virtue to be a form of immorality do we again justify it--it then becomes classified, and likened,
in fundamental features, the profound and general immorality all existence, which
then shown part.
in fundamental features, the profound and general immorality all existence, which
then shown part.
Nietzsche - Works - v14 - Will to Power - a
On the other hand, I do not
rest until I am quite clear concerning the im morality of any particular thing which happens
to come under my notice. When I discover recover my equanimity.
IO.
A. The ways which lead power: the presenta tion of the new virtue under the name of an old one,--the awakening "interest" concerning ("happiness" declared its reward, and vice versa? ),--artistic slandering
its way,--the exploitation advantages and accidents with the view glorifying it,-the con
version adherents into fanatics means
? sacrifices and grand scale.
separations,--symbolism
Power attained: (1) Means virtue; (2) seductive means (court) etiquette virtue.
II.
constraint virtue; (3) the
By what means does virtue attain power? -- With precisely the same means political party: slander, suspicion, the undermining opposing virtues that happen be already power, the changing
and scorn;
"immorality. "
How does
desire behave towards itself in
their names, systematic persecution short, means acts of general
that stands
? ? in of a
of its
by
to
of a
as of a
of
in
of
of
to
3
toof 3
of B.
I
of
on
ainit it,
by
of
of of be all
to
? A CRITICISM OF MORALITY.
253
order to become a virtue? --A process of re christening; systematic denial of intentions;
practice misunderstanding itself; alliance with
established and recognised virtues; ostentatious
enmity towards adversaries. possible, too, the protection sacred powers must be purchased;
people must also intoxicated and fired with A enthusiasm; idealistic humbug must be used, and
party must be won, which either triumphs perishes--one must unconscious and naif.
I2.
Cruelty has become transformed and elevated into tragic pity, that we no longer recognise
such. The same has happened the love
obedience; wretchedness becomes humility; the disease the nervus sympathicus, for instance,
eulogised Pessimism, Pascalism, Carlylism, etc.
We should begin entertain doubts concerning
man we heard that he required reasons order remain respectable: we should, any case, certainly avoid his society. The little word
we should hear, course time, that such-and such an aspirant for virtue was need bad reasons order remain respectable, would not
? the sexes which has become
the slavish attitude mind appears Christian
"for" certain cases
sometimes single "for" enough refute one.
amour-passion;
may compromising;
? ? in
in a
to if
as of
in
to
in
so
of
its
it
of
to
Ifa ofita as
is of
3.
in
to
or
as
its
be
If
to of be 3I 3
be
in
inis or
Z
? 254
THE WILL TO POWER.
conduce to increasing our respect for him. But
he goes further; he comes to us, and tells us quite openly: "You disturb my morality with
your disbelief, Mr. Sceptic; so long as you cannot believe in my bad reasons,--that is to say, in my God, in a disciplinary Beyond, in free will, etc. ,
you put obstacles in the way of my virtue. . . Moral, sceptics must be suppressed: they prevent
the moralisation of the masses. "
3I4.
Our most sacred convictions, those which are permanent in us concerning the highest values,
are judgments emanating from our muscles.
3 I 5.
Morality in the valuation of races and classes. -- In view of the fact that the passions and funda mental instincts in every race and class express
preserve
themselves (or at least the means which have
enabled them to live for the longest period of
time), to call them "virtuous" practically means: That they change their character, shed their
skins, and blot out their past.
It means that they should cease from differen
tiating themselves from others.
It means that they are getting to resemble each
other in their needs and aspirations--or, more exactly, that they are declining. . . .
It means that the will to one kind of morality
? the means which enable the latter to
? ? ? A CRITICISM OF MORALITY.
255
is merely the tyranny of the particular species, which is adapted to that kind of morality, over
other species: it means a process of annihilation or general levelling in favour of the prevailing
species (whether it be to render the non-prevailing species harmless, or to exploit them); the
"Abolition of Slavery"--a so-called tribute to "human dignity"; in truth, the annihilation of a fundamentally different species (the under
mining of its values and its happiness).
The qualities which constitute the strength of an opposing race or class are declared to be the
most evil and pernicious things it has: for by means of them it may be harmful to us (its virtues are slandered and rechristened).
When a man or a people harm us, their action
constitutes an objection against them: but from
their point of view we are desirable, because we are such as can be useful to them.
The insistence upon spreading "humaneness" (which guilelessly starts out with the assumption that it is in possession of the formula "What is human") is all humbug, beneath the cover of which a certain definite type of man strives to attain to power: or, more precisely, a very
particular kind of instinct--the gregarious instinct.
"The equality of men": this is what lies concealed
behind the tendency of making ever more and more men alike as men.
The "interested nature" of the morality of
? ordinary people.
great passions for power and property to the positions of protectors of virtue. )
(The trick was to elevate the
? ? ? 256
THE WILL TO POWER.
To what extent do all kinds of business men
and money-grabbers--all those who give and
take credit--find it necessary to promote the levelling of all characters and notions of value? the commerce and the exchange of the world leads to, and almost purchases, virtue.
The State exercises the same influence, as does
also any sort of ruling power at the head of
officials and soldiers; science acts in the same
way, in order that it may work in security and
economise forces. And the priesthood does the same.
Communal morality thus promoted here,
because advantageous; and, order make triumph, war and violence are waged against immorality--with what "right"? Without any right whatsoever; but accordance with
the instinct self-preservation. The same classes avail themselves immorality when
? serves their purpose
Observe the hypocritical colour which all
civil institutions are painted, just they were
the offshoots morality--for instance: marriage, work, calling, patriotism, the family, order, and
rights. But they were all established
favour the most mediocre
type man,
do so.
316.
protect him from exceptions and the need exceptions, one must not surprised find them sown with lies.
? ? be
of
in
is
to
of
as if
in to
of
of
it
of to in
it
as
of
to
it
is
its
? A CRITICISM OF MORALITY,
257
much those are worth whom say, that on the whole
and indecent: no priest anything else
317.
Virtue must be defended against preachers: they are its worst enemies. For they teach virtue an ideal for all; they divest virtue the
charm which consists its rareness, its inimit ableness, its exceptional and non average
character--that say, its aristocratic charm. stand must also be made against those embittered idealists who eagerly tap all pots and are satisfied hear them ring hollow: what in
genuousness! --to demand great and rare things, and then declare, with anger and contempt
one's fellows, that they do not exist! --It obvious, for instance, that marriage worth only
? Virtue has the man against it:
prudent, and isolates.
and not very accessible
character, the head, and the senses--always,
course, subject the medium standard men; provokes hostility towards order, and towards
the lies which are concealed beneath all order, all institutions, and all reality--when seen
the light its pernicious influence upon others, the worst of vices.
