Rousseau
put Numa and Moses alongside the Spartan
Lycurgus.
Lycurgus.
Cult of the Nation in France
.
.
The root of the transformation is religious; it rests on the exploitation of a fundamental virtuality of Christian- ity, namely the unlinking of the celestial order and the terrestrial order.
" Pocock, "Conservative Enlightenment," 84.
Pocock has recently put this idea at the heart of his magisterial work on Edward Gibbon, Barbarism and Reli- gion, 2 vols.
to date (Cambridge, 2000).
"O ruined France! O bloody land, / Not land, but ash. " Agrippa d'Aubigne? , Les tragiques, Jean-Raymond Fanlo, ed. , 2 vols. (Paris, 1995, orig. 1616), I, 61- 62.
Voltaire, La Henriade: Poe`me en dix chants (Paris, 1869), esp. chant II (42-52). Voltaire also dwelt at length on the period in his Essai sur les moeurs, in much of his poetry, and indirectly in his fiction, including Candide. On the cult of Henri IV, and in general on the persistence of the memory of the wars, see Marcel Reinhard, La le? gende de Henri IV (Saint-Brieuc, 1935).
Diderot, Essai sur le me? rite, quoted in Gordon, Citizens without Sovereignty, 82.
On the theater, see Clarence D. Brenner, "Henri IV on the French Stage in the Eighteenth Century," P. M. L. A. , XLVI/2 (1931), 540-53; Jean-Alexis Rivoire, Le patriotisme dans le the? a^tre se? rieux de la Re? volution (Paris, 1950), esp. 44-45. La voix du vrai patriote catholique, oppose? e a` celle des faux patriotes tole? rans (n. p. , 1756), 229.
Quoted in Koselleck, Kritik und Krise, 118.
Quoted in Bonnet, Naissance du Panthe? on (see Intro. , n. 43), 260.
"It is religion whose inhuman zeal / Puts weapons in every Frenchman's hands. " Voltaire, La Henriade, 42.
See Yardeni, La conscience nationale (see Intro. , n. 12), 81; Peter Campbell, Power and Politics in Old Regime France, 1720-1745 (London, 1996); Isabelle
Notes to Pages 31-34 233
? Storez, Le chancelier Henri Franc? ois d'Aguesseau (1688-1751): Monarchiste et
libe? ral (Paris, 1996), esp. 360-61.
46. See Yardeni, La conscience nationale, 77-98; Beaune, Naissance (see Intro. ,
n. 12), 4-5. "This threat to the very survival of the patrie called forth one of the most massive outbursts of patriotic writing in the early-modern period": William Farr Church, "France," in Orest Ranum, ed. , National Consciousness, History and Political Culture in Early Modern Europe (Baltimore, 1975), 43- 66, at 46.
47. Koselleck, Kritik und Krise, 11-39.
48. Koselleck argues that the theorists of absolute monarchy demanded, in the
name of civic order, that individuals sever the connection between their exte- rior actions and their interior convictions, effectively splitting human beings into public and private halves. But in the eighteenth century, the new private conscience ironically emerged as the basis for a powerful moral critique of absolutism. Despite the way it underestimates the religious underpinnings of absolute monarchy, Koselleck's argument remains enormously valuable.
49. "O Charles! It is time to expiate the crime / Impious corpse, leave your royal tomb! " Ponce-Denis Ecouchard ("Lebrun"), "Fragment sur Charles IX," in Poe? sies nationales de la Re? volution franc? aise (Paris, 1836), 9. See also Marie- Joseph Che? nier, Charles IX, ou l'e? cole des rois (Paris, 1790); Louis-Se? bastien Mercier, La destruction de la Ligue, ou la re? duction de Paris (Amsterdam,
1782). Notes to Pages 31-34
50. The classic theoretical expositions of this perspective are Karl Deutsch, Na- tionalism and Social Communication (Cambridge, Mass. , 1966), and Gellner, Nations and Nationalism.
51. Two works exemplifying the cultural historical approach to nationalism are Ford, Creating the Nation, and Lehning, Peasant and French (see Intro. , n. 28). More generally, see J. G. A. Pocock, Politics, Language and Time (Cambridge, 1985), 1-34; Gareth Stedman Jones, Languages of Class: Studies in English Working Class History, 1832-1982 (Cambridge, 1983); Dror Wahrman, Imag- ining the Middle Class: The Political Representation of Class in Britain, c. 1780- 1840 (Cambridge, 1995). On the French state as nation-builder, see Englund, "The Ghost of Nation Past," and Bell, "Paris Blues" (see Intro. , n. 27).
52. See Chapter 6, below.
53. See James B. Collins, The State in Early Modern France (Cambridge, 1995).
54. See Theodore K. Rabb, The Struggle for Stability in Early Modern Europe (Ox-
ford, 1975), 116-45.
