It is going to be necessary for me to take steps to reduce my
hospital
expenses.
Sartre-Jean-Paul-What-is-literature¿-Introducing-Les-Temps-modernes-The-nationalization-of-literature-Black-orpheus
We see the distance that has been covered; it exactly resembles the Hegelian avatars of consciousness: bourgeois analytics and idealistic destruction of the world by digestion.
The attitude of the rallie?
writers deserves the name Hegel gave to stoicism: 'It is only a concept
of negativity; it raises itself above this life like the spirit of the master. ' Surrealism, on the contrary, 'penetrates this life like the spirit of the slave'. This is certainly its value and, without any doubt, that is the way it can hope to join hands with the worker who experiences his freedom in work. However, the worker destroys in order to construct. By destroying the tree he constructs beams and boards. Thus, he learns the two aspects of freedom, which is a constructive negativity. Surrealism, borrowing meth- ods from bourgeois analysis, inverts the process: instead of destroying in order to construct, it constructs in order to destroy. Its construction is always alienated; it is compounded in a process whose end is annihilation. However, as the construction is real and the destruction is symbolic, the surrealist object may also be directly conceived as an end in itself. It is 'marble sugar' or a contestation of sugar, according to the way one looks at it. The surrealist object is necessarily iridescent because it represents the human order as topsy-turvy and because, as such, it contains within itself its own contradiction. That is what permits its constructor to claim that he is both destroying the real and is poetically creating a super-reality beyond reality. In fact, the super-real thus constructed becomes one object among others in the world, or it is only the crystallized indication of the possible destruction of the world. The fox-table of the last Exhibition is as much a syncretic effort to imbue our flesh with a vague sense of woodiness as it is a reciprocal challenge of the inert by the living and the living by the inert. The effort of the surrealists aims to present these two aspects of their production in the unity of the same movement. But the synthesis is lacking; the reason is that our authors do not want it. They are content
? 342 I Notes to Page 164
with presenting the two moments as blended in an essential unity and, at the same time, as being each essential, which does not remove the contradiction. And doubtless the expected result is achieved: the created object arouses a tension in the mind of the spectator, and it is this tension which is, strictly speaking, the surrealist instant; the given thing is destroyed by internal challenge, but the challenge itself and the destruction are in turn contested by the positive character and the concrete being-there of the creation. But this irritating iridescence of the impossible is, at bottom, nothing, unless it be the irreconcilable divergence between the two terms of a contradiction. W e have a case of technically provoking Baudelairean dissatisfaction. We have no revelation, no intuition of a new object, no seizure of matter or content, but only the purely formal consciousness of the mind as a surpassing, an appeal, and an emptiness. I shall again apply to surrealism Hegel's formula on scepticism: 'In [surrealism] consciousness actually experiences itself as a consciousness contradicting itself within itself. ' Will it at least turn in on itself? Will it bring about a philosophical conversion? Will the surrealist object have the concrete efficiency of the hypothesis of the evil genius? But a second preconception of surrealism intervenes at this point: I have shown that it utterly rejects subjectivity as the free arbiter. Its deep love of materiality (the object and the unfathomable support of its destructions) leads it to
profess materialism. Thus, it immediately covers up the consciousness which it for a moment discovered; it substantiates contradiction. It is no longer a matter of tension of subjectivity but of an objective structure of the universe. Read The Communicating Vessels: the title as well as the text shows the regrettable absence of any mediation; dream and waking are commu- nicating vessels; that means that there is a merging, an ebb and flow but not a synthetic unity. I know perfectly well what will be said: 'But this synthetic unity has to be made and that is precisely the aim which surrealism sets up for itself. ' 'Surrealism', says Mezer, 'starts from realities distinct from the conscious and the unconscious and goes towards the synthesis of those components. ' All well and good; but with what does it propose to do it? What is the instrument of mediation?
To see a whole merry-go-round of fairies whirling round a pumpkin (even if it is possible, which I doubt) is to mix dream and reality; it is not to unify them in a new form which would retain within it, transformed and surpassed, elements of the dream and the real. In fact, we are always on the level of contestation; the real pumpkin supported by the entire real world contests these fading fairies which run about its rind; and vice versa, the fairies contest the gourd. There remains consciousness, the only witness, the only recourse, of this reciprocal destruction; but it is not wanted. Whether we paint or sculpt our dreams, it is sleep which is eaten by waking: the scandalous object, retrieved by the electric lights, presented in a closed room, in the midst of other objects, two yards and ten inches from one wall and three yards and fifteen inches from another, becomes a thing of the world (I place myself here in the surrealist hypothesis which recognizes the same nature in the use as in the perception; it is evident that there would not even be any use in discussing the matter if one thought, as I do, that these natures are radically distinct) in so far as it is a positive
? Notes to Page 164 \ 343
creation and only escapes in so far as it is a pure negativity. Thus, surrealist man is an addition, a mixture, but never a synthesis.
