The earliest editions were printed on the Continent; the “editio princeps”
is believed to date from 1475.
is believed to date from 1475.
bede
D.
]
Chap. XXII. How a certain captive’s chains fell off when Masses were
sung for him. [679 A. D. ]
Chap. XXIII. Of the life and death of the Abbess Hilda. [614-680 A. D. ]
Chap. XXIV. That there was in her monastery a brother, on whom the gift
of song was bestowed by Heaven. [680 A. D. ]
Chap. XXV. Of the vision that appeared to a certain man of God before
the monastery of the city Coludi was burned down.
Chap. XXVI. Of the death of the Kings Egfrid and Hlothere. [684-685
A. D. ]
Chap. XXVII. How Cuthbert, a man of God, was made bishop; and how he
lived and taught whilst still in the monastic life. [685 A. D. ]
Chap. XXVIII. How the same St. Cuthbert, living the life of an
Anchorite, by his prayers obtained a spring in a dry soil, and had a
crop from seed sown by the labour of his hands out of season. [676
A. D. ]
Chap. XXIX. How this bishop foretold that his own death was at hand to
the anchorite Herebert. [687 A. D. ]
Chap. XXX. How his body was found altogether uncorrupted after it had
been buried eleven years; and how his successor in the bishopric
departed this world not long after. [698 A. D. ]
Chap. XXXI. Of one that was cured of a palsy at his tomb.
Chap. XXXII. Of one who was lately cured of a disease in his eye at the
relics of St. Cuthbert.
Book V
Chap. I. How Ethelwald, successor to Cuthbert, leading a hermit’s life,
calmed a tempest by his prayers when the brethren were in danger at
sea. [687-699 A. D. ]
Chap. II. How Bishop John cured a dumb man by his blessing. [687 A. D. ]
Chap. III. How he healed a sick maiden by his prayers. [705 A. D. ]
Chap. IV. How he healed a thegn’s wife that was sick, with holy water.
Chap. V. How he likewise recalled by his prayers a thegn’s servant from
death.
Chap. VI. How, both by his prayers and blessing, he recalled from death
one of his clerks, who had bruised himself by a fall.
Chap. VII. How Caedwalla, king of the West Saxons, went to Rome to be
baptized; and his successor Ini, also devoutly journeyed to the same
threshold of the holy Apostles. [688 A. D. ]
Chap. VIII. How, when Archbishop Theodore died, Bertwald succeeded him
as archbishop, and, among many others whom he ordained, he made the
learned Tobias bishop of the church of Rochester. [690 A. D. ]
Chap. IX. How the holy man, Egbert, would have gone into Germany to
preach, but could not; and how Wictbert went, but because he availed
nothing, returned into Ireland, whence he came. [Circ. 688 A. D. ]
Chap. X. How Wilbrord, preaching in Frisland, converted many to Christ;
and how his two companions, the Hewalds, suffered martyrdom. [690 A. D. ]
Chap. XI. How the venerable Suidbert in Britain, and Wilbrord at Rome,
were ordained bishops for Frisland. [692 A. D. ]
Chap. XII. How one in the province of the Northumbrians, rose from the
dead, and related many things which he had seen, some to be greatly
dreaded and some to be desired. [Circ. 696 A. D. ]
Chap. XIII. How another contrarywise before his death saw a book
containing his sins, which was shown him by devils. [704-709 A. D. ]
Chap. XIV. How another in like manner, being at the point of death, saw
the place of punishment appointed for him in Hell.
Chap. XV. How divers churches of the Scots, at the instance of Adamnan,
adopted the Catholic Easter; and how the same wrote a book about the
holy places. [703 A. D. ]
Chap. XVI. The account given in the aforesaid book of the place of our
Lord’s Nativity, Passion, and Resurrection.
Chap. XVII. What he likewise wrote of the place of our Lord’s
Ascension, and the tombs of the patriarchs.
Chap. XVIII. How the South Saxons received Eadbert and Eolla, and the
West Saxons, Daniel and Aldhelm, for their bishops; and of the writings
of the same Aldhelm. [705 A. D. ]
Chap. XIX. How Coinred, king of the Mercians, and Offa, king of the
East Saxons, ended their days at Rome, in the monastic habit; and of
the life and death of Bishop Wilfrid. [709 A. D. ]
Chap. XX. How Albinus succeeded to the godly Abbot Hadrian, and Acca to
Bishop Wilfrid. [709 A. D. ]
Chap. XXI. How the Abbot Ceolfrid sent master-builders to the King of
the Picts to build a church, and with them an epistle concerning the
Catholic Easter and the Tonsure. [710 A. D. ]
Chap. XXII. How the monks of Hii, and the monasteries subject to them,
began to celebrate the canonical Easter at the preaching of Egbert.
[716 A. D. ]
Chap. XXIII. Of the present state of the English nation, or of all
Britain. [725-731 A. D. ]
Chap. XXIV. Chronological recapitulation of the whole work: also
concerning the author himself.
Continuation
Index
Footnotes
EDITOR’S PREFACE
The English version of the “Ecclesiastical History” in the following pages
is a revision of the translation of Dr. Giles, which is itself a revision
of the earlier rendering of Stevens. In the present edition very
considerable alterations have been made, but the work of Dr. Giles remains
the basis of the translation. The Latin text used throughout is Mr.
Plummer’s. Since the edition of Dr. Giles appeared in 1842, so much fresh
work on the subject has been done, and recent research has brought so many
new facts to light, that it has been found necessary to rewrite the notes
almost entirely, and to add a new introduction. After the appearance of
Mr. Plummer’s edition of the Historical Works of Bede, it might seem
superfluous, for the present at least, to write any notes at all on the
“Ecclesiastical History. ” The present volume, however, is intended to
fulfil a different and much humbler function. There has been no attempt at
any original work, and no new theories are advanced. The object of the
book is merely to present in a short and convenient form the substance of
the views held by trustworthy authorities, and it is hoped that it may be
found useful by those students who have either no time or no inclination
to deal with more important works.
Among the books of which most use has been made, are Mr. Plummer’s edition
of the “Ecclesiastical History,” Messrs. Mayor and Lumby’s edition of
Books III and IV, Dr. Bright’s “Early English Church History,” and Dr.
