--We hive already remarked, that the origin of
the name Ionian is altogether uncertain.
the name Ionian is altogether uncertain.
Charles - 1867 - Classical Dictionary
But Ba-
race or Nelcyada seems, from the account of Pliny
and A man, '. } iavo oeen the principal emporium of
the Indian trade. The Roman ships appear to have
seldom sailed beyond this point; and the produce of
countries farther east was brought to Barace by the
native merchants. The knowledge which the Romans
possessed of India beyond Cape Comorin was exceed-
ingly vague and defective. Strabo describes the Gau-
ges as flowing into the sea by one mouth; and though
Pliny gives a long list of Indian nations, which had not
been previously mentioned by any Greek or Roman
writers, we have no satisfactory account of any part
of India, except the description of the western coast
by Arrian. Ptolemy, who lived about 100 years later
than Pliny, appears to have derived his information
from the Alexandrean merchants, who only sailed to
the Malabar coast, and could not, therefore, have any
accurate knowledge of the eastern parts of India, and
still less of the countries beyond the Ganges; still,
however, he is the earliest writer who attempts to de-
scribe the countries to the east of this stream. There
is great difficulty in determining the position of any
of the places enumerated by him, in consequence of
the great error he made in the form of the peninsula,
which he has made to stretch in its length from west
to east instead of from north to south; a mistake
the more extraordinary, since all preceding writers
on India with whom we are acquainted had given
the general shape of the peninsula with tolerable accu-
racy. --The Romans never extended their conquests
is far as India, nor visited the country except for
(be purposes of commerce. But the increase of the
trade between Alexandres and India seems to have
produced in tho Indian princes a desire to obtain
? ome farther information concerning the western na-
tions. We read of embassies to Augustus Caesar, sent
6y Pandion and Forus, and also of an embassy from
the isle of Ceylon to the Emperor Claudius. Bohlen,
in his work on the Indians (vol. 1, p. 70), doubts
whether these embassies were sent; but as they arc
both mentioned by contemporary writers, the former
by Strabo and the latter by Pliny, we can hardly
question the truth of their statements. Wc may form
some idea of the magnitude of the Indian trade under
the emperors by the account of Pliny (6, 23), who in-
forms us, that the Roman world was drained every
year of at least 50 millions of sesterces (upward of
1,900,000 dollars) for the purchase of Indian commodi-
ties. The profit upon this trade must have been im-
mense, if we are to believe the statements of Pliny,
that Indian articles were sold at Rome at 100 per
cent, above their cost price. The articles imported
by the Alexandrean merchants were chiefly precious
stones, spices, perfumes, and silk. It has usually been
considered, that the last article was imported into In-
dia from China; but there are strong reasons for be-
lieving that the silkworm has been reared in India
from very early times. Mr. Colebrooke, in his " Essay
03 Hindu Classes" (Miscellaneous Essays, vol. 2, p.
183), informs us, that the class of silk-twisters and
feeders of silkworms is mentioned in an ancient San-
? ? scrit work; in addition to which, it may be remarked,
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? INDIA.
IND
wLictt llicy rmigrated into the northern part of Hindu-
itan. Heeren and other writers have supposed, that
the Brahmins, and perhaps the Kshatriyas and Vaisyas,
were a race of northern conquerors, who subdued the
Sudras, the original inhabitants of the country. But,
whatever opinion may be entertained respecting the
origin of this people, it is evident that tho Hindus
themselves never regarded the southern part of the
peninsula as forming part of Aryavarta, or " the holy
land," the name of the country inhabited by genuine
Hindus. Aryavarta was bounded on the north by the
Himalaya, and on the south by the Vindhya Mount-
ains [Manu, 6, 21-24); the boundaries on the east
and west cannot be so easily ascertained. In this
country, and especially in the eastern part, there ex-
isted great and powerful empires, at least a thousand
years before the Christian era (the probable date of the
Ramayana. and Mahabharata), which had made great
progress in knowledge, civilization, and the fine arts,
and of which the ancient literature of the Sanscrit lan-
guages is an imperishable memorial. According to
Hindu tradition, two empires only existed in the most
ancient times, of which the capitals were Ayodhya or
Oudc, and Pratishthana or Vitora. The kings of
these cities, who are respectively denominated chil-
dren of the Sun and of the Moon, are supposed to
have been the lineal descendants of Satyavrata, the
seventh Manu, during whose life all living creatures,
with the exception of himself and his family, were de-
stroyed by a general deluge. Another kingdom was
afterward established at Magadha or Bahar, by Jaras-
audha, appointed governor of the province by a sover-
eign of the Lunar race. A list of these kings is giv-
en by Sir William Jones, in his " Essay on the Chro-
nology of the Hindus. " (Asiat. Research. , vol. 2, p.
Ill, seq. , 8vo cd. )--The kings of Ayodhya appear to
have conquered the Deccan, and to have introduced
the Brahminical faith and laws into the southern part
of the peninsula. Such, at least, appears to be the
meaning of the Ramayana, according to which, Rama,
in incarnation of Vishnu, and the son of the king of
Ayodhya, penetrates to the extremity of the peninsula,
and conquers the giants of Lauka (Ceylon). This is
in accordance with all the traditions of the peninsula,
which recognise a period when the inhabitants were
not Hindus. We have no means of ascertaining
whether these conquests by tho monarchs of Ayodhya
wero permanent; but we know that, in the time of Ar-
rian and Pliny, the Brahminical faith prevailed in the
southern part of the peninsula, since all the principal
places mentioned by these writers have Sanscrit names.
We learn from tradition, and from historical records
extant in the Tamul language (Wilson's Descriptive
Catalogue of the Oriental MSS. collected by the late
Lieutenant-col. Mackenzie. --Taylor's Oriental His-
torical MSS. in the Tamul language, 2 vols. 4to,
Madras, 1835), that three kingdoms acquired, in early
times, great political importance in the southern part
? f the Deccan. These were named Pandya, Chola,
and Chera, and are all said to have been founded by
aatlves of Ayodhya, who colonized the Deccan with
Hindus from the north. Pandya was the most pow-
erful of these kingdoms: it was bounded on the north
by 'he river Velar, on the west by the Ghauts, though
in early times it extended as far as the Malabar coast,
and on the south and east by the sea. Its principal
town was Madura. The antiquity of this kingdom
? ? is confirmed by Pliny, Arrian, and Ptolemy, who all
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? INT
10
au. >>, besides its more common appellation of Indue.
In . a. 28? 28', the Indus is joined by five rivers, the
anc<int names of which, as given by the Greek writers,
are, the Hydaspes, Acesines, Hydraotes, Hyphasis,
and Xeradrus. These five rivers obtained for the
province which they watered the Greek name of Pen-
upota. Tiia, analogous to which is the modern appella-
tion of Pcndjab, given to the same region, and signi-
fying in Persian "the country of the five rivers. "
(Consul: Lassen, Comment, de Pcntapot. Indica, 4to,
Bonnec, 1827. --Beck, AUgemeines Repertorium, vol.