55. Michael Kwass, "A Kingdom of Taxpayers: State Formation, Privilege, and Po-
litical Culture in Eighteenth-Century France," Journal of Modern History, LII/
2 (1998), 295-339, quote from 301-2.
56. Quoted in Lionel Rothkrug, Opposition to Louis XIV: The Political and Social
234
Notes to Pages 34-37
? 57. 58.
59. 60.
Notes to Pages 34-37
61. 62.
63.
64. 65.
66. 67. 68.
Origins of the French Enlightenment (Princeton, 1965), 284-85. See also Dan- iel Nordman and Jacques Revel, "La connaissance du territoire," in Jacques Revel and Andre? Burguie`re, eds. , Histoire de la France: L'espace franc? ais (Paris, 1989), 71-115, esp. 83-87 ("La naissance de la statistique") and 108-15. See also "Instruction pour les Mai^tres des Reque^tes, commissaires de? partis dans les provinces," Sept. 1663, in Lettres, instructions et me? moires de Colbert, ed. Pierre Cle? ment (Paris, 1877), IV, 27-43. My thanks to Orest Ranum for pointing out this text to me.
See Rothkrug, 356-60.
On the Dutch papers, see Jeremy D. Popkin, News and Politics in the Age of Revolution: Jean de Luzac's Gazette de Leyde (Ithaca, 1989). Good surveys of the press are found in Jack Censer, The French Press in the Age of Enlighten- ment (London, 1994); Jeremy D. Popkin, "The Prerevoluionary Origins of Political Journalism," in Baker, ed. , Political Culture, 203-224.
Habermas, Structural Transformation, 14ff.
Margaret C. Jacob, Living the Enlightenment: Freemasonry and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Europe (New York, 1991), 27; Dena Goodman, The Re- public of Letters: A Cultural History of the French Enlightenment (Ithaca, 1994), 74-77.
See Chartier, Cultural Origins (see Intro. , n. 32), 20-35. Chartier notes the shift from seventeenth- to eighteenth-century ideas of the public.
Robert A. Schneider, Public Life in Toulouse, 1463-1789: From Municipal Re- public to Cosmopolitan City (Ithaca, 1989), esp. 255-61, quote from 255. For a view of somewhat similar processes occurring in Britain, see Dror Wahrman, "National Society, Communal Culture: An Argument about the Recent His- toriography of Eighteenth-Century Britain," Social History, XVII/1 (1992), 43-62.
Jean-Franc? ois Sobry, Le mode franc? ois, ou discours sur les principaux usages de la nation franc? oise (Paris, 1786), 10. On the book, see Barbier's Dictionnaire des anonymes. The book was suppressed by the Breteuil ministry because of its attack on state finances.
Quoted in Moras, Ursprung, 6.
John Brewer has made much this argument about politeness in the first chapter of his The Pleasures of the Imagination (London, 1997). See also Hirschman, The Passions and the Interests; Pocock, Virtue, Commerce and His- tory, and Chartier, "From Texts to Manners. "
See Sahlins, "The Eighteenth-Century Revolution of Citizenship. "
See Chartier, Cultural Origins, 92-110.
Bernard Groethuysen, The Bourgeois: Catholicism versus Capitalism in Eigh- teenth-Century France, trans. Mary Ilford (New York, 1968, orig. 1927), 39, 40. See on this subject Daniel Gordon, "Bernard Groethuysen and the Hu- man Conversation," History and Theory, 36/2 (1997), 289-311.
69. On this point, see esp. Koselleck, 18-32.
70. Rousseau, Oeuvres, III, 464-5. Maurice Cranston's admittedly too free trans-
lation (The Social Contract, London, 1968), renders "the religion of man" as
"the religion of the private person" (182).
71. On this point see Gordon, Citizens without Sovereignty, 76-85.
72. Encyclope? die, XII (1765), 510. Cited in Gordon, 83.
73. Ernst H. Kantorowicz, The King's Two Bodies: A Study in Mediaeval Political
Theology (Princeton, 1957), 232-72, quote from 267. On the original reli- gious connotations of patria, see also Viroli, For Love of Country (see Intro. , n. 68), 18-19.
74. Quoted in Church, "France," 49, and Yardeni, La conscience nationale, 107.
75. Chateaubrun, Philocte`te (Paris, 1756), 5; Me? tal, Description et explication de la Philopatrie, personnage iconologique . . . (Paris, 1782), 27; Chevalier de Jaucourt, "Patrie," in Encyclope? die (1765), XII, 178-80, quote from 178; Fran- c? ois Ferlus, Le patriotisme chre? tien (Montpellier, 1787), 12; [Claude-Rigobert Lefe`bvre de Beauvray], Adresse a` la nation Angloise, poe`me patriotique (Am-
sterdam, 1757), 6; Foix, Le patriotisme, ou la France sauve? e (n. p. , 1789), 3.