Hunt’s “History of the English Church from its foundation to the Norman
Conquest. ” Many of the articles in the “Dictionary of Christian Biography”
and the “Dictionary of Christian Antiquities,” Dr. Mason’s “Mission of St.
Augustine,” Dr. Rhŷs’s “Celtic Britain,” and a number of other books,
mentioned in the notes, have been consulted.
For help received in different ways I wish to express my gratitude to
various correspondents and friends. I am particularly indebted to Mr.
Edward Bell, who has kindly revised my proofs and made many valuable
suggestions. For information on certain points I have to thank the Rev.
Charles Plummer, Fellow of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, Professor
Lindsay of St. Andrews University, Miss Wordsworth, Principal, and Miss
Lodge, Vice-Principal of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford; and in a very special
sense I wish to acknowledge my obligations to Miss Paterson, Assistant
Librarian at the University Library, St. Andrews, whose unfailing kindness
in verifying references, and supplying me with books, has greatly
lightened my labours.
INTRODUCTION
There are, it has been estimated, in England and on the Continent, in all
about 140 manuscripts of the “Ecclesiastical History. ” Of these, four date
from the eighth century: the Moore MS. (Cambridge), so called, because,
after being sold by auction in the reign of William III, it came into the
possession of Bishop Moore, who bequeathed it to the University of
Cambridge; Cotton, Tiberius A, xiv; Cotton, Tiberius C, ii; and the Namur
MS. A detailed account of these, as well as of a great number of other
manuscripts, will be found in Mr. Plummer’s Introduction to his edition of
Bede’s Historical Works. He has been the first to collate the four oldest
MSS. , besides examining numerous others and collating them in certain
passages. He has pointed out that two of the MSS. dating from the eighth
century (the century in which Bede died), the Moore MS. and Cotton,
Tiberius A, xiv, point to a common original which cannot be far removed
from Bede’s autograph. We are thus brought very near to our author, and
may have more than in most cases the assurance that we have before us what
he actually meant to say.
The earliest editions were printed on the Continent; the “editio princeps”
is believed to date from 1475. A number of editions followed in the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; the first in England was published by
Abraham Whelock at Cambridge in 1643-4. Smith’s edition in 1722 marked a
new era in the history of the book. It was the first critical edition, the
text being based on the Moore MS. collated with three others, of which two
were eighth century MSS. ; and succeeding editors, Stevenson (1841), Giles
(1842), Hussey (1846), the editor in the “Monumenta Historica Britannica”
(1848), Moberly (1869), Holder (1882), base their work mainly on Smith’s.
Mr. Mayor and Mr. Lumby together edited Books III and IV with excellent
notes in 1878. Their text “reproduces exactly the Moore MS. ” which they
collated with some other Cambridge MSS. (cf. Mayor and Lumby, Excursus
II). In 1896 the Rev. C. Plummer published his edition of Bede’s
Historical Works, the first critical edition since Smith’s, and “the very
first which exhibits in an _apparatus criticus_ the various readings of
the MSS. on which the text is based. ” For the student of Bede this
admirable book is of the highest value, and the labours of all succeeding
editors are made comparatively light. Besides the most minute and accurate
work on the text, it contains a copious and interesting commentary and the
fullest references to the various sources upon which the editor has drawn.
The first translation of the “Ecclesiastical History” is the Anglo-Saxon
version, executed either by Alfred himself or under his immediate
supervision. Of this version Dr. Hodgkin says: “As this book had become a
kind of classic among churchmen, Alfred allowed himself here less liberty
than in some of his other translations. Some letters, epitaphs, and
similar documents are omitted, and there is an almost complete erasure of
the chapters relating to the wearisome Paschal controversy. In other
respects the king’s translation seems to be a fairly accurate reproduction
of the original work. ” Mr. Plummer, however, finds it “very rarely
available for the settlement of minute differences of reading. ”
The first modern English translation is Thomas Stapleton’s (1565),
published at Antwerp. It is a controversial work, intended to point out to
Queen Elizabeth “in how many and weighty pointes the pretended refourmers
of the Church . . . have departed from the patern of that sounde and
Catholike faith planted first among Englishmen by holy S. Augustin, our
Apostle, and his vertuous company, described truly and sincerely by
Venerable Bede, so called in all Christendom for his passing vertues and
rare lerning, the Author of this History. ” To save Elizabeth’s time “in
espying out the particulars,” the translator has “gathered out of the
whole History a number of diversities between the pretended religion of
Protestants and the primitive faith of the english Church. ” If charm and
appropriateness of style were the only qualities to be aimed at in a
translation, we might well content ourselves with this rendering, which
fills with despair the translator of to-day, debarred by his date from
writing Elizabethan English.
The work was again translated by John Stevens (1723), and a third time
(with some omissions) by W. Hurst in 1814. In 1840 Dr. Giles published a
new edition of Stevens’s translation with certain alterations; and a
second edition of the same volume was published in 1842, and incorporated
in the collected works of Bede, edited by Dr. Giles. In 1870 a literal
translation by the Rev. L. Gidley was published. The present volume is a
revision of the translation of Dr. Giles.
A brief analysis of the work may be of some use to the student in keeping
distinct the different threads of the narrative, as owing to the variety
of subjects introduced, and the want of strict chronological order, it is
difficult to grasp the sequence of events as a coherent whole.
The sources from which Bede draws his material are briefly indicated in
the dedication to King Ceolwulf which forms the Preface, and in it he
acknowledges his obligations to the friends and correspondents who have
helped and encouraged him. For the greater part of Book I (cc. 1-22),
which forms the introduction to his real subject, he depends on earlier
authors. Here he does not specify his sources, but indicates them
generally as _priorum scripta_. These authors are mainly Pliny, Solinus,
Orosius, Eutropius, and the British historian Gildas. In the story of
Germanus and Lupus he follows closely the Life of Germanus by Constantius
of Lyons. Prosper of Aquitaine also supplies him with some materials. When
he comes to his main subject, the History of the English Church, he
appears to rely but little upon books. Only a very few are referred to
here and there, _e. g. _, The Life of St. Fursa, The Life of St. Ethelburg,
Adamnan’s work on the Holy Places, and the Anonymous Life of St. Cuthbert.
That some form of annalistic records existed before his time, and that
these were consulted by him, we may infer from some of his chronological
references (cf. iii, 1, 9). Local information with regard to provinces
other than Northumbria he obtains from his correspondents in various parts
of England, and these are expressly mentioned in the Preface.