I, pt. 2, p. 112. ) The Xeradrus, now the Setledge,
is the longest of the five rivers just mentioned, and the
longest stream also within the Himalaya range, be-
tween the Indus and the Burrampootcr. The union
of all the five rivers into one, before they reach the
Indus, was a point in geography maintained by Ptole-
my; but, owing to the obscurity of modern accounts,
promoted by the splittings of the Indus, and the fre-
quent approximation of streams running in parallel
courses, we had been taught to regard this as a speci-
men of that author's deficiency of information, till very
recent and mere nvnute inquiries have re-established
that questioned point, and, along with it, the merited
credit of the ancient geographer. The five rivers form
one great stream, called by the natives in this quarter
the Ckerraub; but in the other countries of India it is
known by the name of Puujund. The united stream
then lows on between 40 and 50 miles, until it joins
the Indus at Miitun Cole. The mouths of the Indus
Ptolemy makes seven in number; Mannert gives them
as follows, commencing on the west: Sagapa, now
the river Pilty; Sinthos, now the Dorravay; Aureum
Ostium, now the Rilchel; Chariphus, now the Felly;
Sapara, Sabala, and Lonibare, of which last three he
professes to know nothing with certainty. According,
however, to other and more recent authorities, the In-
dus enters the sea in one volume, the lateral streams
being absorbed by the sand without reaching the ocean.
It gives off an easterly branch called the Fullalee, but
Ibis returns its waters to the Indus at a lower point,
forming in its circuit the island on which Hyderabad
stands. (Malte-Brun, Geogr. , vol. 3, p. 13, Am. ed. )
Ino, daughter of Cadmus and Harmonia. (Vid.
Attn mas. )
Inopi's. a river of Dclos, watering the plain in which
the town of Oelos stood. (Strab. , tSb. --Callim. , H.
in Del. , 206. )
Inous, a patronymic given to the god Palajmon, as
son of Ino. (Virg. , Mn. , 5, 823. )
Insubrks (in Greek 'loopSpoi), the most numerous
as well as the most powerful tribe of the Cisalpine
Gauls, according to Polybius (2, 17). It would ap-
pear indeed from Ptolemy (p. 64) that their dominion
extended at one time over the Libicii, another power-
ful Gallic tribe in their vicinity; but their territory,
properly speaking, seems to have been defined by the
rivers Ticmus and Addua. The Insubres took a very
active part in the Gallic wars against the Romans, and
zealously co-operated with Hannibal in his invasion of
Italy. (Polyb. , 2, 40. ) They are stated by Livy (5,
34) to have founded their capital Mediolanum (now
Milan) on their first arrival in Italy, and to hare giv-
en it that name from a place so called in the territory
of the JBdui in Gaul. (Plin. , 3, IT. --Plot, p. 63 --
Consult remarks under the article Gallia, page 531,
col. 1. )
? ? Insula Sacra, an island formed at the mouth of
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? 10
ION
Is mignt haie been expected. Hornet never alludes to
It, unless his employment of the term 'Apyet^ovrtjc (Ar-
geiphonlet) is to be regarded as intimating a knowl-
edge of Io. It is also doubtful whether she was one
of the heroines of the Eoese. Her story, however, was
noticed in the JEgimius, where it was said that her fa-
ther's name was Peirtn, that her keeper Argus had
four eyes, and that the island of Eutxva derived its
name from her. (Apollod. , 3, 1, 3. -- Schol. ad Eu-
rip. , Phan. , 1138. -- Steph. Buz. , a. v. 'ktevric. )
Pherecydes said that Juno placed an eye in the back
of Argus's neck, and deprived him of sleep, and then
set him as a guard over Io. (Ap. Schol. ad Eurip. ,
I. c. ) . 'Eschylus introduces Io into his " Prometheus
Bound," and he also relates her story in his " Suppli-
ants. "--When the Greeks first settled in Egypt, and
saw the statues of Isis with cow's horns, they, in their
usual manner, inferred that she was their own Io, with
whose name hers had a slight similarity. At Memphis
they afterward beheld the worahip of the holy bull
Apis, and naturally supposing the bull-god to be the son
of the cow-goddess, they formed from him a son for
their Io, whose name was the occasion of a new legend
relative to the mode by which ahe was restored to her
"Sistine form. (Miller, Proleg. , p. 193, seq. --Keight-
! ey's Mythology, p. 406, eeqq. )--The whole story of
Io is an agricultural legend, and admits of an easy ex-
planation. Io, whether conaidered as the offspring of
lasus (the favourite of Ceres) or of Peiren (the "ex-
perimenter" or "tryer"), ia a type of early agriculture,
progressing gradually by the aid of slow and painful
experience. Jupiter represents the firmament, the ge-
nial source of light and life; Juno, on the other hand,
it the type of the atmosphere, with its stormy and ca-
pricious changes. Early agriculture suffers from these
changes, which impede more or less the fostering in-
fluence of the pure firmament that lies beyond, and
hence man has to watch with incessant and sleepless
care over the labours of primitive husbandry. This
sver-watchful superintendence is typified by Argus
with his countless eyes, save that in the legend he be-
comes an instrument of punishment in the hands of
Juno. If we turn to the version of the fable as given
in the ^Egimius, the meaning of the whole story be-
comes still plainer, for hero the four eyes of Argus
are types of the four seasons, while the name Eubcea
contains a direct reference to success in agriculture.
Argus, continues the legend, was slain by Mercury,
and Io was then left free to wander over the whole
earth. Now, as Mercury was the god of language
and the inventor of letters, what is this but saying, that
when rules and precepts of agriculture were intro-
duced, first orally and then in writing, mankind were
released from that ever-watching care which early hus-
bandry had required from them, and agriculture, now
reduced to a regular system, went forth in freedom
and spread itself among the nations I--Again, in Egypt
Io finds at last a resting-place; here she assumes her
original form, and here brings forth Epaphus as the off-
spring of Jove. What is this but saying that agricul-
ture was carried to perfection in the fertile land of the
Nile, and that here it was touched (km and a^uu) by the
true generative influence from on high, and brought
forth in the richest abundance \--Still farthor, the eyes
>f Argus, we are told, were transferred by Juno to the
plumage of her favourite bird; and the peacock, it is
well known, givea sure indications, by its cry, of
? ? changes about to take place in the atmosphere, and is
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? ION
received the name of Ionian*. It appears pul'ible that
the lomans, like the . Kolians, were a conquering tribe
from the rwuntains of Thessaly, and that at an un-
known period they migrated southward, and settled in
Attica and part of the Peloponnesus, probably mixing
with the native Pelasgi. The genealogy of'lon, the
reputed son of Xuthus, seems to be a legend under
which is veiled the early history of the Ionian occupa-
tion of Attica. Euripides, in order to flatter the Athe-
nians, makes Ton the son of Apollo. Whatever may
<<* the historical origin of the Ionian name, Athenians
and lomans came to be considered as one and the same
people. In the Peloponnesus the Ionians occupied the
northern coast of the peninsula, which was then called
Ionia, and also ^Egialaean Ionia, and the sea which
separates the Peloponnesus from Southern Italy as-
sumed the name of Ionian Sea, a circumstance which
would seem to indicate the eitent and prevalence of
the Ionian name. This appellation of Ionian Sea was
retained among the later Greeks and the Romans, and
is perpetuated to the present day among the Italians.
