic technique are, will only haphazardly learn anything at all about the matter; at best he will pick up information ready culled from whatever modish philosophy and more or less arbitrarily slapped on to the content of works currently under discussion. If he turns, how- ever, to philosophical aesthetics he is beleagured with highly abstract propositions that have neither a connection with the works he wants to understand, nor with the content after which he is groping. The divi- sion of labor within the kosmos noetikos (intelligible world) into art and science is not, however, altogether responsible for this situation; the internal boundaries between art and science will not be obviated by good will or over-arching planning. Rather, the spirit irretrievably modeled on the pattern of the control of nature and material produc- tion forgoes both recollection of any surpassed phase that would promise any other future and any transcendence vis-2-vis the frozen relations of production; this cripples the technical intelligence's own specialized procedure precisely with regard to its specific objects.
With regard to scientificprocedure and itsphilosophic groundingas method, the essay, in accordance with its idea, draws the fullest conse- quences from the critique of the system. Even the empiricist doctrines that grant priority to open, unanticipated experience over firm, con- ceptual ordering remain systematic to the extent that they investigate what they hold to be the more or less constant pre-conditions of knowledge and develop them in as continuous a context as possible. Since the time of Bacon, who was himselfan essayist, empiricism - no less than rationalism - has been "method. " Doubt about the uncon- ditional priority of method was raised, in the actual process of thought, almost exclusively by the essay. It doesjustice to the consciousness of non-identity, without needing to say so, radically un-radical in refrain- ing from any reduction to a principle, in accentuating the fragmentary, the partial rather then the total. "Perhaps the great Sieur d e Montaigne felt something like this when he gave his writings the wonderfully elegant and apt title of Essays. The simple modesty of this word is an arrogant courtesy. The essayist dismisses his own proud hopes which sometimes lead him to believe that he has come close to the ultimate: he has, after all, no more to offer than explanations of the poems of others, or at best of his own ideas. But he ironically adapts himself to this smallness - the eternal smallness of the most profound work of the intellect in face of life - and even emphasizes it with ironic modes-
? 158 TheEssayasFonn
ty. "6Theessay does not obey the rules ofthegameof organized science and theory that, following Spinoza's principle, the order of things is identical with that of ideas. Since the airtight order of concepts is not identical with existence, the essay does not strive for closed, deductive or inductive, construction. It revolts above all against the doctrine - deeply rooted since Plato - that the changing and ephemeral is unworthy of philosophy; against that ancient injustice toward the tran- sitory, by which it is once more anathematized, conceptually. The essay shys away from the violence of dogma, from the notion that the result of abstraction, the temporally invariable concept indifferent to the individual phenomenon grasped by it, deserves ontological digni- ty. The delusion that theordoidearum (orderof ideas) should be theordo rerum (order of things) is based on the insinuation that the mediated is unmediated. Just as little as a simple fact can be thought without a con- cept, because to think it always already means to conceptualize it, it is equally impossible to think the purest conceptwithout reference to the factual. Even the creations of phantasy that are supposedly indepen- dent of space and time, point toward individual existence - however far they may be removed from it. Therefore the essay is not intimidated by the depraved profundity which claims that truth and history are incompatible. If truth has in fact a temporal core, then the full histori- cal content becomes an integral moment in truth; the a posteriori be- comes concretely the apriori, as only generally stipulated by Fichte and his followers. The relation to experience - and from it the essay takes as much substance as does traditional theory from its categories - is a relation to all of history; merely individual experience, in which con- sciousness begins with what is nearest to it, is itself mediated by the all- encompassing experience of historical humanity; the claim that social- historical contents are nevertheless supposed to be only indirectly important compared with the immediate life of the individual is a sim- ple self-delusion of an individualistic society and ideology. The de- preciation of the historically produced, as an object of theory, is therefore corrected by the essay. There is no salvaging the distinction of a first philosophy from a mere philosophy of culture that assumes the former and builds on it, a distinction with which the taboo on the essay is rationalized theoretically. The intellectual process which can- onizes a distinction between the temporal and the timeless is losing its authority. Higher levels of abstraction invest thought neither with a greater sanctity nor with metaphysical content; rather, the metaphysi- cal content evaporates with the progress of abstraction, for which the
6. Lukics, p. 9.
? essay attempts to make reparation. The usual reproach against the essay, that it is fragmentary and random, itself assumes the giveness of totality and thereby the identity of subject and object, and it suggests that man is in control of totality. But the desire ofthe essay is not to seek and filter the eternal out of the transitory; it wants, rather, to make the transitory eternal. Its weakness testifies to the non-identity that it has to express, as well as to that excess of intention over its object, and thereby it points to that utopia which is blocked out by the classifica- tion of the world into the eternal and the transitory. In the emphatic essay, thought gets rid of the traditional idea of truth.