TRANSLATOR'S NOTE. --Virtue used here, course, the sense "the excellence man,' not the sense
the Christian negative virtue. WOL.
joins--that something wretched registrar can make
instincts the not profitable,
related reason;
not passion, spoils the
average
? ? I.
as *
R
of
to It is
or it is
in
in* it is
it
to
A as
of
of
to
to
in
of
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is
-
is
it is
to
is
a
is to
it
of
its
of
ofinof isasof
of
it
of it allit.
of
? 258
THE WILL TO POWER.
I recognise virtue in that: (1) it does not insist upon being recognised; (2) it does not presuppose the existence of virtue everywhere, but precisely something else; (3) it does not suffer from the absence of virtue, but regards it rather as a relation of perspective which throws virtue into relief: it does not proclaim itself; (4) it
makes no propaganda; (5) it allows no one to pose as judge because it is always a personal virtue; (6) it does precisely what is generally
forbidden: virtue as I understand it is the actual vetitum within all gregarious legislation; (7) in
short, I recognise virtue in that it is in the
Renaissance style--virtu`-free from all moralic acid. . . .
3. 18.
In the first place," Messrs. Virtue-mongers, you
have no superiority over us; we should like to make you take modesty a little more to heart:
it is wretched personal interests and prudence which suggest your virtue to you. And if you had more strength and courage in your bodies you
would not lower yourselves thus to the level of virtuous nonentities. You make what you can of yourselves: partly what you are obliged to make,
--that is to say, what your circumstances force you to make,--partly what suits your pleasure and
partly what seems useful to you. But if you do only what is in keeping with your inclinations,
* TRANSLATOR'S NOTE. --Here Nietzsche returns to Christian virtue which is negative and moral.
? ? ? ? A CRITICISM OF MORALITY,
259
or what necessity exacts from you, or what is useful to you, you ought neither to praise your
selves nor let others praise you ! . . . One is a thoroughly puny kind of man when one is only virtuous: nothing should mislead you in this regard | Men who have to be considered at all, were never such donkeys of virtue: their inmost instinct, that which determined their quantum of power, did not find its reckoning thus: whereas with your minimum amount of power nothing can seem more full of wisdom to you than virtue. But the multitude are on your side: and because you tyrannise over us, we shall,fight you. . . .
3 IQ.
A virtuous man is of a lower species because,
in the first place, he has no "personality," but
acquires his value by conforming with a certain human scheme which has been once and for ever
fixed. He has no independent value: he may
be compared; he has his equals, he must not be an individual.
Reckoning up the qualities of the good man, why is it they appear pleasant to us? Because they urge us neither to war, to mistrust, to caution, to the accumulating of forces, nor to severity: our laziness, our good nature, and our levity, have a good time. This, our feeling of
well-being, is what we project into the good man
in the form of a quality, in the form of a valuable possession,
? ? ? ? 260 THE WILL TO POWER.
32O.
Under certain circumstances, virtue is merely a venerable form of stupidity: who could blame her for it? And this form of virtue has not
been outlived even to-day. A sort of honest peasant-simplicity, which is possible, however, in all
classes of society, and which one cannot meet with anything else than a respectful smile, still thinks
to-day that everything is in good hands--that is
to say, in "God's hands": and when it supports
this proposition with that same modest assurance as that with which it would assert that two and
2
? i |
two are four, we others naturally refrain from contradiction.
Why disturb this pure foolery; Why darken
it with our cares concerning man, people, goals,
the future? Even if we wished to do so, we
shouldn't succeed. In all things these people see
the reflection of their own venerable stupidity and
goodness (in them the old God--deus myops--
still lives); we others see something else in everything: our problematic nature, our contra
dictions, our deeper, more painful, and more suspicious wisdom.
32 I.
He who finds a particular virtue an easy matter, ultimately laughs at Seriousness cannot be maintained once virtue attained. As
soon man has reached virtue, he jumps out
it--whither? Into devilry.
Meanwhile, how intelligent all our evil tend
? ? > of
as a
is it.
? A CRITICISM OF MORALITY. 261
fishhooks of knowledge |
322.
The idea is to associate vice with something so
terrible that at last one is obliged to run away
from it in order to be rid of associations. This the well-known case of Tannha? user.
Tannha? user, brought his wits' end by Wagner ian music, cannot endure life any longer even
encies and impulses have become ! What an
a- inquisitiveness
amount of scientific torments them !
? the company begins have virgin goes up
still, he shows bach's melody.
Mrs. Venus: suddenly virtue charm for him; Thuringian
price, and what even worse liking for Wolfram von Eschen
323.
Virtue. --Lust property, lust
The Patrons
power, laziness, simplicity, fear; all these things
are interested virtue; that why stands securely.
324.
Virtue no longer believed in; its powers
attraction are dead; what needed some one
who will once more bring into the market the form of an outlandish kind of adventure and of
dissipation. exacts too much extravagance and narrow-mindedness from its believers to allow of conscience not being against to-day. Certainly,
for people without either consciences scruples,
? ? or
is
it
it is
is
It
in . a of of . ina
in
of
so
in
of is
to
is
of it
is a
its
.
to
? 262 THE WILL TO POWER.
this may constitute its new charm: it is now what it has never been before--a vice.
325.
326.
Virtues are as dangerous as vices, in so far as
they are allowed to rule over one as authorities and laws coming from outside, and not as qualities one
develops one's self. The latter is the only right
way; they should be the most personal means of defence and most individual needs--the determin
ing factors of precisely our existence and growth, which we recognise and acknowledge independ
ently of the question whether others grow with us
with the help of the same or of different principles.
This view of the danger of the virtue which is
understood as impersonal and objective also holds good of modesty: through modesty many of the
choicest intellects perish. The morality of modesty
is the worst possible softening influence for those souls for which it is pre-eminently necessary that
they become hard betimes.
327.
The domain of morality must be reduced and limited step by step; the names of the instincts which are really active in this sphere must be drawn into the light of day and honoured, after
/\
remain so !
Virtue is still the most expensive vice: let it
? ? ? ? A CRITICISM OF MORALITY.