76. Quoted in Perkins, Nation and Word, 270.
77. Rousseau, Oeuvres, III, 347-470, and esp. 381-84 on the Lawgiver and 460-69
on Civil Religion.
78. Ibid. , III, 956.
79. Ibid. , III, 957-58.
Rousseau put Numa and Moses alongside the Spartan
Lycurgus.
80. On patrie, see Nathalie Elie-Lefebvre, "Le de? bat sur l'ide? e de patrie et sur le
patriotisme, 1742-1789," unpublished Me? moire de Mai^trise, Universite? de Paris I, 1974; Dupuy, "Gene`se de la Patrie Moderne"; Dziembowski, Un nou- veau patriotisme franc? ais (see Intro. , n. 33), 321-68.
81. Voltaire, in Philosophical Dictionary, http://www. voltaire-integral. com/20/ patrie. htm; quoted in Alphonse Aulard, Le patriotisme franc? ais de la Renais- sance a` la Re? volution (Paris, 1921), 58, and Goodman, The Republic of Letters, 50.
82. Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws, 25-27 (III, chs. 5-7). The point is con- vincingly demonstrated by Viroli, in For Love of Country, esp. 63-94. The di- vergence of meaning in France, however, does call into question Viroli's as- sertion that patriotism was a coherent "language," as opposed to a loose set of associations.
83. On notions of time in republican thought, see J. G. A. Pocock, The Machia- vellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tra- dition (Princeton, 1975), esp 3-80.
84. The word civilisation did exist before the eighteenth century, but meant the transformation of a criminal trial into a civil one. The verb "to civilize" dated back to the seventeenth century. See Michel, "Barbarie . . . ," 10.
Notes to Pages 37-41 235
? Notes to Pages 37-41
236
Notes to Pages 41-44
? 85.
86.
87. 88.
Notes to Pages 41-44
89. 90.
91.
92. 93.
94.
95. 96.
Marie-Jean-Antoine-Nicolas de Condorcet, Esquisse d'un tableau historique du progre`s de l'esprit humain (Paris, 1966), 203. On the general question of the value of human progress, see also the helpful work of Jean-Marie Goulemot, Discours, histoire et re? volutions (Paris, 1975). On "civilization," see Febvre, "Civilization"; Moras, Ursprung; Michel, "Barbarie"; Pagden, "The 'Defence of Civilization. '"
As in this 1767 poem: "Toute Socie? te? languit, se de? compose, / De`s qu'on desserre ce lien. /La chute des Etats n'a jamais d'autre cause/Que le rela^chement de l'esprit Citoyen" ("Every Society languishes and decomposes, once this bond slackens. The fall of States never has any cause other than the loosening of the Citizen spirit"). Le patriotisme, poe`me qui a e? te? pre? sente? a l'Acade? mie franc? oise pour le prix de 1766 et dont on n'a fait aucune mention (Paris, 1767), 6.
This point is made by Sahlins, "Fictions of a Catholic France. "
See Godechot, "Nation, patrie, nationalisme et patriotisme" (see Intro. , n. 22), 486; Guiomar, L'ide? ologie nationale: Nation, repre? sentation, proprie? te? (Paris, 1974), 31; Boe? s, La lanterne magique (see Intro. , n. 44), 5; quote from Fehrenbach, "Nation" (see Intro. , n. 46), 76.
See the discussion of these points by Pierre Nora, "Nation" (see Intro. , n. 77), esp. 802.
Victor de Riquetti de Mirabeau, L'ami des hommes, ou traite? de la population, ed. Rouxel (Paris, 1883). On the enormous popularity of the book in the 1760s, see vi. Mirabeau, often identified with the physiocrats, was the father of the revolutionary orator.
On his use of "civilization," see Moras, Ursprung, 5; on his use of "regenera- tion," see Morrissey, L'empereur a` la barbe fleurie, 268. D'Alembert had used the originally theological concept of "regeneration" in the preliminary dis- course to the Encyclope? die, but far more sparingly. See Alyssa R. Sepinwall, "Regenerating France, Regenerating the World: The Abbe? Gre? goire and the French Revolution, 1750-1831," Ph. D. diss. , Stanford University (1998), 83- 87.
Mirabeau, L'ami des hommes, 247-68.
See esp. ibid. , 316-29, on the question of whether France itself had yet reached the point of decrepitude.
Robert-Martin Lesuire, Les sauvages de l'Europe (Berlin, 1760), quote from 41. The novel had sufficient success to be reprinted during France and England's next war (Paris, 1780); it was even translated into English (The Savages of Eu- rope, London, 1764).
Ibid. , 22, 35-9, 126, 42.