It is no accident that our authors owe so much to psycho-analysis; it offered them under the name of 'complexes' precisely the model of those contradictory and multiple interpretations which they everywhere make use of and which are without real cohesion. It is true that 'complexes' exist. But what has not been sufficiently observed is that they can exist only on the foundation of a previously given synthetic reality. Thus, for surrealism the total man is only the sum total of all his manifestations. Lacking the synthetic idea, they have organized whirligigs of contraries; this flutter of being and non-being might have been able to reveal subjectivity, just as the contradiction of the sensible sent Plato back to intelligible forms; but their rejection of the subjective has transformed man into a plain haunted house: in that vague atrium of consciousness there appear and disappear self-destructive objects which are exactly similar to things. They enter by the eyes or by the back door. Powerful disembodied voices ring out like those which announced the death of Pan. This odd collection brings to mind American neo-realism even more than it does materialism. After this, as a substitute for the synthetic unifications which are effected by consciousness, one will conceive, by participation, a sort of magical unity which manifests itself capriciously and which will be called objective chance. But it is not the inverted image of human activity. One does not liberate a collection; one makes an inventory of it. And surrealism is just that--an inventory. It is only a matter of fighting against the discredit into which certain portions of the human condition have fallen. Surrealism is haunted by the ready-made, the solid; it abhors gene`ses and births; it never regards
creation as an emanation, a passing from the potential to the act, a gestation; it is the surging up ex nihilo, the abrupt appearance of a completely formed object which enriches the collection. At bottom, a discovery. So how could it 'deliver man from his monsters'? It has perhaps killed the monsters, but it has also killed man. It will be said that there remains desire. The surrealists have wanted to liberate human desire, they have proclaimed that man was desire. But that is not quite true; they have proscripted a whole category of desires (homosexuality, vices, etc. ), without ever justifying this proscription. Then, they have judged it conformable to their hatred of the subjective never to come to know desire except by its products, as psycho-analysis does too. Thus, desire is still a thing, a collection. But instead of referring back from things (abortive acts, objects of oneiric symbolism, etc. ) to their subjective source (which, strictly speaking, is desire) the surrealists remain fixed upon the thing. At bottom, desire is paltry and does not in itself interest them, and then it represents the rational explanation of the contradictions offered by com- plexes and their products. One will find very few and rather vague things in Breton about the unconscious and the libido. What interests him a great deal is not raw desire but crystallized desire, what might be called, to borrow an expression of Jaspers, the emblem of desire in the world. What has also struck me among the surrealists or ex-surrealists whom I have known has never been the magnificence of their desires or of their freedom. They have led lives which were modest and full of restraints; their sporadic
? 344 I Notes to Page 164
violence made me think rather of the spasms of a maniac than of a concerted action; as for the rest, they were solidly harpooned by powerful complexes. As far as freeing desire goes, it has always seemed to me that the great roaring boys of the Renaissance or even the Romantics did a great deal more. You may say that, at least, they are great poets. Fine; there we have a meeting-ground. Some naive people have said that I was 'anti-poetic' or
against poetry'. What an absurd phrase! As well say that I am against air or against water. On the contrary, I recognize in no uncertain terms that surrealism is the only poetic movement of the first half of the twentieth century; I even recognize that in a certain way it contributes to the liberation of man. But what it liberates is neither desire nor the human totality, but pure imagination. Now, the fact is that the purely imaginary and praxis are not easily reconciled. I find a touching admission of this in a surrealist of 1947, whose name seems predisposed to the utmost honesty:
'I must recognize (and probably I am not alone among those who are not easily satisfied) that there is a divergence between my feeling of rebellion, the reality of my life, and the fields of the battle of poetry which I may be waging, which the works of those who are my friends help me to wage. Despite them, despite myself, I hardly know how to live.
'Does recourse to the imaginary, which is a criticism of the social order, which is a protestation and a hastening of history, risk burning the bridges which connect us with other men and, at the same time, with reality? I know that there can be no question of freedom for man himself (Yves Bonnefoy, Surrealism in 1947, p. 68). [Bonnefoy (la bonnefoi)--good faith, honesty. This will explain M. Sartre's play on words in the sentence immediately preceding the quotation. --Translator. ]
But between the two wars surrealism spoke in a quite different tone. And it's something quite different that I attacked above concerning the surrealists' singing political manifestoes, their bringing judgement to bear against those among them who did not stick to the line, their defining a method of social action, their entering the C. P. and leaving it with a flourish, their rapprochement with Trotsky, and their concern about clarifying their position with regard to Soviet Russia. It's hard for me to believe that they thought they were acting as poets. It may be objected that man is a whole and that he is not to be divided up into a politician and a poet. I agree, and I will even add that I am more at ease for knowing that there are authors who make poetry a product of automatism and politics a conscious and reflective effort. But after all it is a truism; it is both true and false. For if man is one and the same, if, in a way, his mark is found everywhere, that does not at all mean that the activities are identical; and if, in each case, they bring the whole mind into question, one need not conclude that they do so in the same way, nor that the success of one justifies the failures of the other. Besides, does one think that one would be flattering the surrealists by telling them that they have been carrying on political activity as poets?