263
they have lain all this time in the concealment of hypocritical names of virtue. Out of respect for one's "honesty," which makes itself heard ever more and more imperiously, one ought to unlearn the shame which makes one deny and "explain away" all natural instincts. The extent to which
one can dispense with virtue is the measure of one's strength; and a height may be imagined where the notion "virtue" is understood in such a
way as to be reminiscent of virta`--the virtue of the Renaissance--free from moralic acid. But
for the moment--how remote this ideal seems |
The reduction of the domain of morality is a sign of its progress. Wherever, hitherto, thought
has not been guided by causality, thinking has taken a moral turn.
328.
After all, what have I achieved ? Let us not
close our eyes to this wonderful result: I have lent new charms to virtue--it now affects one
in the same way as something forbidden. It has our most subtle honesty against salted
? the "cum grano salis"
conscience. savours fashion, and thus
the scientific pang antiquity and old
last beginning draw make them inquisitive--in
refined people and
short, affects like vice. Only after we have once recognised that everything consists lies and appearance, shall have again earned the right
uphold this most beautiful all fictions--virtue. There will then remain no further reason to de
prive ourselves it: only when we have shown
? ? of
we
It us
to
it
it a tois
at of of of
of
to of
is
of in
it, it
? 264
THE WILL TO POWER.
virtue to be a form of immorality do we again justify it--it then becomes classified, and likened,
in fundamental features, the profound and general immorality all existence, which
then shown part. appears form luxury the first order, the most arrogant, the
dearest, and rarest form vice. We have robbed grimaces and divested its drapery;
we have delivered from the importunate famili arity the crowd; we have deprived its
ridiculous rigidity, its empty expression, its stiff false hair, and its hieratic muscles.
? And any harm
supposed
329.
that have thereby done Just little anar Only since they have been
virtue? princes.
chists
shot at, have they once more sat securely on their thrones. For thus has always been and
will ever be: one cannot do thing
service than persecute and run This--I have done.
THE MORAL IDEAL.
A. Criticism of Ideals.
33O.
were the thing begin this criticism
better earth.
wise
criticism of desiderata.
do away with the word "Ideal":
such
? ? as to
. . .
do is to to it
of its
of
a
it of is
. it It. of
its
in
it
to a as
it of
as of a
to A be
5. to
it a
to . of
to a
as
it of
. it .
of
it
I
It
to
? A CRITICISM OF MORALITY.
33 I.
265
Only the fewest amongst us are aware of what is involved, from the standpoint of desirability, in
every "thus should it be, but it is not," or even "thus it ought to have been": such expressions of opinion involve a condemnation of the whole
nothing quite isolated in the world: the smallest thing bears the largest on its back; on thy small injustice the
whole nature of the future depends; the whole is condemned by every criticism which is directed at
the smallest part of Now granting that the moral norm--even as Kant understood it--is
never completely fulfilled, and remains like sort Beyond hanging over reality without ever
falling down it; then morality would contain itself judgment concerning the whole, which
would still, however, allow the question: whence
does get the right thereto How does the part come acquire this judicial position relative
the whole And some have declared, this
course of events. For there is
? with, reality, an ineradicable instinct, not possible
moral condemnation and dissatisfaction
that this instinct may perhaps belong the
ineradicable stupidities and immodesties our, species? --But saying this, we are doing pre
cisely what we deprecate; the point view
desirability and part and parcel phenomena just
unauthorised fault-finding
the whole character worldly every injustice and imperfection
is--it our very notion "perfection" which never gratified. Every instinct which desires
? ? to is
is of
to
is
is
to it
a
to
as of of of
in
of
of
of to
is it
if, of,as
it.
P
?
of
in
of
a
? 266 THE WILL TO POWER.
be indulged gives expression to its dissatisfaction
with the present state of things: how? Is the
whole perhaps made up of a host of dissatisfied
parts, which all have desiderata in their heads? Is
the "course of things" perhaps "the road hence? the road leading away from reality"--that is to
say, eternal dissatisfaction in itself? Is the concep tion of desiderata perhaps the essential motive power of all things? Is it--deus *
>k
It seems to me of the utmost importance that we should rid ourselves of the notion of the whole,
of an entity, and of any kind of power or form of the unconditioned. For we shall never be able
to resist the temptation of regarding it as the supreme being, and of christening it "God. "
The "All " must be subdivided; we must unlearn our respect for and reappropriate that which
? imaginary entity, for the purposes our neighbour and our selves. Whereas, for instance, Kant said: "Two
things remain for ever worthy honour" (at the
close his Practical Reason)--to-day we should prefer say: "Digestion more worthy
honour. " The concept, "the All," will always
we have lent the unknown and an
give rise the old problems, possible? " etc. Therefore, there
there great sensorium power-magazine.
332. just bad taste as: "A tree
man he ought
"How evil "All,"
inventarium
this sounds me ought be. "
? ? A as
is no
to of
as
to
to
of is
be :
as or it
of
no to to
is
in or of
is
it,
? A. CRITICISM OF MORALITY.
333.
267
Ethics: or the "philosophy of desirability. "-- "Things ought to be otherwise," "things ought to become different": dissatisfaction would thus seem the heart of ethics.
One could find a way out of first, by select ing only those states which one free from emotion; secondly, by grasping the insolence and stupidity
the attitude mind: for desire that something should be otherwise than
means desire that everything should different --it involves damaging criticism the whole. But life itself consists such desiring
To ascertain what exists, how exists seems an ever much higher and more serious matter than every "thus should be," because the latter,
piece human criticism and arrogance, appears to be condemned as ludicrous from the start.
? expresses
organisation the world correspond with our
need which would fain have the
human well-being, and which directs the will much possible towards the accomplishment
that relationship.
On the other hand, this desire, "thus ought
be," has only called forth that other desire, "what exists f" The desire knowing what exists, already consequence the question, "how? possible? Why precisely so? " Our wonder
the disagreement between our desires and the course the world has led our learning know the course the world. Perhaps the matter stands differently: maybe the expression,
? ? of
it
at is is it
to
a
of
a
of
a of
of of to
it
it,
to
ofas
It as
it is,
it
to
as
of
so
to
a
in
of
in
/
of
be
is
? 268 THE WILL TO POWER.
"thus it ought to be," is merely the utterance of our desire to overcome the world
3. 34.
To-day when every attempt at determining how
man should be--is received with some irony, when
we adhere to the notion that in spite of all one
only becomes what one is (in spite of all--that
say, education, instruction, environment, accident, and disaster), in the matter of morality we have learnt, in a very peculiar way, how to
is to
reverse the relation of cause and effect.