C. -S. Favart, L'anglois a` Bordeaux (Paris, 1763, repr. 1771), 5; Jean-Bernard Leblanc and La Coste, quoted in Grieder, Anglomania (see Intro. , n. 55), 42; Lettre d'un jeune homme (see Intro. , n. 70), 44; Louis-Charles Fougeret de
Notes to Pages 44-46 237
? Montbron, Pre? servatif contre l'Anglomanie ("Minorca," 1757), 51; Edmond- Jean-Franc? ois Barbier, Chronique de la re? gence et du re`gne de Louis XV, 7 vols. (Paris, 1885), III, 273. In general, see Grieder, Dziembowski, Un nouveau patriotisme; and Frances Acomb, Anglophobia in France: An Essay in the His- tory of Constitutionalism and Nationalism (Durham, 1950).
97. Acomb's Anglophobia, which focuses on attitudes toward the English consti- tution, concludes that "Anglophile liberalism" declined towards the end of the old regime. Grieder, whose Anglomania takes in a broader spectrum of cultural influences, argues for the persistence of a dialectic between Anglo- phobia and Anglomania, as does Dziembowski in Un nouveau patriotisme franc? ais.
98. See also Edmond Dziembowski, "Les de? buts d'un publiciste au service de la monarchie: L'activite? litte? raire de Jacob-Nicolas Moreau pendant la guerre de sept ans," Revue d'histoire diplomatique, 4 (1995), 305-22; J. Labourdette, Vergennes, 205-8 (see Intro. , n. 70).
99. For an overview of this literature, see Thomas J. Schlereth, The Cosmopolitan Ideal in Enlightenment Thought: Its Form and Function in the Ideas of Franklin, Hume, and Voltaire, 1694-1790 (South Bend, 1977); Gerd van den Heuvel, "Cosmopolite, cosmopolitisme," in Reichart and Schmitt, eds. , Handbuch politisch-sozialer Grundbegriffe, VI (Munich, 1986), 41-55. Notes to Pages 44-46
100. Ferlus, Le patriotisme, 29; abbe? Baudeau, quoted in Elie-Lefebvre, 170; Journal encyclope? dique, par une socie? te? de gens de lettres, I (Jan. 15, 1756), 31; ibid. , 30; Apologie du caracte`re des anglois et des franc? ois (n. p. , 1726), 65.
101. Elie-Lefebvre, 169-81; Montesquieu, Cahiers, 1716-1755, Bernard Grasset, ed. (Paris, 1941), 9-10.
102. Sobry, Le mode franc? ois, 12, 431.
103. Discours sur le patriotisme (see Intro. , n. 56), 10; A. J. de Baptestein de
Mouliers Rupe, Me? moire sur un moyen facile et infallible de faire renai^tre le patriotisme en France, dans toutes les classes des citoyens, comme dans les deux sexes (Amsterdam, 1789), 1; Le patriotisme, poe? me, 6; Claude-Rigobert Lefe`bvre de Beauvray, Dictionnaire social et patriotique (Amsterdam, 1770), unpaginated preface; Jean-Baptiste-Jacques Elie de Beaumont, Discours sur le patriotisme dans la monarchie (Bordeaux, 1777), 9.
104. Pierre-Laurent Buirette de Belloy, Le sie`ge de Calais (Leyden, 1765), 48-49. See Acomb, Anglophobia, 55-59, for a representative interpretation of the play.
105. See, for instance, Acomb, Anglophobia, 55.
106. Favart, L'anglois a` Bordeaux; Lesuire, esp 61.
107. The evidence for this assertion will be discussed in Chapter 3.
108. See Bernard Cottret, ed. , Bolingbroke's Political Writings: The Conservative En-
lightenment (New York, 1997).
109. See on this subject Newman, The Rise of English Nationalism, esp. 1-47.
238
Notes to Pages 46-48
? 110.
Colley, Britons (see Intro. , n. 26), 36; Newman, The Rise of English Nationalism (see Intro. , n. 28); Kathleen Wilson, The Sense of the People: Politics, Culture, and Imperialism in England, 1715-1785 (Cambridge, 1995). Jeremy Black, however, argues against taking the conclusion too far in "Confessional State or Elect Nation? Religion and Identity in Eighteenth-Century England," in Claydon and McBride, Protestantism and National Identity, 53-74. T. H. Breen, "Ideology and Nationalism on the Eve of the American Revolution: Revisions Once More in Need of Revising," Journal of American History, LXXXIV/1 (1997), 13-39, emphasizes that Britain's exclusionary nationalism could even be directed at its own colonists in North America.
Johann Georg Zimmermann, Vom Nationalstolze (Zurich, 1768), 177. The book was published in at least four editions and translated into both English and French.
See Colley, esp. 1-54; Newman, esp. 49-120; Wilson, The Sense of the People, 140-65.
James Axtell, The Invasion Within: The Contest of Cultures in Colonial North America (New York, 1981).
Colley, 11-54.
Newman, The Rise of English Nationalism, 109-18, quotes from 115, 112.
See Lionel Gossman, Medievalism and the Ideologies of the Enlightenment: The World and Work of La Curne de Sainte-Palaye (Baltimore, 1968). See also be- low, Chapter 5.