For the history of the Roman mission and of Kent generally, as well as
some particulars with regard to the conversion of other provinces, his
chief source is the Church of Canterbury, which apparently possessed,
besides oral tradition, written documents relating to the first beginnings
of the Church. Moreover, Nothelm, who was the bearer of much important
material, had been to Rome and had permission to search the papal
archives. But it is in dealing with the history of Northumbria, as is
natural, that Bede’s information is most varied and copious. Much of it is
apparently obtained directly from eye-witnesses of the events, much would
doubtless be preserved in the records of the Church of Lindisfarne, to
which he had access, perhaps also in his own monastery. We know that the
monasteries kept calendars in which the death-days of saints and others
were entered, and other records of similar nature (cf. iv, 14), and that
these were used as materials for history.
Passing to the history itself, we may trace a division of subjects or
periods roughly analogous to the division into books. Book I contains the
long introduction, the sending of the Roman mission, and the foundation of
the Church; Books II and III, the period of missionary activity and the
establishment of Christianity throughout the land. Book IV may be said to
describe the period of organization. In Book V the English Church itself
becomes a missionary centre, planting the faith in Germany, and drawing
the Celtic Churches into conformity with Rome.
‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐
BOOK I. —In Book I, cc. 1-22, Bede sketches the early history of Britain,
describing the country and giving some account of the various races by
whom it was inhabited. The story of the Roman occupation is narrated at
some length, the invasions of the Picts and Scots and consequent miseries
of the Britons, their appeals for help to the Romans, the final departure
of their protectors, and the coming of the Saxons are described. We have
some shadowy outlines of British Church History in the legendary account
of the conversion of King Lucius, in the story of St. Alban, affording
evidence of a great persecution of Christians during the Roman occupation,
in the allusions to the Arian and Pelagian heresies, and in the mission of
Germanus and Lupus. A brief allusion to the mission of Palladius is all
that we hear of the Irish Church at this period.
These chapters are introductory to the main subject, the History of the
English Church, which begins in Chapter 23 with the mission of St.
Augustine in 597 A. D. The reception of the Christian faith in the kingdom
of Kent and the foundation of a national Church occupy the remaining
chapters of the book. Various letters of Pope Gregory relating to the
mission and his answers to the questions of Augustine are given at length;
and the Book concludes with a piece of Northumbrian history, Ethelfrid’s
conquests of the Britons and the defeat of Aedan, king of the Dalriadic
Scots, at Degsastan in 603 A. D.
BOOK II. —Book II opens with a biographical sketch of Gregory the Great,
the founder of the Mission. This is followed by an account of Augustine’s
negotiations with the leaders of the British Church with regard to the
Paschal question and some other matters, his failure to win them over (a
failure apparently largely due to his own want of tact in dealing with the
susceptible Celtic temperament), his alleged prophecy of disaster and its
fulfilment some time after at the battle of Chester. Then we have the
consecration of Mellitus to London, as Bishop of the East Saxons, and
Justus to Rochester (604 A. D. ); the evangelization of the East Saxons by
Mellitus; the death of Augustine and succession of Laurentius as
Archbishop (no date is given; it may have been in 605); fresh attempts at
union with the Celtic Churches, in which again we can perceive a failure
of courtesy on the one side met by an obstinate pride on the other. The
death of Ethelbert in Kent (616 A. D. ) and that of Sabert in Essex, soon
after, lead to a pagan reaction in both provinces; Mellitus and Justus
take refuge on the Continent; Laurentius, intending to follow them, is
stopped by a vision which leads to the conversion of King Eadbald and the
recovery of Kent for Christianity. Essex, however, continues to be pagan.
On the death of Laurentius (619 A. D. ), Mellitus succeeds to Canterbury and
is himself succeeded by Justus (in 624). In Chapter 9 we enter upon a new
development of the highest importance in the work of the mission. The
marriage of Edwin, king of Northumbria, and the Kentish princess,
Ethelberg, brings about the conversion of Northumbria through the
preaching of Paulinus. The story is told in detail. Letters from Pope
Boniface to Edwin and his consort are quoted at length, Edwin’s early
history with its bearing on the great crisis of his life is related;
finally we have the decisive debate in the Witenagemot at Goodmanham and
the baptism of the king at Easter, 627 A. D. Through the influence of Edwin
on Earpwald, king of East Anglia, that province is next converted, but on
the death of Earpwald the people lapse into paganism for three years, till
Christianity is finally established by the labours of Bishop Felix, under
the enlightened King Sigbert, who had himself been drawn to the faith in
Gaul.
Meanwhile, peace and prosperity reign in Northumbria, and Paulinus extends
his preaching to Lindsey. He re-receives the pall from Pope Honorius, in
accordance with the original intention of Gregory that the Bishop of York
should rank as a metropolitan. At Canterbury, Justus is succeeded by
Archbishop Honorius. Parenthetically we have extracts from letters,
probably of the year 640 A. D. , addressed by the Roman see to the Irish
clergy on the Paschal question and the Pelagian heresy.
In Chapter 20 we have a dramatic climax to the book in the overthrow and
death of Edwin at the battle of Hatfield in 633 A. D. ; the devastation of
Northumbria by the British king, Caedwalla, and Penda of Mercia; and the
flight of Paulinus, taking with him Ethelberg and Eanfled to Kent, where
he ends his life in charge of the Church of Rochester. His work in
Northumbria seems for the time, at least, wholly overthrown. Only James
the Deacon remains heroically at his post to keep alive the smouldering
embers of the faith.
BOOK III. —Book III opens with the story of the apostasy of the
Northumbrian kings and the miseries of the “Hateful Year,” terminated by
the victory of Oswald at Heavenfield in 634 A. D. Christianity is brought
again to Northumbria (635 A. D. ) by the Celtic Mission, sent from Iona at
the request of Oswald, who nobly co-operates with Aidan in the work of
evangelization. Aidan fixes his see at Lindisfarne. The mention of Iona
leads to a short account of the mission of St. Columba to the Northern
Picts in 565 A. D. , and incidentally of St. Ninian’s mission to the
Southern Picts “long before”; the grant of Iona to St. Columba, and its
constitution, the character of its monks and their error with regard to
Easter. The characters of Aidan and Oswald are described; and the union of
Deira and Bernicia under Oswald is briefly mentioned.