? perhaps distinguishes
Nothing
us more than this from the
ancient believers in morality. We no longer say,
for instance, "Vice is the cause of a man's physical ruin," and we no longer say, "A man prospers with
virtue because it brings a long life and happiness. " Our minds to-day are much more inclined to the belief that vice and virtue are not causes but only effects. A man becomes a respectable member of society because he was a respectable man from the start--that is to say, because he was born in possession of good instincts and prosperous pro
pensities. . . . Should a man enter the world poor,
and the son of parents who are neither economical nor thrifty, he is insusceptible of being improved--
that is to say, he is only for the prison the madhouse. To-day we are no longer able separate moral from physical degeneration: the former merely complicated symptom the latter; man necessarily bad just he
necessarily
Bad: this word here stands
? ? ill.
. . .
a is
. isa .
as
or
is
to
of
fit
? A CRITICISM OF MORALITY.
269
for a certain lack of capacity which is related physiologically with the degenerating type--for
instance, a weak will, an uncertain and many-sided
personality, the inability to resist reacting to a
stimulus and to control one's self, and a certain constraint resulting from every suggestion pro
ceeding from another's will. Vice is not a cause;
arbitrary epitome of certain effects resulting from physio logical degeneracy. A general proposition such
as that which Christianity teaches, namely, "Man is evil," would be justified provided one were justified in regarding a given type of degenerate man as normal. But this may be an exaggeration. Of course, wherever Christianity prospers and pre vails, the proposition holds good: for then the
existence of an unhealthy soil--of a degenerate
it is an effect. . . . Vice is a somewhat
? - territory--is
demonstrated.
3. 35.
It is difficult to have sufficient respect for man, when one sees how he understands the art of
fighting his way, of enduring, of turning circum
stances to his own advantage, and of overthrowing
opponents; but when he is seen in the light of his desires, he is the most absurd of all animals. . . . It is just as if he required a playground for his cowardice, his laziness, his feebleness, his sweetness, his submissiveness, where he recovers
from his strong virile virtues. Just look at man's "desiderata " and his "ideals. " Man, when he
desires,
tries to recover from that which is
? ? ? THE WILL TO POWER.
27o
eternally valuable in him, from his deeds; and
then he rushes into nonentity, absurdity, valueless
ness, childishness. The intellectual indigence and
lack of inventive power of this resourceful and
inventive animal is simply terrible. The "ideal"
is at the same time the penalty man pays for the
enormous expenditure which he has to defray
in all real and pressing duties. Should reality cease to prevail, there follow dreams, fatigue,
weakness: an "ideal" might even be regarded
as a form of dream, fatigue, or weakness. The
strongest and the most impotent men become
alike when this condition overtakes them: they deify the cessation of work, of war, of passions,
of suspense, of contrasts, of "reality"--in short, of
the struggle for knowledge and of the trouble of acquiring
"Innocence" them idealised stultification;
"blessedness" idealised idleness; "love," the
ideal state the gregarious animal that will no longer have an enemy. And thus everything that
? elevated to an ideal.
desire magnifies the thing desired; and by not being realised grows--the greatest ideas
are those which have been created by the strongest and longest desiring. Things grow ever more
waluable our estimation, the more our desire for them increases: "moral values" have become
the highest values, simply shows that the moral ideal the one which has been realised least (and
lowers and belittles man
336.
? ? is
A in
it
if
it
is
is
of
is to
it.
? A CRITICISM OF MORALITY.
271
thus it represented the Beyond to all suffering, as a
road to blessedness). Man, with ever-increasing ardour, has only been embracing clouds: and
ultimately called his desperation and impotence "GOd. "
337.
Think of the naivete? of all ultimate "desiderata. " --when the "wherefore " of man remains unknown.
338.
What is the counterfeit coinage of morality?
First of all we should know what "good and
evil" mean. That is as good as wishing to know
why man is here, and what his goal or his destiny is. And that means that one would fain know
that man actually has a goal or a destiny.
339.
The very obscure and arbitrary notion that humanity has a general duty to perform, and that,
as a whole, it is striving towards a goal, is
still in infancy. Perhaps we shall once more be rid of before becomes "fixed idea. "
(But humanity does not constitute whole: indissoluble multiplicity ascending and
descending organisms--it knows no such thing
state youth followed by maturity and then age. But its strata lie confused and superimposed--and few thousand years
? ? ? in a
as a
is an
it its of
a of
a
. it .
it
? 272
THE WILL TO POWER.
there may be even younger types of men than we can point out to-day. Decadence, on the
other hand, belongs to all periods of human history: everywhere there is refuse and decaying
matter, such things are in themselves vital pro cesses; for withering and decaying elements must be eliminated.
>k
Under the empire of Christian prejudice this
question was never put at all : the purpose of life seemed to lie in the salvation of the individual
soul; the question whether humanity might last for a long or a short time was not considered. The best Christians longed for the end to come as soon as possible;--concerning the needs of the individual, there seemed to be no doubt whatsoever.
. . . The duty of every individual for the present
was identical with what it would be in any sort
of future for the man of the future: the value,
the purpose, the limit of values was for ever fixed, unconditioned, eternal, one with God. . . . What
deviated from this eternal type was impious, diabolic, criminal.
The centre of gravity of all values for each
soul lay in that soul itself: salvation or damnation | The salvation of the immortal soul! The most
extreme form of personalisation. . . . For each soul there was only one kind of perfection; only one ideal, only one road to salvation. . . . The most extreme form of the principle of equal rights,
associated with an optical magnification of in dividual importance to the point of megalomania
? ? ? ? A CRITICISM OF MORALITY.
273
. . . Nothing but insanely important souls, re
volving round their own axes with unspeakable terror. . . .
sk
Nobody believes in these assumed airs of im portance any longer to-day: and we have sifted
our wisdom through the sieve of contempt.
Nevertheless the optical habit survives, which
would fain measure the value of man by his
proximity to a certain ideal man: at bottom the personalisation view is upheld as firmly as that of
the equality of rights as regards the ideal. In
short: people seem to think that they know what the ultimate desideratum is in regard to the ideal IIlall. . . .
But this belief is merely the result of the
exceedingly detrimental influence of the Christian
ideal, as anybody can discover for himself every
time he carefully examines the "ideal type. " In
the first place, it is believed that the approach to a given "type" is desirable; secondly, that this
particular type is known; thirdly, that every deviation from this type is a retrograde movement, a stemming of the spirit of progress, a loss of
power and might in man. . . . To dream of a state of affairs in which this perfect man will be in the majority: our friends the Socialists and even Messrs. the Utilitarians have not gone farther than this. In this way an aim seems to have crept into the evolution of man: at any rate the belief in a certain progress towards an
ideal is the only shape in which an aim is con VOL.
rest until I am quite clear concerning the im morality of any particular thing which happens
to come under my notice. When I discover recover my equanimity.