When the Dorians invaded the Peloponnesus, about
1100 years B. C. , the Achaai, being driven thence, gath-
ered towards the north, and took possession of Ionia,
which thenceforth was known by the name of Achaia.
The Ionians of the Peloponnesus, in consequence of
this, migrated to Attica, whence, being straitened for
space, and perhaps, also, harassed by the Dorians, they
resolved to seek their fortune beyond the sea, under
the guidance of Nelcus and Androclus, the two young-
er sons of Codrus, the last king of Athena. This was
the great Ionic migration, as it is called. The emi-
grants consisted of natives of Attica, as well as of Io-
nian fugitives from the Peloponnesus, and a motley
band from other parts of Greece. (Herod. , 1, 146. )
But this migration can, perhaps, hardly be considered
as one single event: there seem to have been many
and various migrations of Ionians, some of which were
probably anterior to the Dorian conquest. (Encycl.
Vs. Kernel. , vol. 13, p. 13, seq. )--For the history of
die Ionic coloniea in Asia Minor, consult the article
Ioms.
--We hive already remarked, that the origin of
the name Ionian is altogether uncertain. It is gener-
ally thought to come from the Hebrew Iavan or (if
pronounced with the quiescent van) Ion; and in like
manner the Hellenes are thought to be the same with
Etisa. in the sacred writings, more especially their
country Hellas. Hence Bochart makes Iavan. the son
of Iaphet, the ancestor of tho Iones. The Persians,
moreover, would seem to have called the Greeks by a
similar appellation. Thus, in Aristophanes (Acharn. ,
v. 104), a Persian, who speaks broken Greek, is in-
troduced, expressing himself as follows: oi Tljjtfii xpv-
ao xawbTrpuxT' 'laovav, and the scholiast remarks, with
reference to the last word, 'laovav avrt rov ABnvaie
? "T rravrac rove 'EXXrrvac ol fiaptapoi Iku-
Aow. In the Coptic, also, the Greeks are styled, by a
name quite analogous, OHEININ, as at the end of the
Rosetta inscription. (Akerblad, sur Vitucrip. Egypt.
U Rosette. -- Kruse, Helta*, vol. 1, p, 3, in noiis. )
They, however, who favour such etymologies, should
6rst determine whether the Hebrew is to be regarded
as the primitive language or not; since, if the latter
>e the case, the names that aro given in Hebrew scrip-
ture to tho early rulers and leaders in tho family of
Noah, are mere translations from the primitive tongue,
and certainly can form no sure basis for the erection
even of the slightest superstructure of etymology.
? ? IonIa, a district of Asia Minor, where Ionians from
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? JOP
IONIUM MARE, a namo given to that part of the
Mediterranean which separates the Peloponnesus from
Southern Italy. It was fabled to have received its
appellation from the wanderings of lo in this quarter.
'. rid. lo. ) The more correct explanation, however,
deduces the name from tint of the great Ionic race.
I Vid. Jones. ) The statements of the ancient writers re-
? pectii. g the situation and extent of the Ionian Sea are
very fluctuating and uncertain. Scylax (p. 11) makes
'x the same with the Adriatic; and he may be correct
in so doing, since, according to Herodotus, the true
ind ancieit name of the Adriatic was the Ionian Gulf
(6, 127) Both the Adriatic and Ionian gulfs end,
iccording to Scylax, at the straits near Hydruntum (p.
6). Of the Ionian Sea he says nothing; Herodotus,
however, makes it extend as far south a# the Pelopon-
nesus. Thucydides keeps up the distinction just al-
luded to, calling the Adriatic by the name of the Io-
nian Gulf (being probably as ignorant as Herodotus of
any otner appellation for this arm of the sea), and
styling the rest, as far as the western coast of Greece,
the Ionian Sea (1, 24). In later times a change of
appellation took place. The limits of the Adriatic
were extended as far as the southern coast of Italy and
the western shores of Greece, and the Ionian Gulf was
considered to be now only a part of it. Eustathius
asserts (ad Dionys. Pcricg. , v. 92), that the more
accurate writers of his day maintained this distinction.
Hence the remark of Ptolemy is rendered intelligible,
who makes the Adriatic Sea extend along the whole
western coast of Greece down to the southernmost
? xtremity of the Peloponnesus. (Manncrt, Gcogr. ,
rol. 9, p. 12. )
IOPHON, the son of Sophocles, is described by Aris-
tophanes (Ran. , 73, seqq. ) as a man whose powers
were, at the time of his father's death, not yet suffi-
ciently proved to enable a critic to determine his lit-
erary rank. He appears, however, to have been a
creditable dramatist, and gained the second prize in
428 B. C. , when Euripides was first and Ion third.
(Arg. ad Eurip. , Hippol--Theattf of the Greeks, p.
94, seq. , 4th ed. )
JOPPA, an ancient city of Palestine, situate on the
coast, to the northwest of Jerusalem, and to the south
of Caesarea. In the Old Tesiament it is called Japho
(Joshua, 19, 46--2 Chron , 2, 16. --Jonah, 1, 3).
It was the only harbour possessed by the Jews, and
the wood for the temple, which was cut on Mount
Lebanon, was brought in floats to Joppa, thence to be
aent to Jerusalem. It subsequently became a Phoeni-
cian city, and fell under the power of the kings of
Syria, unlil the Maccabees conquered it, and restored
it to their nation. The Jews, not being a commercial
people, made no use of Joppa as a place of trade;
and hence it became a retreat for pirates. (Strabo,
759. ) Under the Roman power the pirates were
made to disappear. In the middle ages Joppa changed
its name to Jaffa or Yaffa. (Abulfed. , Tab. Syr. , p.
80. )--Joppa was made by the ancient mythologists the
? cene of the fable of Andromeda, and here Cepheus
was said to have reigned. (Strabo, I. c. ) Pliny (9,5)
even gravely informs us, that M. Scaurus brought
? way from this place to Rome the bones of the sea-
monster to which the princess had been exposed, and
which were of a remarkable s ze. They were probably
the remains of a large whale. The Jews saw in them
the bones of the whale that had swallowed Jonah; the
Greeks, on the other hand, connected them with one of
? ? the legends of their fanciful mythology. --Joppa was the
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? JOS
JOSEPHUS
in the mountains at its source would be most likely to
tccasion such an inundation. Travellers have given
different accounts of this celebrated stream. Maun-
irell assigns it a breadth of 20 yards; but represents
it as deep, and so rapid that a man could not swim
against the current. Volney calls it from 60 to 80
feet between the two principal lakes, and 10 or 12
feet deep; but makes it 60 pace* at its embouchure;
Chateaubriand, about the same point, 50 paces, and
in or seven feet deep close to the shore. Dr. Shaw
computed its breadth at 30 yards, and its depth at nine
feet; and that it daily discharges 6,090,000 tons of
water into the Dead Sea. Burckhardt, who crossed
it higher up, calls it 80 paces broad, and three feet
deep; but this was in the middle of summer. Mr.