In Chapter 7 we pass to a fresh missionary enterprise. Birinus, sent to
Britain by Pope Honorius, converts the West Saxons. Their king, Cynegils,
is baptized, and a see is established at Dorchester, in Oxfordshire. Under
Coinwalch, the successor of Cynegils, the province passes through various
vicissitudes, political and ecclesiastical, and finally the West Saxon see
is fixed at Winchester.
In Kent, Earconbert succeeds Eadbald in 640 A. D. , and takes vigorous
measures for the suppression of idolatry. His daughter, Earcongota, and
many other high-born English ladies enter the religious life in Gaul, for
convents are still scarce in England.
In Chapter 9, reverting to the history of Northumbria, Bede tells us of
the death of Oswald at Maserfelth in 642, and relates at length various
miracles wrought by his relics. Oswald is succeeded by Oswy in Bernicia
and in Deira by Oswin. The latter is treacherously murdered by Oswy; his
character is described. The death of Aidan (in 651) immediately follows
that of his beloved king; Aidan’s miracles are related, and a warm tribute
is paid to his character, in spite of the inevitable error with regard to
Easter, which is severely condemned.
In Chapter 18, passing again to East Anglian history, we hear of King
Sigbert’s services to education, and of his retirement to a monastery from
which he was forcibly drawn to fall in battle against the Mercians. (The
chronology is here very vague. ) A vision of the Irish St. Fursa, who
founded the monastery of Cnobheresburg in East Anglia is told in detail.
Changes in the episcopate in East Anglia and elsewhere are mentioned.
Deusdedit succeeds Honorius as Archbishop of Canterbury in 654.
Again, a Northumbrian prince gives a fresh impulse to the spread of
Christianity. In 653 the Middle Angles (who occupied a part of Mercia) are
converted, their prince, Peada, being persuaded chiefly by his
brother-in-law, Alchfrid, a son of Oswy. Four priests are sent to them to
preach and baptize, Cedd, Adda, Betti, and Diuma, and Diuma becomes bishop
of the Middle Angles and Mercians. Similarly, at this time, King Sigbert
of Essex listens to the exhortations of his friend, King Oswy, and, at the
preaching of Cedd, the East Saxons receive the faith a second time. Cedd
becomes their bishop. Sigbert’s tragic death is related. His successor,
Suidhelm, receives baptism at the hands of Cedd. The foundation of
Lastingham by Ethelwald of Deira and its consecration by Cedd are
described. Cedd dies of the plague of 664.
Meanwhile, important political changes have taken place in the north: the
defeat and death of Penda at the Winwaed in 655 are followed by Oswy’s
rule, which established Christianity in Mercia, in spite of a successful
rebellion after three years, when the Mercians threw off the yoke of
Northumbria and set up Penda’s son, Wulfhere, as their king.
In Chapter 25 we come to the Synod of Whitby (664 A. D. ), which settled the
Easter question for the English Church. Wilfrid comes to the front as a
champion of the Catholic rules. The opposing party either retire or
conform. The self-denial and devotion of the Celtic missionaries are
highly praised, and some account of the life led by English students in
Ireland follows, with the story of the self-dedication of Egbert, who is
destined to play a prominent part afterwards in the history of the Church.
The consecration of both Wilfrid and Ceadda (664 A. D. ), as bishops of
Northumbria leads to complications in the episcopate. An important step
towards the unity of the English nation in ecclesiastical matters is taken
when Wighard is sent to Rome by the kings Oswy and Egbert, acting in
concert, to be consecrated as Archbishop of Canterbury (667 A. D. ). Wighard
dies there, and Pope Vitalian undertakes to find an archbishop for the
English Church.
The book ends with a fresh apostasy in Essex during the miseries of the
great plague of 664. Mercia, so lately itself evangelized, becomes a new
missionary centre, King Wulfhere sending Bishop Jaruman to recall the East
Saxons to the faith.
BOOK IV. —In all but one of the kingdoms of England Christianity is now, at
least in name, established, and the Church settles down to the work of
organization. The man for this task is found in Theodore of Tarsus,
consecrated Archbishop of the English in 668. He arrives at Canterbury in
669. We hear at once of the vigorous impulse given by him and Abbot
Hadrian to the various departments of education there. Finding an
irregularity in Ceadda’s orders, he completes his ordination and makes him
Bishop of the Mercians (probably in 669), with his see at Lichfield.
Ceadda’s death (672 A. D. ), his character, and the miracles and visions
connected with him are described. Parenthetically we get an account of
Colman’s activity in Ireland after his retirement, in consequence of the
decision at Whitby. The most important political events at this time are
the death of Oswy and succession of Egfrid in Northumbria in 670 or 671,
and the death of Egbert and succession of Hlothere in Kent in 673.
In the same year the Council of Hertford, the first English provincial
council, is held, and marks the strength and independence of the Church.
Theodore proceeds with his reforms in the episcopate. Various events of
ecclesiastical importance follow; the East Anglian diocese is divided
about this time, and other changes are effected.
Essex, so long prone to lapses into paganism, becomes at this time a
centre of religious life under its Bishop Earconwald and its king Sebbi.
Earconwald, whose holiness is attested by many miraculous circumstances,
was the founder of the monasteries of Chertsey and Barking, the latter of
which was ruled by his sister, the saintly Ethelburg. Various miracles are
related in connection with her and her monastery. The king of the East
Saxons, Sebbi, is a man of unusual piety who resigns his kingdom and
receives the tonsure.
After a brief allusion to West Saxon history, the devastation of Kent by
Ethelred of Mercia in 676, and certain changes in the episcopate, we come
to an important step in the organization of the Church taken by Theodore.
In pursuance of his policy of increasing the number of bishops, he
subdivides the great Northumbrian diocese. Wilfrid is expelled (678 A. D. ).
From these events we pass summarily to the evangelization of the South
Saxons by Wilfrid, who extends his labours to the Isle of Wight, and thus
the last of the English provinces is won for the faith.
In the Council of Hatfield (680 A. D. ) the English Church asserts its
orthodoxy and unites with the continental Churches in repudiating the
heresy of the Monothelites. Turning to Northumbrian history, we have the
story of Egfrid’s queen, Ethelthryth, and a hymn composed in her honour by
Bede. The war between Mercia and Northumbria in 679 is ended by the
mediation of Theodore, and a miracle in connection with the battle of the
Trent is related.