IO.
A. The ways which lead power: the presenta tion of the new virtue under the name of an old one,--the awakening "interest" concerning ("happiness" declared its reward, and vice versa? ),--artistic slandering
its way,--the exploitation advantages and accidents with the view glorifying it,-the con
version adherents into fanatics means
? sacrifices and grand scale.
separations,--symbolism
Power attained: (1) Means virtue; (2) seductive means (court) etiquette virtue.
II.
constraint virtue; (3) the
By what means does virtue attain power? -- With precisely the same means political party: slander, suspicion, the undermining opposing virtues that happen be already power, the changing
and scorn;
"immorality. "
How does
desire behave towards itself in
their names, systematic persecution short, means acts of general
that stands
? ? in of a
of its
by
to
of a
as of a
of
in
of
of
to
3
toof 3
of B.
I
of
on
ainit it,
by
of
of of be all
to
? A CRITICISM OF MORALITY.
253
order to become a virtue? --A process of re christening; systematic denial of intentions;
practice misunderstanding itself; alliance with
established and recognised virtues; ostentatious
enmity towards adversaries. possible, too, the protection sacred powers must be purchased;
people must also intoxicated and fired with A enthusiasm; idealistic humbug must be used, and
party must be won, which either triumphs perishes--one must unconscious and naif.
I2.
Cruelty has become transformed and elevated into tragic pity, that we no longer recognise
such. The same has happened the love
obedience; wretchedness becomes humility; the disease the nervus sympathicus, for instance,
eulogised Pessimism, Pascalism, Carlylism, etc.
We should begin entertain doubts concerning
man we heard that he required reasons order remain respectable: we should, any case, certainly avoid his society. The little word
we should hear, course time, that such-and such an aspirant for virtue was need bad reasons order remain respectable, would not
? the sexes which has become
the slavish attitude mind appears Christian
"for" certain cases
sometimes single "for" enough refute one.
amour-passion;
may compromising;
? ? in
in a
to if
as of
in
to
in
so
of
its
it
of
to
Ifa ofita as
is of
3.
in
to
or
as
its
be
If
to of be 3I 3
be
in
inis or
Z
? 254
THE WILL TO POWER.
conduce to increasing our respect for him. But
he goes further; he comes to us, and tells us quite openly: "You disturb my morality with
your disbelief, Mr. Sceptic; so long as you cannot believe in my bad reasons,--that is to say, in my God, in a disciplinary Beyond, in free will, etc. ,
you put obstacles in the way of my virtue. . . Moral, sceptics must be suppressed: they prevent
the moralisation of the masses. "
3I4.
Our most sacred convictions, those which are permanent in us concerning the highest values,
are judgments emanating from our muscles.
3 I 5.
Morality in the valuation of races and classes. -- In view of the fact that the passions and funda mental instincts in every race and class express
preserve
themselves (or at least the means which have
enabled them to live for the longest period of
time), to call them "virtuous" practically means: That they change their character, shed their
skins, and blot out their past.
It means that they should cease from differen
tiating themselves from others.
It means that they are getting to resemble each
other in their needs and aspirations--or, more exactly, that they are declining. . . .
It means that the will to one kind of morality
? the means which enable the latter to
? ? ? A CRITICISM OF MORALITY.
255
is merely the tyranny of the particular species, which is adapted to that kind of morality, over
other species: it means a process of annihilation or general levelling in favour of the prevailing
species (whether it be to render the non-prevailing species harmless, or to exploit them); the
"Abolition of Slavery"--a so-called tribute to "human dignity"; in truth, the annihilation of a fundamentally different species (the under
mining of its values and its happiness).
The qualities which constitute the strength of an opposing race or class are declared to be the
most evil and pernicious things it has: for by means of them it may be harmful to us (its virtues are slandered and rechristened).
When a man or a people harm us, their action
constitutes an objection against them: but from
their point of view we are desirable, because we are such as can be useful to them.
The insistence upon spreading "humaneness" (which guilelessly starts out with the assumption that it is in possession of the formula "What is human") is all humbug, beneath the cover of which a certain definite type of man strives to attain to power: or, more precisely, a very
particular kind of instinct--the gregarious instinct.
"The equality of men": this is what lies concealed
behind the tendency of making ever more and more men alike as men.
The "interested nature" of the morality of
? ordinary people.
great passions for power and property to the positions of protectors of virtue. )
(The trick was to elevate the
? ? ? 256
THE WILL TO POWER.
To what extent do all kinds of business men
and money-grabbers--all those who give and
take credit--find it necessary to promote the levelling of all characters and notions of value? the commerce and the exchange of the world leads to, and almost purchases, virtue.
The State exercises the same influence, as does
also any sort of ruling power at the head of
officials and soldiers; science acts in the same
way, in order that it may work in security and
economise forces. And the priesthood does the same.
Communal morality thus promoted here,
because advantageous; and, order make triumph, war and violence are waged against immorality--with what "right"? Without any right whatsoever; but accordance with
the instinct self-preservation. The same classes avail themselves immorality when
? serves their purpose
Observe the hypocritical colour which all
civil institutions are painted, just they were
the offshoots morality--for instance: marriage, work, calling, patriotism, the family, order, and
rights. But they were all established
favour the most mediocre
type man,
do so.
316.
protect him from exceptions and the need exceptions, one must not surprised find them sown with lies.
? ? be
of
in
is
to
of
as if
in to
of
of
it
of to in
it
as
of
to
it
is
its
? A CRITICISM OF MORALITY,
257
much those are worth whom say, that on the whole
and indecent: no priest anything else
317.
Virtue must be defended against preachers: they are its worst enemies. For they teach virtue an ideal for all; they divest virtue the
charm which consists its rareness, its inimit ableness, its exceptional and non average
character--that say, its aristocratic charm. stand must also be made against those embittered idealists who eagerly tap all pots and are satisfied hear them ring hollow: what in
genuousness! --to demand great and rare things, and then declare, with anger and contempt
one's fellows, that they do not exist! --It obvious, for instance, that marriage worth only
? Virtue has the man against it:
prudent, and isolates.
and not very accessible
character, the head, and the senses--always,
course, subject the medium standard men; provokes hostility towards order, and towards
the lies which are concealed beneath all order, all institutions, and all reality--when seen
the light its pernicious influence upon others, the worst of vices.