Again belying Maurizio Viroli's claim that the "language of patriotism" had a single, essential meaning. See Viroli, For Love of Country, 1-2.
The English language, of course, has no real equivalent of patrie; "fatherland" and "motherland" are almost always used in reference to foreign countries.
"O ruined France! O bloody land, / Not land, but ash. " Agrippa d'Aubigne? , Les tragiques, Jean-Raymond Fanlo, ed. , 2 vols. (Paris, 1995, orig. 1616), I, 61- 62.
Voltaire, La Henriade: Poe`me en dix chants (Paris, 1869), esp. chant II (42-52). Voltaire also dwelt at length on the period in his Essai sur les moeurs, in much of his poetry, and indirectly in his fiction, including Candide. On the cult of Henri IV, and in general on the persistence of the memory of the wars, see Marcel Reinhard, La le? gende de Henri IV (Saint-Brieuc, 1935).
Diderot, Essai sur le me? rite, quoted in Gordon, Citizens without Sovereignty, 82.
On the theater, see Clarence D. Brenner, "Henri IV on the French Stage in the Eighteenth Century," P. M. L. A. , XLVI/2 (1931), 540-53; Jean-Alexis Rivoire, Le patriotisme dans le the? a^tre se? rieux de la Re? volution (Paris, 1950), esp. 44-45. La voix du vrai patriote catholique, oppose? e a` celle des faux patriotes tole? rans (n. p. , 1756), 229.
Quoted in Koselleck, Kritik und Krise, 118.
Quoted in Bonnet, Naissance du Panthe? on (see Intro. , n. 43), 260.
"It is religion whose inhuman zeal / Puts weapons in every Frenchman's hands. " Voltaire, La Henriade, 42.
See Yardeni, La conscience nationale (see Intro. , n. 12), 81; Peter Campbell, Power and Politics in Old Regime France, 1720-1745 (London, 1996); Isabelle
Notes to Pages 31-34 233
? Storez, Le chancelier Henri Franc? ois d'Aguesseau (1688-1751): Monarchiste et
libe? ral (Paris, 1996), esp. 360-61.
46. See Yardeni, La conscience nationale, 77-98; Beaune, Naissance (see Intro. ,
n. 12), 4-5. "This threat to the very survival of the patrie called forth one of the most massive outbursts of patriotic writing in the early-modern period": William Farr Church, "France," in Orest Ranum, ed. , National Consciousness, History and Political Culture in Early Modern Europe (Baltimore, 1975), 43- 66, at 46.
47. Koselleck, Kritik und Krise, 11-39.
48. Koselleck argues that the theorists of absolute monarchy demanded, in the
name of civic order, that individuals sever the connection between their exte- rior actions and their interior convictions, effectively splitting human beings into public and private halves. But in the eighteenth century, the new private conscience ironically emerged as the basis for a powerful moral critique of absolutism. Despite the way it underestimates the religious underpinnings of absolute monarchy, Koselleck's argument remains enormously valuable.
49. "O Charles! It is time to expiate the crime / Impious corpse, leave your royal tomb! " Ponce-Denis Ecouchard ("Lebrun"), "Fragment sur Charles IX," in Poe? sies nationales de la Re? volution franc? aise (Paris, 1836), 9. See also Marie- Joseph Che? nier, Charles IX, ou l'e? cole des rois (Paris, 1790); Louis-Se? bastien Mercier, La destruction de la Ligue, ou la re? duction de Paris (Amsterdam,
1782). Notes to Pages 31-34
50. The classic theoretical expositions of this perspective are Karl Deutsch, Na- tionalism and Social Communication (Cambridge, Mass. , 1966), and Gellner, Nations and Nationalism.
51. Two works exemplifying the cultural historical approach to nationalism are Ford, Creating the Nation, and Lehning, Peasant and French (see Intro. , n. 28). More generally, see J. G. A. Pocock, Politics, Language and Time (Cambridge, 1985), 1-34; Gareth Stedman Jones, Languages of Class: Studies in English Working Class History, 1832-1982 (Cambridge, 1983); Dror Wahrman, Imag- ining the Middle Class: The Political Representation of Class in Britain, c. 1780- 1840 (Cambridge, 1995). On the French state as nation-builder, see Englund, "The Ghost of Nation Past," and Bell, "Paris Blues" (see Intro. , n. 27).
52. See Chapter 6, below.
53. See James B. Collins, The State in Early Modern France (Cambridge, 1995).
54. See Theodore K. Rabb, The Struggle for Stability in Early Modern Europe (Ox-
ford, 1975), 116-45.
55. Michael Kwass, "A Kingdom of Taxpayers: State Formation, Privilege, and Po-
litical Culture in Eighteenth-Century France," Journal of Modern History, LII/
2 (1998), 295-339, quote from 301-2.
56. Quoted in Lionel Rothkrug, Opposition to Louis XIV: The Political and Social
234
Notes to Pages 34-37
? 57. 58.