Chap. XXII. How a certain captive’s chains fell off when Masses were
sung for him. [679 A. D. ]
Chap. XXIII. Of the life and death of the Abbess Hilda. [614-680 A. D. ]
Chap. XXIV. That there was in her monastery a brother, on whom the gift
of song was bestowed by Heaven. [680 A. D. ]
Chap. XXV. Of the vision that appeared to a certain man of God before
the monastery of the city Coludi was burned down.
Chap. XXVI. Of the death of the Kings Egfrid and Hlothere. [684-685
A. D. ]
Chap. XXVII. How Cuthbert, a man of God, was made bishop; and how he
lived and taught whilst still in the monastic life. [685 A. D. ]
Chap. XXVIII. How the same St. Cuthbert, living the life of an
Anchorite, by his prayers obtained a spring in a dry soil, and had a
crop from seed sown by the labour of his hands out of season. [676
A. D. ]
Chap. XXIX. How this bishop foretold that his own death was at hand to
the anchorite Herebert. [687 A. D. ]
Chap. XXX. How his body was found altogether uncorrupted after it had
been buried eleven years; and how his successor in the bishopric
departed this world not long after. [698 A. D. ]
Chap. XXXI. Of one that was cured of a palsy at his tomb.
Chap. XXXII. Of one who was lately cured of a disease in his eye at the
relics of St. Cuthbert.
Book V
Chap. I. How Ethelwald, successor to Cuthbert, leading a hermit’s life,
calmed a tempest by his prayers when the brethren were in danger at
sea. [687-699 A. D. ]
Chap. II. How Bishop John cured a dumb man by his blessing. [687 A. D. ]
Chap. III. How he healed a sick maiden by his prayers. [705 A. D. ]
Chap. IV. How he healed a thegn’s wife that was sick, with holy water.
Chap. V. How he likewise recalled by his prayers a thegn’s servant from
death.
Chap. VI. How, both by his prayers and blessing, he recalled from death
one of his clerks, who had bruised himself by a fall.
Chap. VII. How Caedwalla, king of the West Saxons, went to Rome to be
baptized; and his successor Ini, also devoutly journeyed to the same
threshold of the holy Apostles. [688 A. D. ]
Chap. VIII. How, when Archbishop Theodore died, Bertwald succeeded him
as archbishop, and, among many others whom he ordained, he made the
learned Tobias bishop of the church of Rochester. [690 A. D. ]
Chap. IX. How the holy man, Egbert, would have gone into Germany to
preach, but could not; and how Wictbert went, but because he availed
nothing, returned into Ireland, whence he came. [Circ. 688 A. D. ]
Chap. X. How Wilbrord, preaching in Frisland, converted many to Christ;
and how his two companions, the Hewalds, suffered martyrdom. [690 A. D. ]
Chap. XI. How the venerable Suidbert in Britain, and Wilbrord at Rome,
were ordained bishops for Frisland. [692 A. D. ]
Chap. XII. How one in the province of the Northumbrians, rose from the
dead, and related many things which he had seen, some to be greatly
dreaded and some to be desired. [Circ. 696 A. D. ]
Chap. XIII. How another contrarywise before his death saw a book
containing his sins, which was shown him by devils. [704-709 A. D. ]
Chap. XIV. How another in like manner, being at the point of death, saw
the place of punishment appointed for him in Hell.
Chap. XV. How divers churches of the Scots, at the instance of Adamnan,
adopted the Catholic Easter; and how the same wrote a book about the
holy places. [703 A. D. ]
Chap. XVI. The account given in the aforesaid book of the place of our
Lord’s Nativity, Passion, and Resurrection.
Chap. XVII. What he likewise wrote of the place of our Lord’s
Ascension, and the tombs of the patriarchs.
Chap. XVIII. How the South Saxons received Eadbert and Eolla, and the
West Saxons, Daniel and Aldhelm, for their bishops; and of the writings
of the same Aldhelm. [705 A. D. ]
Chap. XIX. How Coinred, king of the Mercians, and Offa, king of the
East Saxons, ended their days at Rome, in the monastic habit; and of
the life and death of Bishop Wilfrid. [709 A. D. ]
Chap. XX. How Albinus succeeded to the godly Abbot Hadrian, and Acca to
Bishop Wilfrid. [709 A. D. ]
Chap. XXI. How the Abbot Ceolfrid sent master-builders to the King of
the Picts to build a church, and with them an epistle concerning the
Catholic Easter and the Tonsure. [710 A. D. ]
Chap. XXII. How the monks of Hii, and the monasteries subject to them,
began to celebrate the canonical Easter at the preaching of Egbert.
[716 A. D. ]
Chap. XXIII. Of the present state of the English nation, or of all
Britain. [725-731 A. D. ]
Chap. XXIV. Chronological recapitulation of the whole work: also
concerning the author himself.
Continuation
Index
Footnotes
EDITOR’S PREFACE
The English version of the “Ecclesiastical History” in the following pages
is a revision of the translation of Dr. Giles, which is itself a revision
of the earlier rendering of Stevens. In the present edition very
considerable alterations have been made, but the work of Dr. Giles remains
the basis of the translation. The Latin text used throughout is Mr.
Plummer’s. Since the edition of Dr. Giles appeared in 1842, so much fresh
work on the subject has been done, and recent research has brought so many
new facts to light, that it has been found necessary to rewrite the notes
almost entirely, and to add a new introduction. After the appearance of
Mr. Plummer’s edition of the Historical Works of Bede, it might seem
superfluous, for the present at least, to write any notes at all on the
“Ecclesiastical History. ” The present volume, however, is intended to
fulfil a different and much humbler function. There has been no attempt at
any original work, and no new theories are advanced. The object of the
book is merely to present in a short and convenient form the substance of
the views held by trustworthy authorities, and it is hoped that it may be
found useful by those students who have either no time or no inclination
to deal with more important works.
Among the books of which most use has been made, are Mr. Plummer’s edition
of the “Ecclesiastical History,” Messrs. Mayor and Lumby’s edition of
Books III and IV, Dr. Bright’s “Early English Church History,” and Dr.
Hunt’s “History of the English Church from its foundation to the Norman
Conquest. ” Many of the articles in the “Dictionary of Christian Biography”
and the “Dictionary of Christian Antiquities,” Dr. Mason’s “Mission of St.