Buckingham, who visited it in the month of January,
1816, states it to be little more at the part where he
crossed it, which was a short distance above the par-
allel of Jericho, than 25 yards in breadth, and so shal-
low as to be easily forded by the horses. A t another
point, higher up in its course, he describes it as 120
feet broad. From a mean of these and other accounts,
its average width may be computed at 30 yards. It
rolls so powerful a volume of water into the Dead Sea,
that the strongest and most expert m\ immer would be
foiled in any attempt to swim across it at its point of
entrance: he must inevitably be hurried down by the
stream into tho lake. The banks of the Jordan are in
many places covered with bushes, reeds, tamarisks,
willows, oleanders, &c. , which form an asylum for vari-
ous wild animals, who here concealed themselves till the
swelling of the river drove them from their coverts.
To this Jeremiah alludes (49, 19). Previously to the
destruction of the four cities of the plain, it is probable
that the Jordan flowed to the Red Sea, through the
valley of Ghor or Arabia. -- The etymology of its
name has been variously assigned. It is thought by
some to come from the Hebrew jarden, a descent,
Irom its rapid descent through that country. Another
class of etymologists deduce its name from the He-
brew and Syriac, importing the caldron of judgment.
Others make it come from Jor, a spring, and Dan, a
small town near its source; and a third class deduce
it from Jor and Dan, two rivulets. It most probably
derives its name from Yar-Dan, "the river of Dan,"
near which city it takes its rise. The Arabs call it
Arden or Harden, the Persians Aerdun, and the Ara-
bian geographer Edrisi, Zacckar, or swelling. (Mans-
fiird's Scripture Gazetteer, p. 251. )
Joknihdes or (as he is called in the Analecta of
Mabillon) Jordanes, a Goth by birth, secretary to
one of the kings of the Alans, and, as some believe, af-
terward bishop of Ravenna. In the year 552 of our
ero he wrote a history of the Goths (Re Rebus Gc-
ti. is). This is merely an abridgment of the history of
(Jassiodorus, and is written without judgment and
with great partiality. He composed also a work enti-
tled De regnorum ct temporum successione, or a Ro-
man history from Romulus to Augustus. It is only
? copy of the history of Florus, but with such altera-
tions and additions, however, as to enable us some-
times to correct by means of it the text of the Roman
historian. (Schfill, Hist. Lit. Lot. , vol. 3, p. 177. )
Ios, an island in the iEgean Sea, to the north of
Then. Here, according to some accounts, Homer
? rta interred. (Slrab. , 48i. --Plin. , 4, 13. ) It was
? Iso said, that the poet's mother was a native of this
? ? iaind. (Steph. Byz. , s. 'v. 'lot. ) The modern name
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? JOSEPHUS.
JOSEPHUS.
fcretenas. (ecogiiising the hand of God and the accom-
plishment of the prophecies ii the ruin of his country,
jo esteemed it impious as well as vain; whether he
was actuated by the baser motive of self-interest, or
the more geuerous desire of being of service to his
miserable countrymen, he was by no means held in
the same estimation by the Roman army as by Titus.
They thought a traitor to his country might be a trai-
ler ". o them; and they were apt to lay all their losses
to his charge, as if he kept up secret intelligence
vita the besieged. On the capture of the city, Titus
ollsred him any boon he would request. He chose
the sacred books, and the lives of his brother and fifty
friends. He was afterward permitted to select 190
of bis friends and relatives from the multitude who
were shut up in the Temple to be sold for slaves.
The estate of Josephus lying within the Roman en-
campment, Titus assigned him other lands in lieu of
t. Vespasian also conferred on him a considerable
property in land. Josephus lived afterward at Rome,
in high favour with Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian.
The latter punished certain Jews and a eunuch, the
tutor of his son, who had falsely accused him: ex-
empted his estate from tribute, and advanced him
to high honour. He was a great favourite with the
Empress Domitia. The time of his death is uncer-
tain; he was certainly alive at the end of the first cen-
tury, and probably at the beginning of the second.
After his surrender he had married a captive in Cajsa-
rea, but, in obedience, it may be presumed, to the law
which prohibited such marriages to a man of priestly
? ine, he discarded her, and married again in Alexan-
dre*. By his Alexandrean wife Josephus had three
sons; one only, Hyrcanus, lived to maturity. Dissat-
isfied with this wife's conduct, he divorced her also,
and married a Cretan woman, from a Jewish family,
of the first rank and opulence in the island, and of
admirable virtue. --At Rome Josephus first wrote the
History of the Jewish War ('IovAiuk? / loropia irtfil
4'miaeue), in the Syro-Chaldaic tongue, for the use
of his own countrymen in the East, particularly those
beyond the Euphrates. He afterward translated the
work ir. to Greek, for the benefit of the Western Jews
and the Romans. Doth King Agrippa and Titus bore
testimony to its accuracy. The iatlcr ordered it to
be placed in the public library, and signed it with his
own hands as an authentic memorial of the times.
This work was translated into I. utin in the fifth cen-
tury by Rufinus of Aquileia, or rather by Cassiodorus
(Muratori, Antiq. //<</. , vol. 3, p. 920. ) Many years
afterward, about A. D. 93, Josephus published his great
work on the Anlii/nities of the Jews ('Iovdabn; 'Ap-
X<uoXoyia), in twenty books. It forms a history of the
chosen people from the creation to the reign of the
Emperor Nero. Josephus did not write this work for
the use of his countrymen, nor even for the Hellenistic
Jews: his object was to make his nation better known
to the Greeks and Romans, and to remove the con-
tempt in which it was accustomed to be held. The
books of the Old Testament, and, where these failed,
tiadilions and other historical monuments, were the
sources whence he drew the materials for his work;
but, in making use of these, he allowed himself an
unpardonable license, in removing from his narrative
all that the religion of the Jews regarded as most
worthy of veneration, in order not lo shock the preju-
dices of the nations lo whom he wrote. He not only
? ? treats the books of the Old Testament as if they were
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? JOV
tPH
>>aJW <<xarn/:icd both sides of the question, has pro-
nounced the passage to be supposititious, and adds,
that the silence of too historian respecting our Saviour
and the miracles which he wrought, affords a far more
eloquent testimony in favour of the truth of our Re-
deemer's mission than the must laboured statement
could have yielded, especially when we consider that
the father of Josephus, one of the priests of Jerusalem,
could not but have known our Saviour, and since Jo-
sephus himself lived in the midst of the apostles.