59. 60.
Notes to Pages 34-37
61. 62.
63.
64. 65.
66. 67. 68.
Origins of the French Enlightenment (Princeton, 1965), 284-85. See also Dan- iel Nordman and Jacques Revel, "La connaissance du territoire," in Jacques Revel and Andre? Burguie`re, eds. , Histoire de la France: L'espace franc? ais (Paris, 1989), 71-115, esp. 83-87 ("La naissance de la statistique") and 108-15. See also "Instruction pour les Mai^tres des Reque^tes, commissaires de? partis dans les provinces," Sept. 1663, in Lettres, instructions et me? moires de Colbert, ed. Pierre Cle? ment (Paris, 1877), IV, 27-43. My thanks to Orest Ranum for pointing out this text to me.
See Rothkrug, 356-60.
On the Dutch papers, see Jeremy D. Popkin, News and Politics in the Age of Revolution: Jean de Luzac's Gazette de Leyde (Ithaca, 1989). Good surveys of the press are found in Jack Censer, The French Press in the Age of Enlighten- ment (London, 1994); Jeremy D. Popkin, "The Prerevoluionary Origins of Political Journalism," in Baker, ed. , Political Culture, 203-224.
Habermas, Structural Transformation, 14ff.
Margaret C. Jacob, Living the Enlightenment: Freemasonry and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Europe (New York, 1991), 27; Dena Goodman, The Re- public of Letters: A Cultural History of the French Enlightenment (Ithaca, 1994), 74-77.
See Chartier, Cultural Origins (see Intro. , n. 32), 20-35. Chartier notes the shift from seventeenth- to eighteenth-century ideas of the public.
Robert A. Schneider, Public Life in Toulouse, 1463-1789: From Municipal Re- public to Cosmopolitan City (Ithaca, 1989), esp. 255-61, quote from 255. For a view of somewhat similar processes occurring in Britain, see Dror Wahrman, "National Society, Communal Culture: An Argument about the Recent His- toriography of Eighteenth-Century Britain," Social History, XVII/1 (1992), 43-62.
Jean-Franc? ois Sobry, Le mode franc? ois, ou discours sur les principaux usages de la nation franc? oise (Paris, 1786), 10. On the book, see Barbier's Dictionnaire des anonymes. The book was suppressed by the Breteuil ministry because of its attack on state finances.
Quoted in Moras, Ursprung, 6.
John Brewer has made much this argument about politeness in the first chapter of his The Pleasures of the Imagination (London, 1997). See also Hirschman, The Passions and the Interests; Pocock, Virtue, Commerce and His- tory, and Chartier, "From Texts to Manners. "
See Sahlins, "The Eighteenth-Century Revolution of Citizenship. "
See Chartier, Cultural Origins, 92-110.
Bernard Groethuysen, The Bourgeois: Catholicism versus Capitalism in Eigh- teenth-Century France, trans. Mary Ilford (New York, 1968, orig. 1927), 39, 40. See on this subject Daniel Gordon, "Bernard Groethuysen and the Hu- man Conversation," History and Theory, 36/2 (1997), 289-311.
69. On this point, see esp. Koselleck, 18-32.
70. Rousseau, Oeuvres, III, 464-5. Maurice Cranston's admittedly too free trans-
lation (The Social Contract, London, 1968), renders "the religion of man" as
"the religion of the private person" (182).
71. On this point see Gordon, Citizens without Sovereignty, 76-85.
72. Encyclope? die, XII (1765), 510. Cited in Gordon, 83.
73. Ernst H. Kantorowicz, The King's Two Bodies: A Study in Mediaeval Political
Theology (Princeton, 1957), 232-72, quote from 267. On the original reli- gious connotations of patria, see also Viroli, For Love of Country (see Intro. , n. 68), 18-19.
74. Quoted in Church, "France," 49, and Yardeni, La conscience nationale, 107.
75. Chateaubrun, Philocte`te (Paris, 1756), 5; Me? tal, Description et explication de la Philopatrie, personnage iconologique . . . (Paris, 1782), 27; Chevalier de Jaucourt, "Patrie," in Encyclope? die (1765), XII, 178-80, quote from 178; Fran- c? ois Ferlus, Le patriotisme chre? tien (Montpellier, 1787), 12; [Claude-Rigobert Lefe`bvre de Beauvray], Adresse a` la nation Angloise, poe`me patriotique (Am-
sterdam, 1757), 6; Foix, Le patriotisme, ou la France sauve? e (n. p. , 1789), 3.
76. Quoted in Perkins, Nation and Word, 270.
77. Rousseau, Oeuvres, III, 347-470, and esp. 381-84 on the Lawgiver and 460-69
on Civil Religion.
78. Ibid. , III, 956.
79. Ibid. , III, 957-58.
Rousseau put Numa and Moses alongside the Spartan
Lycurgus.