TRANSLATOR'S NOTE. --Virtue used here, course, the sense "the excellence man,' not the sense
the Christian negative virtue. WOL.
joins--that something wretched registrar can make
instincts the not profitable,
related reason;
not passion, spoils the
average
? ? I.
as *
R
of
to It is
or it is
in
in* it is
it
to
A as
of
of
to
to
in
of
to it is
is
-
is
it is
to
is
a
is to
it
of
its
of
ofinof isasof
of
it
of it allit.
of
? 258
THE WILL TO POWER.
I recognise virtue in that: (1) it does not insist upon being recognised; (2) it does not presuppose the existence of virtue everywhere, but precisely something else; (3) it does not suffer from the absence of virtue, but regards it rather as a relation of perspective which throws virtue into relief: it does not proclaim itself; (4) it
makes no propaganda; (5) it allows no one to pose as judge because it is always a personal virtue; (6) it does precisely what is generally
forbidden: virtue as I understand it is the actual vetitum within all gregarious legislation; (7) in
short, I recognise virtue in that it is in the
Renaissance style--virtu`-free from all moralic acid. . . .
3. 18.
In the first place," Messrs. Virtue-mongers, you
have no superiority over us; we should like to make you take modesty a little more to heart:
it is wretched personal interests and prudence which suggest your virtue to you. And if you had more strength and courage in your bodies you
would not lower yourselves thus to the level of virtuous nonentities. You make what you can of yourselves: partly what you are obliged to make,
--that is to say, what your circumstances force you to make,--partly what suits your pleasure and
partly what seems useful to you. But if you do only what is in keeping with your inclinations,
* TRANSLATOR'S NOTE. --Here Nietzsche returns to Christian virtue which is negative and moral.
? ? ? ? A CRITICISM OF MORALITY,
259
or what necessity exacts from you, or what is useful to you, you ought neither to praise your
selves nor let others praise you ! . . . One is a thoroughly puny kind of man when one is only virtuous: nothing should mislead you in this regard | Men who have to be considered at all, were never such donkeys of virtue: their inmost instinct, that which determined their quantum of power, did not find its reckoning thus: whereas with your minimum amount of power nothing can seem more full of wisdom to you than virtue. But the multitude are on your side: and because you tyrannise over us, we shall,fight you. . . .
3 IQ.
A virtuous man is of a lower species because,
in the first place, he has no "personality," but
acquires his value by conforming with a certain human scheme which has been once and for ever
fixed. He has no independent value: he may
be compared; he has his equals, he must not be an individual.
Reckoning up the qualities of the good man, why is it they appear pleasant to us? Because they urge us neither to war, to mistrust, to caution, to the accumulating of forces, nor to severity: our laziness, our good nature, and our levity, have a good time. This, our feeling of
well-being, is what we project into the good man
in the form of a quality, in the form of a valuable possession,
? ? ? ? 260 THE WILL TO POWER.
32O.
Under certain circumstances, virtue is merely a venerable form of stupidity: who could blame her for it? And this form of virtue has not
been outlived even to-day. A sort of honest peasant-simplicity, which is possible, however, in all
classes of society, and which one cannot meet with anything else than a respectful smile, still thinks
to-day that everything is in good hands--that is
to say, in "God's hands": and when it supports
this proposition with that same modest assurance as that with which it would assert that two and
2
? i |
two are four, we others naturally refrain from contradiction.
Why disturb this pure foolery; Why darken
it with our cares concerning man, people, goals,
the future? Even if we wished to do so, we
shouldn't succeed. In all things these people see
the reflection of their own venerable stupidity and
goodness (in them the old God--deus myops--
still lives); we others see something else in everything: our problematic nature, our contra
dictions, our deeper, more painful, and more suspicious wisdom.
32 I.
He who finds a particular virtue an easy matter, ultimately laughs at Seriousness cannot be maintained once virtue attained. As
soon man has reached virtue, he jumps out
it--whither? Into devilry.
Meanwhile, how intelligent all our evil tend
? ? > of
as a
is it.
? A CRITICISM OF MORALITY. 261
fishhooks of knowledge |
322.
The idea is to associate vice with something so
terrible that at last one is obliged to run away
from it in order to be rid of associations. This the well-known case of Tannha? user.
Tannha? user, brought his wits' end by Wagner ian music, cannot endure life any longer even
encies and impulses have become ! What an
a- inquisitiveness
amount of scientific torments them !
? the company begins have virgin goes up
still, he shows bach's melody.
Mrs. Venus: suddenly virtue charm for him; Thuringian
price, and what even worse liking for Wolfram von Eschen
323.
Virtue. --Lust property, lust
The Patrons
power, laziness, simplicity, fear; all these things
are interested virtue; that why stands securely.
324.
Virtue no longer believed in; its powers
attraction are dead; what needed some one
who will once more bring into the market the form of an outlandish kind of adventure and of
dissipation. exacts too much extravagance and narrow-mindedness from its believers to allow of conscience not being against to-day. Certainly,
for people without either consciences scruples,
? ? or
is
it
it is
is
It
in . a of of . ina
in
of
so
in
of is
to
is
of it
is a
its
.
to
? 262 THE WILL TO POWER.
this may constitute its new charm: it is now what it has never been before--a vice.
325.
326.
Virtues are as dangerous as vices, in so far as
they are allowed to rule over one as authorities and laws coming from outside, and not as qualities one
develops one's self. The latter is the only right
way; they should be the most personal means of defence and most individual needs--the determin
ing factors of precisely our existence and growth, which we recognise and acknowledge independ
ently of the question whether others grow with us
with the help of the same or of different principles.
This view of the danger of the virtue which is
understood as impersonal and objective also holds good of modesty: through modesty many of the
choicest intellects perish. The morality of modesty
is the worst possible softening influence for those souls for which it is pre-eminently necessary that
they become hard betimes.
327.
The domain of morality must be reduced and limited step by step; the names of the instincts which are really active in this sphere must be drawn into the light of day and honoured, after
/\
remain so !
Virtue is still the most expensive vice: let it
? ? ? ? A CRITICISM OF MORALITY.
263
they have lain all this time in the concealment of hypocritical names of virtue. Out of respect for one's "honesty," which makes itself heard ever more and more imperiously, one ought to unlearn the shame which makes one deny and "explain away" all natural instincts. The extent to which
one can dispense with virtue is the measure of one's strength; and a height may be imagined where the notion "virtue" is understood in such a
way as to be reminiscent of virta`--the virtue of the Renaissance--free from moralic acid. But
for the moment--how remote this ideal seems |
The reduction of the domain of morality is a sign of its progress. Wherever, hitherto, thought
has not been guided by causality, thinking has taken a moral turn.