Augustine,” Dr. Rhŷs’s “Celtic Britain,” and a number of other books,
mentioned in the notes, have been consulted.
For help received in different ways I wish to express my gratitude to
various correspondents and friends. I am particularly indebted to Mr.
Edward Bell, who has kindly revised my proofs and made many valuable
suggestions. For information on certain points I have to thank the Rev.
Charles Plummer, Fellow of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, Professor
Lindsay of St. Andrews University, Miss Wordsworth, Principal, and Miss
Lodge, Vice-Principal of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford; and in a very special
sense I wish to acknowledge my obligations to Miss Paterson, Assistant
Librarian at the University Library, St. Andrews, whose unfailing kindness
in verifying references, and supplying me with books, has greatly
lightened my labours.
INTRODUCTION
There are, it has been estimated, in England and on the Continent, in all
about 140 manuscripts of the “Ecclesiastical History. ” Of these, four date
from the eighth century: the Moore MS. (Cambridge), so called, because,
after being sold by auction in the reign of William III, it came into the
possession of Bishop Moore, who bequeathed it to the University of
Cambridge; Cotton, Tiberius A, xiv; Cotton, Tiberius C, ii; and the Namur
MS. A detailed account of these, as well as of a great number of other
manuscripts, will be found in Mr. Plummer’s Introduction to his edition of
Bede’s Historical Works. He has been the first to collate the four oldest
MSS. , besides examining numerous others and collating them in certain
passages. He has pointed out that two of the MSS. dating from the eighth
century (the century in which Bede died), the Moore MS. and Cotton,
Tiberius A, xiv, point to a common original which cannot be far removed
from Bede’s autograph. We are thus brought very near to our author, and
may have more than in most cases the assurance that we have before us what
he actually meant to say.
The earliest editions were printed on the Continent; the “editio princeps”
is believed to date from 1475. A number of editions followed in the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; the first in England was published by
Abraham Whelock at Cambridge in 1643-4. Smith’s edition in 1722 marked a
new era in the history of the book. It was the first critical edition, the
text being based on the Moore MS. collated with three others, of which two
were eighth century MSS. ; and succeeding editors, Stevenson (1841), Giles
(1842), Hussey (1846), the editor in the “Monumenta Historica Britannica”
(1848), Moberly (1869), Holder (1882), base their work mainly on Smith’s.
Mr. Mayor and Mr. Lumby together edited Books III and IV with excellent
notes in 1878. Their text “reproduces exactly the Moore MS. ” which they
collated with some other Cambridge MSS. (cf. Mayor and Lumby, Excursus
II). In 1896 the Rev. C. Plummer published his edition of Bede’s
Historical Works, the first critical edition since Smith’s, and “the very
first which exhibits in an _apparatus criticus_ the various readings of
the MSS. on which the text is based. ” For the student of Bede this
admirable book is of the highest value, and the labours of all succeeding
editors are made comparatively light. Besides the most minute and accurate
work on the text, it contains a copious and interesting commentary and the
fullest references to the various sources upon which the editor has drawn.
The first translation of the “Ecclesiastical History” is the Anglo-Saxon
version, executed either by Alfred himself or under his immediate
supervision. Of this version Dr. Hodgkin says: “As this book had become a
kind of classic among churchmen, Alfred allowed himself here less liberty
than in some of his other translations. Some letters, epitaphs, and
similar documents are omitted, and there is an almost complete erasure of
the chapters relating to the wearisome Paschal controversy. In other
respects the king’s translation seems to be a fairly accurate reproduction
of the original work. ” Mr. Plummer, however, finds it “very rarely
available for the settlement of minute differences of reading. ”
The first modern English translation is Thomas Stapleton’s (1565),
published at Antwerp. It is a controversial work, intended to point out to
Queen Elizabeth “in how many and weighty pointes the pretended refourmers
of the Church . . . have departed from the patern of that sounde and
Catholike faith planted first among Englishmen by holy S. Augustin, our
Apostle, and his vertuous company, described truly and sincerely by
Venerable Bede, so called in all Christendom for his passing vertues and
rare lerning, the Author of this History. ” To save Elizabeth’s time “in
espying out the particulars,” the translator has “gathered out of the
whole History a number of diversities between the pretended religion of
Protestants and the primitive faith of the english Church. ” If charm and
appropriateness of style were the only qualities to be aimed at in a
translation, we might well content ourselves with this rendering, which
fills with despair the translator of to-day, debarred by his date from
writing Elizabethan English.
The work was again translated by John Stevens (1723), and a third time
(with some omissions) by W. Hurst in 1814. In 1840 Dr. Giles published a
new edition of Stevens’s translation with certain alterations; and a
second edition of the same volume was published in 1842, and incorporated
in the collected works of Bede, edited by Dr. Giles. In 1870 a literal
translation by the Rev. L. Gidley was published. The present volume is a
revision of the translation of Dr. Giles.
A brief analysis of the work may be of some use to the student in keeping
distinct the different threads of the narrative, as owing to the variety
of subjects introduced, and the want of strict chronological order, it is
difficult to grasp the sequence of events as a coherent whole.
The sources from which Bede draws his material are briefly indicated in
the dedication to King Ceolwulf which forms the Preface, and in it he
acknowledges his obligations to the friends and correspondents who have
helped and encouraged him. For the greater part of Book I (cc. 1-22),
which forms the introduction to his real subject, he depends on earlier
authors. Here he does not specify his sources, but indicates them
generally as _priorum scripta_. These authors are mainly Pliny, Solinus,
Orosius, Eutropius, and the British historian Gildas. In the story of
Germanus and Lupus he follows closely the Life of Germanus by Constantius
of Lyons. Prosper of Aquitaine also supplies him with some materials. When
he comes to his main subject, the History of the English Church, he
appears to rely but little upon books. Only a very few are referred to
here and there, _e. g. _, The Life of St. Fursa, The Life of St. Ethelburg,
Adamnan’s work on the Holy Places, and the Anonymous Life of St. Cuthbert.
That some form of annalistic records existed before his time, and that
these were consulted by him, we may infer from some of his chronological
references (cf. iii, 1, 9). Local information with regard to provinces
other than Northumbria he obtains from his correspondents in various parts
of England, and these are expressly mentioned in the Preface.