80. On patrie, see Nathalie Elie-Lefebvre, "Le de? bat sur l'ide? e de patrie et sur le
patriotisme, 1742-1789," unpublished Me? moire de Mai^trise, Universite? de Paris I, 1974; Dupuy, "Gene`se de la Patrie Moderne"; Dziembowski, Un nou- veau patriotisme franc? ais (see Intro. , n. 33), 321-68.
81. Voltaire, in Philosophical Dictionary, http://www. voltaire-integral. com/20/ patrie. htm; quoted in Alphonse Aulard, Le patriotisme franc? ais de la Renais- sance a` la Re? volution (Paris, 1921), 58, and Goodman, The Republic of Letters, 50.
82. Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws, 25-27 (III, chs. 5-7). The point is con- vincingly demonstrated by Viroli, in For Love of Country, esp. 63-94. The di- vergence of meaning in France, however, does call into question Viroli's as- sertion that patriotism was a coherent "language," as opposed to a loose set of associations.
83. On notions of time in republican thought, see J. G. A. Pocock, The Machia- vellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tra- dition (Princeton, 1975), esp 3-80.
84. The word civilisation did exist before the eighteenth century, but meant the transformation of a criminal trial into a civil one. The verb "to civilize" dated back to the seventeenth century. See Michel, "Barbarie . . . ," 10.
Notes to Pages 37-41 235
? Notes to Pages 37-41
236
Notes to Pages 41-44
? 85.
86.
87. 88.
Notes to Pages 41-44
89. 90.
91.
92. 93.
94.
95. 96.
Marie-Jean-Antoine-Nicolas de Condorcet, Esquisse d'un tableau historique du progre`s de l'esprit humain (Paris, 1966), 203. On the general question of the value of human progress, see also the helpful work of Jean-Marie Goulemot, Discours, histoire et re? volutions (Paris, 1975). On "civilization," see Febvre, "Civilization"; Moras, Ursprung; Michel, "Barbarie"; Pagden, "The 'Defence of Civilization. '"
As in this 1767 poem: "Toute Socie? te? languit, se de? compose, / De`s qu'on desserre ce lien. /La chute des Etats n'a jamais d'autre cause/Que le rela^chement de l'esprit Citoyen" ("Every Society languishes and decomposes, once this bond slackens. The fall of States never has any cause other than the loosening of the Citizen spirit"). Le patriotisme, poe`me qui a e? te? pre? sente? a l'Acade? mie franc? oise pour le prix de 1766 et dont on n'a fait aucune mention (Paris, 1767), 6.
This point is made by Sahlins, "Fictions of a Catholic France. "
See Godechot, "Nation, patrie, nationalisme et patriotisme" (see Intro. , n. 22), 486; Guiomar, L'ide? ologie nationale: Nation, repre? sentation, proprie? te? (Paris, 1974), 31; Boe? s, La lanterne magique (see Intro. , n. 44), 5; quote from Fehrenbach, "Nation" (see Intro. , n. 46), 76.
See the discussion of these points by Pierre Nora, "Nation" (see Intro. , n. 77), esp. 802.
Victor de Riquetti de Mirabeau, L'ami des hommes, ou traite? de la population, ed. Rouxel (Paris, 1883). On the enormous popularity of the book in the 1760s, see vi. Mirabeau, often identified with the physiocrats, was the father of the revolutionary orator.
On his use of "civilization," see Moras, Ursprung, 5; on his use of "regenera- tion," see Morrissey, L'empereur a` la barbe fleurie, 268. D'Alembert had used the originally theological concept of "regeneration" in the preliminary dis- course to the Encyclope? die, but far more sparingly. See Alyssa R. Sepinwall, "Regenerating France, Regenerating the World: The Abbe? Gre? goire and the French Revolution, 1750-1831," Ph. D. diss. , Stanford University (1998), 83- 87.
Mirabeau, L'ami des hommes, 247-68.
See esp. ibid. , 316-29, on the question of whether France itself had yet reached the point of decrepitude.
Robert-Martin Lesuire, Les sauvages de l'Europe (Berlin, 1760), quote from 41. The novel had sufficient success to be reprinted during France and England's next war (Paris, 1780); it was even translated into English (The Savages of Eu- rope, London, 1764).
Ibid. , 22, 35-9, 126, 42.
C. -S. Favart, L'anglois a` Bordeaux (Paris, 1763, repr. 1771), 5; Jean-Bernard Leblanc and La Coste, quoted in Grieder, Anglomania (see Intro. , n. 55), 42; Lettre d'un jeune homme (see Intro. , n. 70), 44; Louis-Charles Fougeret de
Notes to Pages 44-46 237
? Montbron, Pre? servatif contre l'Anglomanie ("Minorca," 1757), 51; Edmond- Jean-Franc? ois Barbier, Chronique de la re? gence et du re`gne de Louis XV, 7 vols. (Paris, 1885), III, 273. In general, see Grieder, Dziembowski, Un nouveau patriotisme; and Frances Acomb, Anglophobia in France: An Essay in the His- tory of Constitutionalism and Nationalism (Durham, 1950).