Had the latter been able, he would have refuted the
whole history of our Saviour's mission and works.
race or Nelcyada seems, from the account of Pliny
and A man, '. } iavo oeen the principal emporium of
the Indian trade. The Roman ships appear to have
seldom sailed beyond this point; and the produce of
countries farther east was brought to Barace by the
native merchants. The knowledge which the Romans
possessed of India beyond Cape Comorin was exceed-
ingly vague and defective. Strabo describes the Gau-
ges as flowing into the sea by one mouth; and though
Pliny gives a long list of Indian nations, which had not
been previously mentioned by any Greek or Roman
writers, we have no satisfactory account of any part
of India, except the description of the western coast
by Arrian. Ptolemy, who lived about 100 years later
than Pliny, appears to have derived his information
from the Alexandrean merchants, who only sailed to
the Malabar coast, and could not, therefore, have any
accurate knowledge of the eastern parts of India, and
still less of the countries beyond the Ganges; still,
however, he is the earliest writer who attempts to de-
scribe the countries to the east of this stream. There
is great difficulty in determining the position of any
of the places enumerated by him, in consequence of
the great error he made in the form of the peninsula,
which he has made to stretch in its length from west
to east instead of from north to south; a mistake
the more extraordinary, since all preceding writers
on India with whom we are acquainted had given
the general shape of the peninsula with tolerable accu-
racy. --The Romans never extended their conquests
is far as India, nor visited the country except for
(be purposes of commerce. But the increase of the
trade between Alexandres and India seems to have
produced in tho Indian princes a desire to obtain
? ome farther information concerning the western na-
tions. We read of embassies to Augustus Caesar, sent
6y Pandion and Forus, and also of an embassy from
the isle of Ceylon to the Emperor Claudius. Bohlen,
in his work on the Indians (vol. 1, p. 70), doubts
whether these embassies were sent; but as they arc
both mentioned by contemporary writers, the former
by Strabo and the latter by Pliny, we can hardly
question the truth of their statements. Wc may form
some idea of the magnitude of the Indian trade under
the emperors by the account of Pliny (6, 23), who in-
forms us, that the Roman world was drained every
year of at least 50 millions of sesterces (upward of
1,900,000 dollars) for the purchase of Indian commodi-
ties. The profit upon this trade must have been im-
mense, if we are to believe the statements of Pliny,
that Indian articles were sold at Rome at 100 per
cent, above their cost price. The articles imported
by the Alexandrean merchants were chiefly precious
stones, spices, perfumes, and silk. It has usually been
considered, that the last article was imported into In-
dia from China; but there are strong reasons for be-
lieving that the silkworm has been reared in India
from very early times. Mr. Colebrooke, in his " Essay
03 Hindu Classes" (Miscellaneous Essays, vol. 2, p.
183), informs us, that the class of silk-twisters and
feeders of silkworms is mentioned in an ancient San-
? ? scrit work; in addition to which, it may be remarked,
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? INDIA.
IND
wLictt llicy rmigrated into the northern part of Hindu-
itan. Heeren and other writers have supposed, that
the Brahmins, and perhaps the Kshatriyas and Vaisyas,
were a race of northern conquerors, who subdued the
Sudras, the original inhabitants of the country. But,
whatever opinion may be entertained respecting the
origin of this people, it is evident that tho Hindus
themselves never regarded the southern part of the
peninsula as forming part of Aryavarta, or " the holy
land," the name of the country inhabited by genuine
Hindus. Aryavarta was bounded on the north by the
Himalaya, and on the south by the Vindhya Mount-
ains [Manu, 6, 21-24); the boundaries on the east
and west cannot be so easily ascertained. In this
country, and especially in the eastern part, there ex-
isted great and powerful empires, at least a thousand
years before the Christian era (the probable date of the
Ramayana. and Mahabharata), which had made great
progress in knowledge, civilization, and the fine arts,
and of which the ancient literature of the Sanscrit lan-
guages is an imperishable memorial. According to
Hindu tradition, two empires only existed in the most
ancient times, of which the capitals were Ayodhya or
Oudc, and Pratishthana or Vitora. The kings of
these cities, who are respectively denominated chil-
dren of the Sun and of the Moon, are supposed to
have been the lineal descendants of Satyavrata, the
seventh Manu, during whose life all living creatures,
with the exception of himself and his family, were de-
stroyed by a general deluge. Another kingdom was
afterward established at Magadha or Bahar, by Jaras-
audha, appointed governor of the province by a sover-
eign of the Lunar race. A list of these kings is giv-
en by Sir William Jones, in his " Essay on the Chro-
nology of the Hindus. " (Asiat. Research. , vol. 2, p.
Ill, seq. , 8vo cd. )--The kings of Ayodhya appear to
have conquered the Deccan, and to have introduced
the Brahminical faith and laws into the southern part
of the peninsula. Such, at least, appears to be the
meaning of the Ramayana, according to which, Rama,
in incarnation of Vishnu, and the son of the king of
Ayodhya, penetrates to the extremity of the peninsula,
and conquers the giants of Lauka (Ceylon). This is
in accordance with all the traditions of the peninsula,
which recognise a period when the inhabitants were
not Hindus. We have no means of ascertaining
whether these conquests by tho monarchs of Ayodhya
wero permanent; but we know that, in the time of Ar-
rian and Pliny, the Brahminical faith prevailed in the
southern part of the peninsula, since all the principal
places mentioned by these writers have Sanscrit names.
We learn from tradition, and from historical records
extant in the Tamul language (Wilson's Descriptive
Catalogue of the Oriental MSS. collected by the late
Lieutenant-col. Mackenzie. --Taylor's Oriental His-
torical MSS. in the Tamul language, 2 vols. 4to,
Madras, 1835), that three kingdoms acquired, in early
times, great political importance in the southern part
? f the Deccan. These were named Pandya, Chola,
and Chera, and are all said to have been founded by
aatlves of Ayodhya, who colonized the Deccan with
Hindus from the north. Pandya was the most pow-
erful of these kingdoms: it was bounded on the north
by 'he river Velar, on the west by the Ghauts, though
in early times it extended as far as the Malabar coast,
and on the south and east by the sea. Its principal
town was Madura. The antiquity of this kingdom
? ? is confirmed by Pliny, Arrian, and Ptolemy, who all
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? INT
10
au. >>, besides its more common appellation of Indue.
In . a. 28? 28', the Indus is joined by five rivers, the
anc<int names of which, as given by the Greek writers,
are, the Hydaspes, Acesines, Hydraotes, Hyphasis,
and Xeradrus. These five rivers obtained for the
province which they watered the Greek name of Pen-
upota. Tiia, analogous to which is the modern appella-
tion of Pcndjab, given to the same region, and signi-
fying in Persian "the country of the five rivers. "
(Consul: Lassen, Comment, de Pcntapot. Indica, 4to,
Bonnec, 1827. --Beck, AUgemeines Repertorium, vol.