The essay simultaneously suspends the traditional concept of meth- od. Thought acquires its depth from penetrating deeply into a matter, not from referring it back to something else. In this the essay becomes polemical by treating what is normally held to be derived, without however pursuing its ultimate derivation. The essay freely associates what can be found associated in the freely chosen object. It does not insist stubbornly on a realm transcending all mediations - and they are the historical ones in which the whole of society is sedimented - rather the essay seeks truth contents as being historical in themselves. It does not concern itself with any supposed primeval condition in order to contravene society's false sociality, which, just because it tolerates nothing not stamped by it, ultimately tolerates nothing in- dicative of it own omnipresence and necessarily cites, as its ideological complement, that nature which its own praxis eliminates. The essay silently abandons the illusion that thought can break out of thesis into
physis, out of culture into nature. Spellbound by what is fixed and admittedly deduced, by artifacts, the essay honors nature by confirm- ing that it no longer exists for human beings. The essay's Alexan- drianism replies to the fact that by their very existence the lilac and the nightingale, wherever the universal net allows them to survive, only want to delude us that life still lives. The essay abandons the main road to the origins, the road leading to the most derivative, to being, the ideology that simply doubles that which already exists; at the same time the essay does not allow the idea of immediacy, postulated by the very concept of mediation, to disappear entirely. All levels of the mediated are immediate to the essay, before its reflection begins.
As the essay denies any primeval givens, so it refuses any definition of its concepts. Philosophy has completed the fullest critique of defini- tion from the most diverse perspectives, including those of Kant, Hegel and Nietzsche. But science has never adopted this critique. While the movement beginning with Kant, a movement against the scholastic residues in modern thought, replaces verbal definition with an understanding of concepts as part of the process in which they are
? 160 The Essay as Form
temporally embodied, the individual sciences insist stubbornly on the pre-critical job of definition - and do so for the sake of the undis- turbed security of their operation. In this regard the neopositivists, who identify philosophy with scientific method, agree with Scholas- ticism. The essay, in contrast, takes the anti-systematic impulse into its own procedure, and introduces concepts directly, "immediately," as it receives them. They gain their precision only through their relation to one another. In this, however, the essay gets some support from the concepts themselves. For it is a mere superstition of a science ex- clusively concerned with the appropriation of raw materials to believe that concepts are in themselves undetermined, that they are first deter- mined by their definition. Science requires the image of the concept as atabula rasa, in order to secure its claim to domination; the claim to be the sole power at the head of the table. Actually, all concepts are already implicitly concretized through the language in which they stand. The essay begins with such meanings and, itself being essen- tially language, it forces these meanings on farther; it wants to help language, in its relation to concepts, to grasp these concepts reflectively in the way that they are already unconsciously named in language. That effort is already envisaged by the procedure of meaning-analysis in phenomenology; only there the relation of concepts to language is fetishized. The essay remains as skeptical of this as it is of definition. Without apology the essay draws on itself the reproach that it does not know beyond a doubtjust what is to be understood as the real content of concepts. For the essay perceives that the longing for strict defini- tions has long offered, through fixating manipulations of the mean- ings of concepts, to eliminate the irritating and dangerous elements of things that live within concepts. Yet the essay can neither do without general concepts - even language that does not fetishize the concept cannot do without concepts - nor does it treat them arbitrarily. It thereforetakesthematterofpresentationmoreseriouslythandothose procedures that separate out method from material and are indifferent to the way they represent their objectified contents. Thehow of expres- sion should rescue, in precision, what the refusal to outline sacrifices, without, however, betraying the intended matter to the arbitrariness of previously decreed significations. In this Benjamin was an unequaled master. Such precision, however, cannot remain atomistic. Not less, but more than the process of defining, the essay urges the reciprocal interaction of its concepts in the process of intellectual experience. In the essay, concepts do not build a continuum of operations, thought does not advance in a single direction, rather the aspects of the argu- ment interweave as in a carpet. The fruitfulness of the thoughts de- pends on the density of this texture. Actually, the thinker does not
? think, but rather transforms himself into an arena of intellectual ex- perience, without simplifying it. While even traditional thought draws its impulses from such experience, such thought by its form eliminates the remembrance of these impulses. The essay, on the other hand, takes them as its model, without simply imitating them as reflected form; it mediates them through its own conceptual organization; it proceeds, so to speak, methodically unmethodically.
The way in which the essay appropriates concepts is most easily comparable to the behavior of a man who is obliged, in a foreign coun- try, to speak that country's language instead of patching it together from its elements, as he did in school. He will read without a dic- tionary. If he has looked at the same word thirty times, in constantly changing contexts, he has a clearer grasp of it than he would if he looked up all the word's meanings; meanings that are generally too narrow, considering they change depending on the context, and too vague in view of the nuances that the context establishes in every individual case. Just as such learning remains exposed to error, so does the essay as form; it must pay for its affinity with open intellectual experience by the lack of security, a lack which the norm of established thought fears like death. It is not so much that the essay ignores indis- putable certainty, as that it abrogates the ideal. The essay becomes true in its progress, which drives it beyond itself, and not in a hoarding obsession with fundamentals. Its concepts receive their light from ater- minus ad quem hidden to the essay itself, and not from an obvious ter- minus a quo. In this the very method of the essay expresses the utopian intention. All of its concepts are presentable in such a way that they support one another, that each one articulates itself according to the configuration that it forms with the others. In the essay discreet1 separated elements enter into a readable context; it erects no scaftbl? ' - ing, no edifice. Through their own movement the elements crystallize into a configuration. It is a force field,just as under the essay's glance every intellectual artifact must transform itself into a force field.