97. Acomb's Anglophobia, which focuses on attitudes toward the English consti- tution, concludes that "Anglophile liberalism" declined towards the end of the old regime. Grieder, whose Anglomania takes in a broader spectrum of cultural influences, argues for the persistence of a dialectic between Anglo- phobia and Anglomania, as does Dziembowski in Un nouveau patriotisme franc? ais.
98. See also Edmond Dziembowski, "Les de? buts d'un publiciste au service de la monarchie: L'activite? litte? raire de Jacob-Nicolas Moreau pendant la guerre de sept ans," Revue d'histoire diplomatique, 4 (1995), 305-22; J. Labourdette, Vergennes, 205-8 (see Intro. , n. 70).
99. For an overview of this literature, see Thomas J. Schlereth, The Cosmopolitan Ideal in Enlightenment Thought: Its Form and Function in the Ideas of Franklin, Hume, and Voltaire, 1694-1790 (South Bend, 1977); Gerd van den Heuvel, "Cosmopolite, cosmopolitisme," in Reichart and Schmitt, eds. , Handbuch politisch-sozialer Grundbegriffe, VI (Munich, 1986), 41-55. Notes to Pages 44-46
100. Ferlus, Le patriotisme, 29; abbe? Baudeau, quoted in Elie-Lefebvre, 170; Journal encyclope? dique, par une socie? te? de gens de lettres, I (Jan. 15, 1756), 31; ibid. , 30; Apologie du caracte`re des anglois et des franc? ois (n. p. , 1726), 65.
101. Elie-Lefebvre, 169-81; Montesquieu, Cahiers, 1716-1755, Bernard Grasset, ed. (Paris, 1941), 9-10.
102. Sobry, Le mode franc? ois, 12, 431.
103. Discours sur le patriotisme (see Intro. , n. 56), 10; A. J. de Baptestein de
Mouliers Rupe, Me? moire sur un moyen facile et infallible de faire renai^tre le patriotisme en France, dans toutes les classes des citoyens, comme dans les deux sexes (Amsterdam, 1789), 1; Le patriotisme, poe? me, 6; Claude-Rigobert Lefe`bvre de Beauvray, Dictionnaire social et patriotique (Amsterdam, 1770), unpaginated preface; Jean-Baptiste-Jacques Elie de Beaumont, Discours sur le patriotisme dans la monarchie (Bordeaux, 1777), 9.
104. Pierre-Laurent Buirette de Belloy, Le sie`ge de Calais (Leyden, 1765), 48-49. See Acomb, Anglophobia, 55-59, for a representative interpretation of the play.
105. See, for instance, Acomb, Anglophobia, 55.
106. Favart, L'anglois a` Bordeaux; Lesuire, esp 61.
107. The evidence for this assertion will be discussed in Chapter 3.
108. See Bernard Cottret, ed. , Bolingbroke's Political Writings: The Conservative En-
lightenment (New York, 1997).
109. See on this subject Newman, The Rise of English Nationalism, esp. 1-47.
238
Notes to Pages 46-48
? 110.
Colley, Britons (see Intro. , n. 26), 36; Newman, The Rise of English Nationalism (see Intro. , n. 28); Kathleen Wilson, The Sense of the People: Politics, Culture, and Imperialism in England, 1715-1785 (Cambridge, 1995). Jeremy Black, however, argues against taking the conclusion too far in "Confessional State or Elect Nation? Religion and Identity in Eighteenth-Century England," in Claydon and McBride, Protestantism and National Identity, 53-74. T. H. Breen, "Ideology and Nationalism on the Eve of the American Revolution: Revisions Once More in Need of Revising," Journal of American History, LXXXIV/1 (1997), 13-39, emphasizes that Britain's exclusionary nationalism could even be directed at its own colonists in North America.
Johann Georg Zimmermann, Vom Nationalstolze (Zurich, 1768), 177. The book was published in at least four editions and translated into both English and French.
See Colley, esp. 1-54; Newman, esp. 49-120; Wilson, The Sense of the People, 140-65.
James Axtell, The Invasion Within: The Contest of Cultures in Colonial North America (New York, 1981).
Colley, 11-54.
Newman, The Rise of English Nationalism, 109-18, quotes from 115, 112.
See Lionel Gossman, Medievalism and the Ideologies of the Enlightenment: The World and Work of La Curne de Sainte-Palaye (Baltimore, 1968). See also be- low, Chapter 5.
Again belying Maurizio Viroli's claim that the "language of patriotism" had a single, essential meaning. See Viroli, For Love of Country, 1-2.
The English language, of course, has no real equivalent of patrie; "fatherland" and "motherland" are almost always used in reference to foreign countries.