For the history of the Roman mission and of Kent generally, as well as
some particulars with regard to the conversion of other provinces, his
chief source is the Church of Canterbury, which apparently possessed,
besides oral tradition, written documents relating to the first beginnings
of the Church. Moreover, Nothelm, who was the bearer of much important
material, had been to Rome and had permission to search the papal
archives. But it is in dealing with the history of Northumbria, as is
natural, that Bede’s information is most varied and copious. Much of it is
apparently obtained directly from eye-witnesses of the events, much would
doubtless be preserved in the records of the Church of Lindisfarne, to
which he had access, perhaps also in his own monastery. We know that the
monasteries kept calendars in which the death-days of saints and others
were entered, and other records of similar nature (cf. iv, 14), and that
these were used as materials for history.
Passing to the history itself, we may trace a division of subjects or
periods roughly analogous to the division into books. Book I contains the
long introduction, the sending of the Roman mission, and the foundation of
the Church; Books II and III, the period of missionary activity and the
establishment of Christianity throughout the land. Book IV may be said to
describe the period of organization. In Book V the English Church itself
becomes a missionary centre, planting the faith in Germany, and drawing
the Celtic Churches into conformity with Rome.
‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐
BOOK I. —In Book I, cc. 1-22, Bede sketches the early history of Britain,
describing the country and giving some account of the various races by
whom it was inhabited. The story of the Roman occupation is narrated at
some length, the invasions of the Picts and Scots and consequent miseries
of the Britons, their appeals for help to the Romans, the final departure
of their protectors, and the coming of the Saxons are described. We have
some shadowy outlines of British Church History in the legendary account
of the conversion of King Lucius, in the story of St. Alban, affording
evidence of a great persecution of Christians during the Roman occupation,
in the allusions to the Arian and Pelagian heresies, and in the mission of
Germanus and Lupus. A brief allusion to the mission of Palladius is all
that we hear of the Irish Church at this period.
These chapters are introductory to the main subject, the History of the
English Church, which begins in Chapter 23 with the mission of St.
Augustine in 597 A. D. The reception of the Christian faith in the kingdom
of Kent and the foundation of a national Church occupy the remaining
chapters of the book. Various letters of Pope Gregory relating to the
mission and his answers to the questions of Augustine are given at length;
and the Book concludes with a piece of Northumbrian history, Ethelfrid’s
conquests of the Britons and the defeat of Aedan, king of the Dalriadic
Scots, at Degsastan in 603 A. D.
BOOK II. —Book II opens with a biographical sketch of Gregory the Great,
the founder of the Mission. This is followed by an account of Augustine’s
negotiations with the leaders of the British Church with regard to the
Paschal question and some other matters, his failure to win them over (a
failure apparently largely due to his own want of tact in dealing with the
susceptible Celtic temperament), his alleged prophecy of disaster and its
fulfilment some time after at the battle of Chester. Then we have the
consecration of Mellitus to London, as Bishop of the East Saxons, and
Justus to Rochester (604 A. D. ); the evangelization of the East Saxons by
Mellitus; the death of Augustine and succession of Laurentius as
Archbishop (no date is given; it may have been in 605); fresh attempts at
union with the Celtic Churches, in which again we can perceive a failure
of courtesy on the one side met by an obstinate pride on the other. The
death of Ethelbert in Kent (616 A. D. ) and that of Sabert in Essex, soon
after, lead to a pagan reaction in both provinces; Mellitus and Justus
take refuge on the Continent; Laurentius, intending to follow them, is
stopped by a vision which leads to the conversion of King Eadbald and the
recovery of Kent for Christianity. Essex, however, continues to be pagan.
On the death of Laurentius (619 A. D. ), Mellitus succeeds to Canterbury and
is himself succeeded by Justus (in 624). In Chapter 9 we enter upon a new
development of the highest importance in the work of the mission. The
marriage of Edwin, king of Northumbria, and the Kentish princess,
Ethelberg, brings about the conversion of Northumbria through the
preaching of Paulinus. The story is told in detail. Letters from Pope
Boniface to Edwin and his consort are quoted at length, Edwin’s early
history with its bearing on the great crisis of his life is related;
finally we have the decisive debate in the Witenagemot at Goodmanham and
the baptism of the king at Easter, 627 A. D. Through the influence of Edwin
on Earpwald, king of East Anglia, that province is next converted, but on
the death of Earpwald the people lapse into paganism for three years, till
Christianity is finally established by the labours of Bishop Felix, under
the enlightened King Sigbert, who had himself been drawn to the faith in
Gaul.
Meanwhile, peace and prosperity reign in Northumbria, and Paulinus extends
his preaching to Lindsey. He re-receives the pall from Pope Honorius, in
accordance with the original intention of Gregory that the Bishop of York
should rank as a metropolitan. At Canterbury, Justus is succeeded by
Archbishop Honorius. Parenthetically we have extracts from letters,
probably of the year 640 A. D. , addressed by the Roman see to the Irish
clergy on the Paschal question and the Pelagian heresy.
In Chapter 20 we have a dramatic climax to the book in the overthrow and
death of Edwin at the battle of Hatfield in 633 A. D. ; the devastation of
Northumbria by the British king, Caedwalla, and Penda of Mercia; and the
flight of Paulinus, taking with him Ethelberg and Eanfled to Kent, where
he ends his life in charge of the Church of Rochester. His work in
Northumbria seems for the time, at least, wholly overthrown. Only James
the Deacon remains heroically at his post to keep alive the smouldering
embers of the faith.
BOOK III. —Book III opens with the story of the apostasy of the
Northumbrian kings and the miseries of the “Hateful Year,” terminated by
the victory of Oswald at Heavenfield in 634 A. D. Christianity is brought
again to Northumbria (635 A. D. ) by the Celtic Mission, sent from Iona at
the request of Oswald, who nobly co-operates with Aidan in the work of
evangelization. Aidan fixes his see at Lindisfarne. The mention of Iona
leads to a short account of the mission of St. Columba to the Northern
Picts in 565 A. D. , and incidentally of St. Ninian’s mission to the
Southern Picts “long before”; the grant of Iona to St. Columba, and its
constitution, the character of its monks and their error with regard to
Easter. The characters of Aidan and Oswald are described; and the union of
Deira and Bernicia under Oswald is briefly mentioned.