The essay gently defies the ideals of clara et distinctaperceptio and of absolute certainty. On the whole it could be interpreted as a protest againt the four rules that Descartes' Discourse on Method sets up at the beginning of modern Western science and its theory. The second of these rules, the decomposition of the object into "as many parts as possible and as might be necessary for its adequate ~olution,"fo~r- mulates that analysis of elements under whose sign traditional theory
7. Ren6 Descartes, A DiscourseOn Method, trans. John Veitch (NewYork: E. P. Dut- ton, 1951), p. 15.
TW. Adomo 161
? 162 The Essay as Form
equates a conceptual order with the structure of being. But the object of the essay, the artifact, refuses any analysis of its elements and can only be constructed from its specific idea; it is not accidental that Kant treated art-works and organisms analogously, although at the same time he insisted, against all romantic obscurantism, on distinguishing them. Thewhole is to be hypostatized into afirst principlejust as little as is the product of analysis, the elements. In opposition to both, the essay is informed by the idea of that interaction which in fact tolerates the question of elements as little as that of the elementary. Neither are the specific elements to be developed purely out of the whole, nor vice versa. Theartifactisamonad,yetitisnot;itselements,assuchofacon- ceptual kind, point beyond the specific object in which they gather themselves. But the essay does not 'follow these elements to that point where they legitimize themselves, on the far side of the specific object; otherwise it would turn into a bad kind of infinity. Rather, the essav comes so close to the here and now of the object, up to the point where that object, instead of being simply an object, dissociates itself into those elements in which it has its life.
The third Cartesian rule, "to conduct my thoughts in such an order that, by commencing with the simplest and easiest to know, I might ascend by little and little, step by step, to the knowledge of the more ~ o m p l e x , "is~sharply contravened by the form of the essay in that it begins with the most complex, not the most simple, which is in every instance the habitual. The essay as form will be a good guide for the person who is beginning to study philosophy, and before whose eyes the idea of philosophy somehow stands. He will hardly begin by read- ing the easiest writers, whose common sensegwill skim the surface where depth is called for; he will rather go for the allegedly difficult writers, who shed light on what is simple and illuminate it as a "stance of the mind toward objectivity. " The naivetC of the student, to whom the difficult and formidable seems good enough, is wiser than the adult pedantry that admonishes thought with a threatening finger to understand the simple before risking that complexity which alone entices it. Such a postponement of knowledge only prevents knowl- edge. In opposition to the clich6 of the "understandable," the notion of truth as a network of causes and effects, the essay insists that a matter be considered, from the verv first, in its whole complexity; it counter-
acts that hardened primitiveness that always allies itself with reason's current form. Whereas science treats the difficulties and complexities of an antagonistic and monadologically split reality according to the
8. Ibid.
9. [In English. ]
? expectation of this societyby reducing them to simplifyingmodels and then belatedly differentiates them with fabricated material, the essay shakes off the illusion of a simple, basically logical world that so perfectly suits the defense of the status quo. Its differentiation is no supplement, but its medium. Established thought readily ascribes that differentiation to the mere psychology of the author and then thinks that it has adequately dealt with it. The pompous scientificobjections to over-sophistication actually do not aim at the impertinently unreli- able method but at the irritating aspects of the object which the essay reveals.
The fourth Cartesian rule that one "should in every case institute such exhaustive enumerations and such general surveys" that one "is sure of leaving nothing out" - this ultimate principle of systematic thought - reappears unchanged in Kant's polemic against Aristotle's "rhapsodic" thought. This rule corresponds to the particular objec- tion to the essay that, in the words of the schoolmaster, it is not exhaus- tive, while it is clear that every object, and above all a cultural object, encloses endlessly many aspects, the choice among which can only be determined by the intention of the knower. The "general survey'' would only be possible if it were determined in advance that the object in question can be fully grasped by the concepts which treat it; that nothing is left over that could not be anticipated by these concepts. Following that assumption, the rule requiring the exhaustive enumer- ation ofthe individual elements claims that the object can be presented in an airtight deductive system:a supposition of aphilosophy of identi- ty. As a practical technique of thought, as for example in its insistence on definition, the Cartesian rule has outlived the rationalistic theorem on which it was founded: a comprehensive general view and a con- tinuity of presentation is urged even upon empirically open scientific procedure. In this fashion the intellectual conscience that should, in Descartes' philosophy, keep watch over the necessity of knowledge is transformedintothearbitrarinessofa"frameofreference. "" Inorder to satisfya methodological need and to support the plausibility of the whole,itbecomesanaxiomaticdoctrinethatisbeingsetupasthegate- way to thought while no longer being able to demonstrate its own validity or proof. Or, in the German version, it becomes a "project" (Entwurf)that, with the pathos-laden claim of reaching into being, sim- ply suppresses its subjective conditions. The insistence on the continuity of thought's process tends to prejudice the inner co- herence of the object, its own harmony. A continuous presentation would contradict material that is full of antogonisms as long as it did
10. [In English.