I, pt. 2, p. 112. ) The Xeradrus, now the Setledge,
is the longest of the five rivers just mentioned, and the
longest stream also within the Himalaya range, be-
tween the Indus and the Burrampootcr. The union
of all the five rivers into one, before they reach the
Indus, was a point in geography maintained by Ptole-
my; but, owing to the obscurity of modern accounts,
promoted by the splittings of the Indus, and the fre-
quent approximation of streams running in parallel
courses, we had been taught to regard this as a speci-
men of that author's deficiency of information, till very
recent and mere nvnute inquiries have re-established
that questioned point, and, along with it, the merited
credit of the ancient geographer. The five rivers form
one great stream, called by the natives in this quarter
the Ckerraub; but in the other countries of India it is
known by the name of Puujund. The united stream
then lows on between 40 and 50 miles, until it joins
the Indus at Miitun Cole. The mouths of the Indus
Ptolemy makes seven in number; Mannert gives them
as follows, commencing on the west: Sagapa, now
the river Pilty; Sinthos, now the Dorravay; Aureum
Ostium, now the Rilchel; Chariphus, now the Felly;
Sapara, Sabala, and Lonibare, of which last three he
professes to know nothing with certainty. According,
however, to other and more recent authorities, the In-
dus enters the sea in one volume, the lateral streams
being absorbed by the sand without reaching the ocean.
It gives off an easterly branch called the Fullalee, but
Ibis returns its waters to the Indus at a lower point,
forming in its circuit the island on which Hyderabad
stands. (Malte-Brun, Geogr. , vol. 3, p. 13, Am. ed. )
Ino, daughter of Cadmus and Harmonia. (Vid.
Attn mas. )
Inopi's. a river of Dclos, watering the plain in which
the town of Oelos stood. (Strab. , tSb. --Callim. , H.
in Del. , 206. )
Inous, a patronymic given to the god Palajmon, as
son of Ino. (Virg. , Mn. , 5, 823. )
Insubrks (in Greek 'loopSpoi), the most numerous
as well as the most powerful tribe of the Cisalpine
Gauls, according to Polybius (2, 17). It would ap-
pear indeed from Ptolemy (p. 64) that their dominion
extended at one time over the Libicii, another power-
ful Gallic tribe in their vicinity; but their territory,
properly speaking, seems to have been defined by the
rivers Ticmus and Addua. The Insubres took a very
active part in the Gallic wars against the Romans, and
zealously co-operated with Hannibal in his invasion of
Italy. (Polyb. , 2, 40. ) They are stated by Livy (5,
34) to have founded their capital Mediolanum (now
Milan) on their first arrival in Italy, and to hare giv-
en it that name from a place so called in the territory
of the JBdui in Gaul. (Plin. , 3, IT. --Plot, p. 63 --
Consult remarks under the article Gallia, page 531,
col. 1. )
? ? Insula Sacra, an island formed at the mouth of
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? 10
ION
Is mignt haie been expected. Hornet never alludes to
It, unless his employment of the term 'Apyet^ovrtjc (Ar-
geiphonlet) is to be regarded as intimating a knowl-
edge of Io. It is also doubtful whether she was one
of the heroines of the Eoese. Her story, however, was
noticed in the JEgimius, where it was said that her fa-
ther's name was Peirtn, that her keeper Argus had
four eyes, and that the island of Eutxva derived its
name from her. (Apollod. , 3, 1, 3. -- Schol. ad Eu-
rip. , Phan. , 1138. -- Steph. Buz. , a. v. 'ktevric. )
Pherecydes said that Juno placed an eye in the back
of Argus's neck, and deprived him of sleep, and then
set him as a guard over Io. (Ap. Schol. ad Eurip. ,
I. c. ) . 'Eschylus introduces Io into his " Prometheus
Bound," and he also relates her story in his " Suppli-
ants. "--When the Greeks first settled in Egypt, and
saw the statues of Isis with cow's horns, they, in their
usual manner, inferred that she was their own Io, with
whose name hers had a slight similarity. At Memphis
they afterward beheld the worahip of the holy bull
Apis, and naturally supposing the bull-god to be the son
of the cow-goddess, they formed from him a son for
their Io, whose name was the occasion of a new legend
relative to the mode by which ahe was restored to her
"Sistine form. (Miller, Proleg. , p. 193, seq. --Keight-
! ey's Mythology, p. 406, eeqq. )--The whole story of
Io is an agricultural legend, and admits of an easy ex-
planation. Io, whether conaidered as the offspring of
lasus (the favourite of Ceres) or of Peiren (the "ex-
perimenter" or "tryer"), ia a type of early agriculture,
progressing gradually by the aid of slow and painful
experience. Jupiter represents the firmament, the ge-
nial source of light and life; Juno, on the other hand,
it the type of the atmosphere, with its stormy and ca-
pricious changes. Early agriculture suffers from these
changes, which impede more or less the fostering in-
fluence of the pure firmament that lies beyond, and
hence man has to watch with incessant and sleepless
care over the labours of primitive husbandry. This
sver-watchful superintendence is typified by Argus
with his countless eyes, save that in the legend he be-
comes an instrument of punishment in the hands of
Juno. If we turn to the version of the fable as given
in the ^Egimius, the meaning of the whole story be-
comes still plainer, for hero the four eyes of Argus
are types of the four seasons, while the name Eubcea
contains a direct reference to success in agriculture.
Argus, continues the legend, was slain by Mercury,
and Io was then left free to wander over the whole
earth. Now, as Mercury was the god of language
and the inventor of letters, what is this but saying, that
when rules and precepts of agriculture were intro-
duced, first orally and then in writing, mankind were
released from that ever-watching care which early hus-
bandry had required from them, and agriculture, now
reduced to a regular system, went forth in freedom
and spread itself among the nations I--Again, in Egypt
Io finds at last a resting-place; here she assumes her
original form, and here brings forth Epaphus as the off-
spring of Jove. What is this but saying that agricul-
ture was carried to perfection in the fertile land of the
Nile, and that here it was touched (km and a^uu) by the
true generative influence from on high, and brought
forth in the richest abundance \--Still farthor, the eyes
>f Argus, we are told, were transferred by Juno to the
plumage of her favourite bird; and the peacock, it is
well known, givea sure indications, by its cry, of
? ? changes about to take place in the atmosphere, and is
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? ION
received the name of Ionian*. It appears pul'ible that
the lomans, like the . Kolians, were a conquering tribe
from the rwuntains of Thessaly, and that at an un-
known period they migrated southward, and settled in
Attica and part of the Peloponnesus, probably mixing
with the native Pelasgi. The genealogy of'lon, the
reputed son of Xuthus, seems to be a legend under
which is veiled the early history of the Ionian occupa-
tion of Attica. Euripides, in order to flatter the Athe-
nians, makes Ton the son of Apollo. Whatever may
<<* the historical origin of the Ionian name, Athenians
and lomans came to be considered as one and the same
people. In the Peloponnesus the Ionians occupied the
northern coast of the peninsula, which was then called
Ionia, and also ^Egialaean Ionia, and the sea which
separates the Peloponnesus from Southern Italy as-
sumed the name of Ionian Sea, a circumstance which
would seem to indicate the eitent and prevalence of
the Ionian name. This appellation of Ionian Sea was
retained among the later Greeks and the Romans, and
is perpetuated to the present day among the Italians.