In Chapter 7 we pass to a fresh missionary enterprise. Birinus, sent to
Britain by Pope Honorius, converts the West Saxons. Their king, Cynegils,
is baptized, and a see is established at Dorchester, in Oxfordshire. Under
Coinwalch, the successor of Cynegils, the province passes through various
vicissitudes, political and ecclesiastical, and finally the West Saxon see
is fixed at Winchester.
In Kent, Earconbert succeeds Eadbald in 640 A. D. , and takes vigorous
measures for the suppression of idolatry. His daughter, Earcongota, and
many other high-born English ladies enter the religious life in Gaul, for
convents are still scarce in England.
In Chapter 9, reverting to the history of Northumbria, Bede tells us of
the death of Oswald at Maserfelth in 642, and relates at length various
miracles wrought by his relics. Oswald is succeeded by Oswy in Bernicia
and in Deira by Oswin. The latter is treacherously murdered by Oswy; his
character is described. The death of Aidan (in 651) immediately follows
that of his beloved king; Aidan’s miracles are related, and a warm tribute
is paid to his character, in spite of the inevitable error with regard to
Easter, which is severely condemned.
In Chapter 18, passing again to East Anglian history, we hear of King
Sigbert’s services to education, and of his retirement to a monastery from
which he was forcibly drawn to fall in battle against the Mercians. (The
chronology is here very vague. ) A vision of the Irish St. Fursa, who
founded the monastery of Cnobheresburg in East Anglia is told in detail.
Changes in the episcopate in East Anglia and elsewhere are mentioned.
Deusdedit succeeds Honorius as Archbishop of Canterbury in 654.
Again, a Northumbrian prince gives a fresh impulse to the spread of
Christianity. In 653 the Middle Angles (who occupied a part of Mercia) are
converted, their prince, Peada, being persuaded chiefly by his
brother-in-law, Alchfrid, a son of Oswy. Four priests are sent to them to
preach and baptize, Cedd, Adda, Betti, and Diuma, and Diuma becomes bishop
of the Middle Angles and Mercians. Similarly, at this time, King Sigbert
of Essex listens to the exhortations of his friend, King Oswy, and, at the
preaching of Cedd, the East Saxons receive the faith a second time. Cedd
becomes their bishop. Sigbert’s tragic death is related. His successor,
Suidhelm, receives baptism at the hands of Cedd. The foundation of
Lastingham by Ethelwald of Deira and its consecration by Cedd are
described. Cedd dies of the plague of 664.
Meanwhile, important political changes have taken place in the north: the
defeat and death of Penda at the Winwaed in 655 are followed by Oswy’s
rule, which established Christianity in Mercia, in spite of a successful
rebellion after three years, when the Mercians threw off the yoke of
Northumbria and set up Penda’s son, Wulfhere, as their king.
In Chapter 25 we come to the Synod of Whitby (664 A. D. ), which settled the
Easter question for the English Church. Wilfrid comes to the front as a
champion of the Catholic rules. The opposing party either retire or
conform. The self-denial and devotion of the Celtic missionaries are
highly praised, and some account of the life led by English students in
Ireland follows, with the story of the self-dedication of Egbert, who is
destined to play a prominent part afterwards in the history of the Church.
The consecration of both Wilfrid and Ceadda (664 A. D. ), as bishops of
Northumbria leads to complications in the episcopate. An important step
towards the unity of the English nation in ecclesiastical matters is taken
when Wighard is sent to Rome by the kings Oswy and Egbert, acting in
concert, to be consecrated as Archbishop of Canterbury (667 A. D. ). Wighard
dies there, and Pope Vitalian undertakes to find an archbishop for the
English Church.
The book ends with a fresh apostasy in Essex during the miseries of the
great plague of 664. Mercia, so lately itself evangelized, becomes a new
missionary centre, King Wulfhere sending Bishop Jaruman to recall the East
Saxons to the faith.
BOOK IV. —In all but one of the kingdoms of England Christianity is now, at
least in name, established, and the Church settles down to the work of
organization. The man for this task is found in Theodore of Tarsus,
consecrated Archbishop of the English in 668. He arrives at Canterbury in
669. We hear at once of the vigorous impulse given by him and Abbot
Hadrian to the various departments of education there. Finding an
irregularity in Ceadda’s orders, he completes his ordination and makes him
Bishop of the Mercians (probably in 669), with his see at Lichfield.
Ceadda’s death (672 A. D. ), his character, and the miracles and visions
connected with him are described. Parenthetically we get an account of
Colman’s activity in Ireland after his retirement, in consequence of the
decision at Whitby. The most important political events at this time are
the death of Oswy and succession of Egfrid in Northumbria in 670 or 671,
and the death of Egbert and succession of Hlothere in Kent in 673.
In the same year the Council of Hertford, the first English provincial
council, is held, and marks the strength and independence of the Church.
Theodore proceeds with his reforms in the episcopate. Various events of
ecclesiastical importance follow; the East Anglian diocese is divided
about this time, and other changes are effected.
Essex, so long prone to lapses into paganism, becomes at this time a
centre of religious life under its Bishop Earconwald and its king Sebbi.
Earconwald, whose holiness is attested by many miraculous circumstances,
was the founder of the monasteries of Chertsey and Barking, the latter of
which was ruled by his sister, the saintly Ethelburg. Various miracles are
related in connection with her and her monastery. The king of the East
Saxons, Sebbi, is a man of unusual piety who resigns his kingdom and
receives the tonsure.
After a brief allusion to West Saxon history, the devastation of Kent by
Ethelred of Mercia in 676, and certain changes in the episcopate, we come
to an important step in the organization of the Church taken by Theodore.
In pursuance of his policy of increasing the number of bishops, he
subdivides the great Northumbrian diocese. Wilfrid is expelled (678 A. D. ).
From these events we pass summarily to the evangelization of the South
Saxons by Wilfrid, who extends his labours to the Isle of Wight, and thus
the last of the English provinces is won for the faith.
In the Council of Hatfield (680 A. D. ) the English Church asserts its
orthodoxy and unites with the continental Churches in repudiating the
heresy of the Monothelites. Turning to Northumbrian history, we have the
story of Egfrid’s queen, Ethelthryth, and a hymn composed in her honour by
Bede. The war between Mercia and Northumbria in 679 is ended by the
mediation of Theodore, and a miracle in connection with the battle of the
Trent is related.