328.
After all, what have I achieved ? Let us not
close our eyes to this wonderful result: I have lent new charms to virtue--it now affects one
in the same way as something forbidden. It has our most subtle honesty against salted
? the "cum grano salis"
conscience. savours fashion, and thus
the scientific pang antiquity and old
last beginning draw make them inquisitive--in
refined people and
short, affects like vice. Only after we have once recognised that everything consists lies and appearance, shall have again earned the right
uphold this most beautiful all fictions--virtue. There will then remain no further reason to de
prive ourselves it: only when we have shown
? ? of
we
It us
to
it
it a tois
at of of of
of
to of
is
of in
it, it
? 264
THE WILL TO POWER.
virtue to be a form of immorality do we again justify it--it then becomes classified, and likened,
in fundamental features, the profound and general immorality all existence, which
then shown part. appears form luxury the first order, the most arrogant, the
dearest, and rarest form vice. We have robbed grimaces and divested its drapery;
we have delivered from the importunate famili arity the crowd; we have deprived its
ridiculous rigidity, its empty expression, its stiff false hair, and its hieratic muscles.
? And any harm
supposed
329.
that have thereby done Just little anar Only since they have been
virtue? princes.
chists
shot at, have they once more sat securely on their thrones. For thus has always been and
will ever be: one cannot do thing
service than persecute and run This--I have done.
THE MORAL IDEAL.
A. Criticism of Ideals.
33O.
were the thing begin this criticism
better earth.
wise
criticism of desiderata.
do away with the word "Ideal":
such
? ? as to
. . .
do is to to it
of its
of
a
it of is
. it It. of
its
in
it
to a as
it of
as of a
to A be
5. to
it a
to . of
to a
as
it of
. it .
of
it
I
It
to
? A CRITICISM OF MORALITY.
33 I.
265
Only the fewest amongst us are aware of what is involved, from the standpoint of desirability, in
every "thus should it be, but it is not," or even "thus it ought to have been": such expressions of opinion involve a condemnation of the whole
nothing quite isolated in the world: the smallest thing bears the largest on its back; on thy small injustice the
whole nature of the future depends; the whole is condemned by every criticism which is directed at
the smallest part of Now granting that the moral norm--even as Kant understood it--is
never completely fulfilled, and remains like sort Beyond hanging over reality without ever
falling down it; then morality would contain itself judgment concerning the whole, which
would still, however, allow the question: whence
does get the right thereto How does the part come acquire this judicial position relative
the whole And some have declared, this
course of events. For there is
? with, reality, an ineradicable instinct, not possible
moral condemnation and dissatisfaction
that this instinct may perhaps belong the
ineradicable stupidities and immodesties our, species? --But saying this, we are doing pre
cisely what we deprecate; the point view
desirability and part and parcel phenomena just
unauthorised fault-finding
the whole character worldly every injustice and imperfection
is--it our very notion "perfection" which never gratified. Every instinct which desires
? ? to is
is of
to
is
is
to it
a
to
as of of of
in
of
of
of to
is it
if, of,as
it.
P
?
of
in
of
a
? 266 THE WILL TO POWER.
be indulged gives expression to its dissatisfaction
with the present state of things: how? Is the
whole perhaps made up of a host of dissatisfied
parts, which all have desiderata in their heads? Is
the "course of things" perhaps "the road hence? the road leading away from reality"--that is to
say, eternal dissatisfaction in itself? Is the concep tion of desiderata perhaps the essential motive power of all things? Is it--deus *
>k
It seems to me of the utmost importance that we should rid ourselves of the notion of the whole,
of an entity, and of any kind of power or form of the unconditioned. For we shall never be able
to resist the temptation of regarding it as the supreme being, and of christening it "God. "
The "All " must be subdivided; we must unlearn our respect for and reappropriate that which
? imaginary entity, for the purposes our neighbour and our selves. Whereas, for instance, Kant said: "Two
things remain for ever worthy honour" (at the
close his Practical Reason)--to-day we should prefer say: "Digestion more worthy
honour. " The concept, "the All," will always
we have lent the unknown and an
give rise the old problems, possible? " etc. Therefore, there
there great sensorium power-magazine.
332. just bad taste as: "A tree
man he ought
"How evil "All,"
inventarium
this sounds me ought be. "
? ? A as
is no
to of
as
to
to
of is
be :
as or it
of
no to to
is
in or of
is
it,
? A. CRITICISM OF MORALITY.
333.
267
Ethics: or the "philosophy of desirability. "-- "Things ought to be otherwise," "things ought to become different": dissatisfaction would thus seem the heart of ethics.
One could find a way out of first, by select ing only those states which one free from emotion; secondly, by grasping the insolence and stupidity
the attitude mind: for desire that something should be otherwise than
means desire that everything should different --it involves damaging criticism the whole. But life itself consists such desiring
To ascertain what exists, how exists seems an ever much higher and more serious matter than every "thus should be," because the latter,
piece human criticism and arrogance, appears to be condemned as ludicrous from the start.
? expresses
organisation the world correspond with our
need which would fain have the
human well-being, and which directs the will much possible towards the accomplishment
that relationship.
On the other hand, this desire, "thus ought
be," has only called forth that other desire, "what exists f" The desire knowing what exists, already consequence the question, "how? possible? Why precisely so? " Our wonder
the disagreement between our desires and the course the world has led our learning know the course the world. Perhaps the matter stands differently: maybe the expression,
? ? of
it
at is is it
to
a
of
a
of
a of
of of to
it
it,
to
ofas
It as
it is,
it
to
as
of
so
to
a
in
of
in
/
of
be
is
? 268 THE WILL TO POWER.
"thus it ought to be," is merely the utterance of our desire to overcome the world
3. 34.
To-day when every attempt at determining how
man should be--is received with some irony, when
we adhere to the notion that in spite of all one
only becomes what one is (in spite of all--that
say, education, instruction, environment, accident, and disaster), in the matter of morality we have learnt, in a very peculiar way, how to
is to
reverse the relation of cause and effect.