When the Dorians invaded the Peloponnesus, about
1100 years B. C. , the Achaai, being driven thence, gath-
ered towards the north, and took possession of Ionia,
which thenceforth was known by the name of Achaia.
The Ionians of the Peloponnesus, in consequence of
this, migrated to Attica, whence, being straitened for
space, and perhaps, also, harassed by the Dorians, they
resolved to seek their fortune beyond the sea, under
the guidance of Nelcus and Androclus, the two young-
er sons of Codrus, the last king of Athena. This was
the great Ionic migration, as it is called. The emi-
grants consisted of natives of Attica, as well as of Io-
nian fugitives from the Peloponnesus, and a motley
band from other parts of Greece. (Herod. , 1, 146. )
But this migration can, perhaps, hardly be considered
as one single event: there seem to have been many
and various migrations of Ionians, some of which were
probably anterior to the Dorian conquest. (Encycl.
Vs. Kernel. , vol. 13, p. 13, seq. )--For the history of
die Ionic coloniea in Asia Minor, consult the article
Ioms.
--We hive already remarked, that the origin of
the name Ionian is altogether uncertain. It is gener-
ally thought to come from the Hebrew Iavan or (if
pronounced with the quiescent van) Ion; and in like
manner the Hellenes are thought to be the same with
Etisa. in the sacred writings, more especially their
country Hellas. Hence Bochart makes Iavan. the son
of Iaphet, the ancestor of tho Iones. The Persians,
moreover, would seem to have called the Greeks by a
similar appellation. Thus, in Aristophanes (Acharn. ,
v. 104), a Persian, who speaks broken Greek, is in-
troduced, expressing himself as follows: oi Tljjtfii xpv-
ao xawbTrpuxT' 'laovav, and the scholiast remarks, with
reference to the last word, 'laovav avrt rov ABnvaie
? "T rravrac rove 'EXXrrvac ol fiaptapoi Iku-
Aow. In the Coptic, also, the Greeks are styled, by a
name quite analogous, OHEININ, as at the end of the
Rosetta inscription. (Akerblad, sur Vitucrip. Egypt.
U Rosette. -- Kruse, Helta*, vol. 1, p, 3, in noiis. )
They, however, who favour such etymologies, should
6rst determine whether the Hebrew is to be regarded
as the primitive language or not; since, if the latter
>e the case, the names that aro given in Hebrew scrip-
ture to tho early rulers and leaders in tho family of
Noah, are mere translations from the primitive tongue,
and certainly can form no sure basis for the erection
even of the slightest superstructure of etymology.
? ? IonIa, a district of Asia Minor, where Ionians from
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? JOP
IONIUM MARE, a namo given to that part of the
Mediterranean which separates the Peloponnesus from
Southern Italy. It was fabled to have received its
appellation from the wanderings of lo in this quarter.
'. rid. lo. ) The more correct explanation, however,
deduces the name from tint of the great Ionic race.
I Vid. Jones. ) The statements of the ancient writers re-
? pectii. g the situation and extent of the Ionian Sea are
very fluctuating and uncertain. Scylax (p. 11) makes
'x the same with the Adriatic; and he may be correct
in so doing, since, according to Herodotus, the true
ind ancieit name of the Adriatic was the Ionian Gulf
(6, 127) Both the Adriatic and Ionian gulfs end,
iccording to Scylax, at the straits near Hydruntum (p.
6). Of the Ionian Sea he says nothing; Herodotus,
however, makes it extend as far south a# the Pelopon-
nesus. Thucydides keeps up the distinction just al-
luded to, calling the Adriatic by the name of the Io-
nian Gulf (being probably as ignorant as Herodotus of
any otner appellation for this arm of the sea), and
styling the rest, as far as the western coast of Greece,
the Ionian Sea (1, 24). In later times a change of
appellation took place. The limits of the Adriatic
were extended as far as the southern coast of Italy and
the western shores of Greece, and the Ionian Gulf was
considered to be now only a part of it. Eustathius
asserts (ad Dionys. Pcricg. , v. 92), that the more
accurate writers of his day maintained this distinction.
Hence the remark of Ptolemy is rendered intelligible,
who makes the Adriatic Sea extend along the whole
western coast of Greece down to the southernmost
? xtremity of the Peloponnesus. (Manncrt, Gcogr. ,
rol. 9, p. 12. )
IOPHON, the son of Sophocles, is described by Aris-
tophanes (Ran. , 73, seqq. ) as a man whose powers
were, at the time of his father's death, not yet suffi-
ciently proved to enable a critic to determine his lit-
erary rank. He appears, however, to have been a
creditable dramatist, and gained the second prize in
428 B. C. , when Euripides was first and Ion third.
(Arg. ad Eurip. , Hippol--Theattf of the Greeks, p.
94, seq. , 4th ed. )
JOPPA, an ancient city of Palestine, situate on the
coast, to the northwest of Jerusalem, and to the south
of Caesarea. In the Old Tesiament it is called Japho
(Joshua, 19, 46--2 Chron , 2, 16. --Jonah, 1, 3).
It was the only harbour possessed by the Jews, and
the wood for the temple, which was cut on Mount
Lebanon, was brought in floats to Joppa, thence to be
aent to Jerusalem. It subsequently became a Phoeni-
cian city, and fell under the power of the kings of
Syria, unlil the Maccabees conquered it, and restored
it to their nation. The Jews, not being a commercial
people, made no use of Joppa as a place of trade;
and hence it became a retreat for pirates. (Strabo,
759. ) Under the Roman power the pirates were
made to disappear. In the middle ages Joppa changed
its name to Jaffa or Yaffa. (Abulfed. , Tab. Syr. , p.
80. )--Joppa was made by the ancient mythologists the
? cene of the fable of Andromeda, and here Cepheus
was said to have reigned. (Strabo, I. c. ) Pliny (9,5)
even gravely informs us, that M. Scaurus brought
? way from this place to Rome the bones of the sea-
monster to which the princess had been exposed, and
which were of a remarkable s ze. They were probably
the remains of a large whale. The Jews saw in them
the bones of the whale that had swallowed Jonah; the
Greeks, on the other hand, connected them with one of
? ? the legends of their fanciful mythology. --Joppa was the
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? JOS
JOSEPHUS
in the mountains at its source would be most likely to
tccasion such an inundation. Travellers have given
different accounts of this celebrated stream. Maun-
irell assigns it a breadth of 20 yards; but represents
it as deep, and so rapid that a man could not swim
against the current. Volney calls it from 60 to 80
feet between the two principal lakes, and 10 or 12
feet deep; but makes it 60 pace* at its embouchure;
Chateaubriand, about the same point, 50 paces, and
in or seven feet deep close to the shore. Dr. Shaw
computed its breadth at 30 yards, and its depth at nine
feet; and that it daily discharges 6,090,000 tons of
water into the Dead Sea. Burckhardt, who crossed
it higher up, calls it 80 paces broad, and three feet
deep; but this was in the middle of summer. Mr.
Buckingham, who visited it in the month of January,
1816, states it to be little more at the part where he
crossed it, which was a short distance above the par-
allel of Jericho, than 25 yards in breadth, and so shal-
low as to be easily forded by the horses. A t another
point, higher up in its course, he describes it as 120
feet broad. From a mean of these and other accounts,
its average width may be computed at 30 yards. It
rolls so powerful a volume of water into the Dead Sea,
that the strongest and most expert m\ immer would be
foiled in any attempt to swim across it at its point of
entrance: he must inevitably be hurried down by the
stream into tho lake. The banks of the Jordan are in
many places covered with bushes, reeds, tamarisks,
willows, oleanders, &c. , which form an asylum for vari-
ous wild animals, who here concealed themselves till the
swelling of the river drove them from their coverts.
To this Jeremiah alludes (49, 19). Previously to the
destruction of the four cities of the plain, it is probable
that the Jordan flowed to the Red Sea, through the
valley of Ghor or Arabia. -- The etymology of its
name has been variously assigned. It is thought by
some to come from the Hebrew jarden, a descent,
Irom its rapid descent through that country. Another
class of etymologists deduce its name from the He-
brew and Syriac, importing the caldron of judgment.
Others make it come from Jor, a spring, and Dan, a
small town near its source; and a third class deduce
it from Jor and Dan, two rivulets. It most probably
derives its name from Yar-Dan, "the river of Dan,"
near which city it takes its rise. The Arabs call it
Arden or Harden, the Persians Aerdun, and the Ara-
bian geographer Edrisi, Zacckar, or swelling. (Mans-
fiird's Scripture Gazetteer, p. 251. )
Joknihdes or (as he is called in the Analecta of
Mabillon) Jordanes, a Goth by birth, secretary to
one of the kings of the Alans, and, as some believe, af-
terward bishop of Ravenna. In the year 552 of our
ero he wrote a history of the Goths (Re Rebus Gc-
ti. is). This is merely an abridgment of the history of
(Jassiodorus, and is written without judgment and
with great partiality. He composed also a work enti-
tled De regnorum ct temporum successione, or a Ro-
man history from Romulus to Augustus. It is only
? copy of the history of Florus, but with such altera-
tions and additions, however, as to enable us some-
times to correct by means of it the text of the Roman
historian. (Schfill, Hist. Lit. Lot. , vol. 3, p. 177. )
Ios, an island in the iEgean Sea, to the north of
Then. Here, according to some accounts, Homer
? rta interred. (Slrab. , 48i. --Plin. , 4, 13. ) It was
? Iso said, that the poet's mother was a native of this
? ? iaind. (Steph. Byz. , s. 'v. 'lot. ) The modern name
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? JOSEPHUS.
JOSEPHUS.
fcretenas. (ecogiiising the hand of God and the accom-
plishment of the prophecies ii the ruin of his country,
jo esteemed it impious as well as vain; whether he
was actuated by the baser motive of self-interest, or
the more geuerous desire of being of service to his
miserable countrymen, he was by no means held in
the same estimation by the Roman army as by Titus.
They thought a traitor to his country might be a trai-
ler ". o them; and they were apt to lay all their losses
to his charge, as if he kept up secret intelligence
vita the besieged. On the capture of the city, Titus
ollsred him any boon he would request. He chose
the sacred books, and the lives of his brother and fifty
friends. He was afterward permitted to select 190
of bis friends and relatives from the multitude who
were shut up in the Temple to be sold for slaves.
The estate of Josephus lying within the Roman en-
campment, Titus assigned him other lands in lieu of
t. Vespasian also conferred on him a considerable
property in land. Josephus lived afterward at Rome,
in high favour with Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian.
The latter punished certain Jews and a eunuch, the
tutor of his son, who had falsely accused him: ex-
empted his estate from tribute, and advanced him
to high honour. He was a great favourite with the
Empress Domitia. The time of his death is uncer-
tain; he was certainly alive at the end of the first cen-
tury, and probably at the beginning of the second.
After his surrender he had married a captive in Cajsa-
rea, but, in obedience, it may be presumed, to the law
which prohibited such marriages to a man of priestly
? ine, he discarded her, and married again in Alexan-
dre*. By his Alexandrean wife Josephus had three
sons; one only, Hyrcanus, lived to maturity. Dissat-
isfied with this wife's conduct, he divorced her also,
and married a Cretan woman, from a Jewish family,
of the first rank and opulence in the island, and of
admirable virtue. --At Rome Josephus first wrote the
History of the Jewish War ('IovAiuk? / loropia irtfil
4'miaeue), in the Syro-Chaldaic tongue, for the use
of his own countrymen in the East, particularly those
beyond the Euphrates. He afterward translated the
work ir. to Greek, for the benefit of the Western Jews
and the Romans. Doth King Agrippa and Titus bore
testimony to its accuracy. The iatlcr ordered it to
be placed in the public library, and signed it with his
own hands as an authentic memorial of the times.
This work was translated into I. utin in the fifth cen-
tury by Rufinus of Aquileia, or rather by Cassiodorus
(Muratori, Antiq. //<</. , vol. 3, p. 920. ) Many years
afterward, about A. D. 93, Josephus published his great
work on the Anlii/nities of the Jews ('Iovdabn; 'Ap-
X<uoXoyia), in twenty books. It forms a history of the
chosen people from the creation to the reign of the
Emperor Nero. Josephus did not write this work for
the use of his countrymen, nor even for the Hellenistic
Jews: his object was to make his nation better known
to the Greeks and Romans, and to remove the con-
tempt in which it was accustomed to be held. The
books of the Old Testament, and, where these failed,
tiadilions and other historical monuments, were the
sources whence he drew the materials for his work;
but, in making use of these, he allowed himself an
unpardonable license, in removing from his narrative
all that the religion of the Jews regarded as most
worthy of veneration, in order not lo shock the preju-
dices of the nations lo whom he wrote. He not only
? ? treats the books of the Old Testament as if they were
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? JOV
tPH
>>aJW <<xarn/:icd both sides of the question, has pro-
nounced the passage to be supposititious, and adds,
that the silence of too historian respecting our Saviour
and the miracles which he wrought, affords a far more
eloquent testimony in favour of the truth of our Re-
deemer's mission than the must laboured statement
could have yielded, especially when we consider that
the father of Josephus, one of the priests of Jerusalem,
could not but have known our Saviour, and since Jo-
sephus himself lived in the midst of the apostles.
Had the latter been able, he would have refuted the
whole history of our Saviour's mission and works.