? perhaps distinguishes
Nothing
us more than this from the
ancient believers in morality. We no longer say,
for instance, "Vice is the cause of a man's physical ruin," and we no longer say, "A man prospers with
virtue because it brings a long life and happiness. " Our minds to-day are much more inclined to the belief that vice and virtue are not causes but only effects. A man becomes a respectable member of society because he was a respectable man from the start--that is to say, because he was born in possession of good instincts and prosperous pro
pensities. . . . Should a man enter the world poor,
and the son of parents who are neither economical nor thrifty, he is insusceptible of being improved--
that is to say, he is only for the prison the madhouse. To-day we are no longer able separate moral from physical degeneration: the former merely complicated symptom the latter; man necessarily bad just he
necessarily
Bad: this word here stands
? ? ill.
. . .
a is
. isa .
as
or
is
to
of
fit
? A CRITICISM OF MORALITY.
269
for a certain lack of capacity which is related physiologically with the degenerating type--for
instance, a weak will, an uncertain and many-sided
personality, the inability to resist reacting to a
stimulus and to control one's self, and a certain constraint resulting from every suggestion pro
ceeding from another's will. Vice is not a cause;
arbitrary epitome of certain effects resulting from physio logical degeneracy. A general proposition such
as that which Christianity teaches, namely, "Man is evil," would be justified provided one were justified in regarding a given type of degenerate man as normal. But this may be an exaggeration. Of course, wherever Christianity prospers and pre vails, the proposition holds good: for then the
existence of an unhealthy soil--of a degenerate
it is an effect. . . . Vice is a somewhat
? - territory--is
demonstrated.
3. 35.
It is difficult to have sufficient respect for man, when one sees how he understands the art of
fighting his way, of enduring, of turning circum
stances to his own advantage, and of overthrowing
opponents; but when he is seen in the light of his desires, he is the most absurd of all animals. . . . It is just as if he required a playground for his cowardice, his laziness, his feebleness, his sweetness, his submissiveness, where he recovers
from his strong virile virtues. Just look at man's "desiderata " and his "ideals. " Man, when he
desires,
tries to recover from that which is
? ? ? THE WILL TO POWER.
27o
eternally valuable in him, from his deeds; and
then he rushes into nonentity, absurdity, valueless
ness, childishness. The intellectual indigence and
lack of inventive power of this resourceful and
inventive animal is simply terrible. The "ideal"
is at the same time the penalty man pays for the
enormous expenditure which he has to defray
in all real and pressing duties. Should reality cease to prevail, there follow dreams, fatigue,
weakness: an "ideal" might even be regarded
as a form of dream, fatigue, or weakness. The
strongest and the most impotent men become
alike when this condition overtakes them: they deify the cessation of work, of war, of passions,
of suspense, of contrasts, of "reality"--in short, of
the struggle for knowledge and of the trouble of acquiring
"Innocence" them idealised stultification;
"blessedness" idealised idleness; "love," the
ideal state the gregarious animal that will no longer have an enemy. And thus everything that
? elevated to an ideal.
desire magnifies the thing desired; and by not being realised grows--the greatest ideas
are those which have been created by the strongest and longest desiring. Things grow ever more
waluable our estimation, the more our desire for them increases: "moral values" have become
the highest values, simply shows that the moral ideal the one which has been realised least (and
lowers and belittles man
336.
? ? is
A in
it
if
it
is
is
of
is to
it.
? A CRITICISM OF MORALITY.
271
thus it represented the Beyond to all suffering, as a
road to blessedness). Man, with ever-increasing ardour, has only been embracing clouds: and
ultimately called his desperation and impotence "GOd. "
337.
Think of the naivete? of all ultimate "desiderata. " --when the "wherefore " of man remains unknown.
338.
What is the counterfeit coinage of morality?
First of all we should know what "good and
evil" mean. That is as good as wishing to know
why man is here, and what his goal or his destiny is. And that means that one would fain know
that man actually has a goal or a destiny.
339.
The very obscure and arbitrary notion that humanity has a general duty to perform, and that,
as a whole, it is striving towards a goal, is
still in infancy. Perhaps we shall once more be rid of before becomes "fixed idea. "
(But humanity does not constitute whole: indissoluble multiplicity ascending and
descending organisms--it knows no such thing
state youth followed by maturity and then age. But its strata lie confused and superimposed--and few thousand years
? ? ? in a
as a
is an
it its of
a of
a
. it .
it
? 272
THE WILL TO POWER.
there may be even younger types of men than we can point out to-day. Decadence, on the
other hand, belongs to all periods of human history: everywhere there is refuse and decaying
matter, such things are in themselves vital pro cesses; for withering and decaying elements must be eliminated.
>k
Under the empire of Christian prejudice this
question was never put at all : the purpose of life seemed to lie in the salvation of the individual
soul; the question whether humanity might last for a long or a short time was not considered. The best Christians longed for the end to come as soon as possible;--concerning the needs of the individual, there seemed to be no doubt whatsoever.
. . . The duty of every individual for the present
was identical with what it would be in any sort
of future for the man of the future: the value,
the purpose, the limit of values was for ever fixed, unconditioned, eternal, one with God. . . . What
deviated from this eternal type was impious, diabolic, criminal.
The centre of gravity of all values for each
soul lay in that soul itself: salvation or damnation | The salvation of the immortal soul! The most
extreme form of personalisation. . . . For each soul there was only one kind of perfection; only one ideal, only one road to salvation. . . . The most extreme form of the principle of equal rights,
associated with an optical magnification of in dividual importance to the point of megalomania
? ? ? ? A CRITICISM OF MORALITY.
273
. . . Nothing but insanely important souls, re
volving round their own axes with unspeakable terror. . . .
sk
Nobody believes in these assumed airs of im portance any longer to-day: and we have sifted
our wisdom through the sieve of contempt.
Nevertheless the optical habit survives, which
would fain measure the value of man by his
proximity to a certain ideal man: at bottom the personalisation view is upheld as firmly as that of
the equality of rights as regards the ideal. In
short: people seem to think that they know what the ultimate desideratum is in regard to the ideal IIlall. . . .
But this belief is merely the result of the
exceedingly detrimental influence of the Christian
ideal, as anybody can discover for himself every
time he carefully examines the "ideal type. " In
the first place, it is believed that the approach to a given "type" is desirable; secondly, that this
particular type is known; thirdly, that every deviation from this type is a retrograde movement, a stemming of the spirit of progress, a loss of
power and might in man. . . . To dream of a state of affairs in which this perfect man will be in the majority: our friends the Socialists and even Messrs. the Utilitarians have not gone farther than this. In this way an aim seems to have crept into the evolution of man: at any rate the belief in a certain progress towards an
ideal is the only shape in which an aim is con VOL.