Still, it is reasonable for a writer who wants to mark the unity of his life and his work to show by a theory the community of aims of his poetry and his practice. But the fact is that this theory can itself only belong to prose. There is a surrealist prose, and that is the only thing I was considering in
? Notes to Pages 164-174 \ 345
the pages that are under attack. But surrealism is hard to pin down; it is Proteus. Sometimes it presents itself as completely involved in reality, struggle, and life; and if you call it to account, it starts screaming that it's pure poetry and that you're murdering it, and that you don't know what poetry is all about. This is shown rather clearly in the following anecdote which everyone knows but which is pregnant with meaning: Aragon had written a poem which rightly appeared as a provocation to murder; there was talk of legal prosecution; whereupon, the whole surrealist group solemnly asserted the irresponsibility of the poet; the products of autom- atism were not to be likened to concerted undertakings. However, to anyone who had some experience with automatic writing, it was apparent that Aragon's poem was of a quite different kind. Here was a man quivering with indignation, who, in clear and violent terms, called for the death of the oppressor; the oppressor was stirred to action, and all at once he found before him nothing more than a poet who woke up and rubbed his eyes and was amazed that he was being blamed for his dreams. This is what has just happened again: I attempted a critical examination of the totality of the fact 'surrealism' as a commitment in the world, in so far as surrealists were attempting, by means ofprose, to make its meanings clear. I was answered that I am harming poets and that I misunderstand their contribution' to the inner life. But really, they didn't give a rap about the inner life; they wanted to shatter it, to break down the walls between subjective and objective, and to wage the Revolution on the side of the
proletariat.
To conclude: surrealism is entering a period of withdrawal; it is breaking with Marxism and the C. P. It wants to demolish the Christian-Thomist edifice stone by stone. Very well, but I should like to know what public it expects to reach. In other words, in what souls it expects to ruin western civilization. It has said over and over again that it could not affect the workers directly and that they were not yet accessible to its action. The facts show that they are right: how many workers visited the 1947 Exhibition? On the other hand, how many bourgeois? Thus, its purpose can only be negative: to destroy the last remnants of the Christian myths in the minds of the bourgeois who form their public. That was what I wanted to show.
26. Which has particularly characterized them for the last hundred years because of the misunderstanding which has separated them from the public and has obliged them to decide upon the marks of their talent themselves.
27. Pre? vost declared, more than once, his sympathy for Epicureanism as revised and corrected by Alain.
28. If I did not speak of Malraux or Saint-Exupe? ry earlier, it is because they belong to our generation. They were writing before we were and are doubtless a little older than we. But whereas we needed the urgency and the physical reality of a conflict in order to discover ourselves, Malraux had the immense merit of recognizing as early as his first work that we were at war and of producing a war literature when the surrealists and even Drieu were devoting themselves to a literature of peace. As to Saint-Exupe? ry, against the subjectivism and the quietism of our predecessors he was able
? 346 I Notes to Pages 174-187
to sketch the chief features of a literature of work and tool. I shall show later that he is the precursor of a literature of construction which tends to replace the literature of consumption. War and construction, heroism and work, doing, having and being--it will be seen, at the end of this chapter, that these are the chief literary and philosophical themes of today. Consequently, when I say we, I believe that I can speak of them too.
29. What are Camus, Malraux, Koestler, etc. now producing if not a literature of extreme situations? Their characters are at the height of power or in prison cells, on the eve of death or of being tortured or of killing. Wars, coups d'e? tat, revolutionary action, bombardments, massacres. There you have their everday life. On every page, in every line, it is always the whole man who is in question.
30. Of course, some minds are richer than others, more intuitive, or better qualified for analysis or synthesis. Some of them are even prophetic and some are in a better position to foresee because they hold certain cards in their hand or because they discern a broader horizon. But these differences are a posteriori and the evaluation of the present and the near future remains conjectural. For us too the event appears only through subjectivities. But its transcendence comes from the fact that it exceeds them all because it extends through them and reveals to each person a different aspect of itself and of himself.
Thus, our technical problem is to find an orchestration of conscious- nesses which may permit us to render the multi-dimensionality of the event. Moreover, in giving up the fiction of the omniscient narrator, we have assumed the obligation of suppressing the intermediaries between the reader and the subjectivities--the viewpoints of our characters. It is a matter of having him enter into their minds as into a windmill. He must even coincide successively with each one of them. We have learned from
Joyce to look for a second kind of realism, the raw realism of subjectivity without mediation or distance. Which leads us to profess a third realism, that of temporality. Indeed, if without mediation we plunge the reader into a consciousness, if we refuse him all means of surveying the whole, then the time of this consciousness must be imposed upon him without abridge- ment. If I pack six months into a single page, the reader jumps out of the book.
This last aspect raises difficulties that none of us has resolved and which are perhaps partially insoluble, for it is neither possible nor desirable to limit all novels to the story of a single day. Even if one should resign oneself to that, the feet would remain that devoting a book to twenty-four hours rather than to one, or to an hour rather than to a minute, implies the intervention of the author and a transcendent choice. It will then be necessary to mask this choice by purely aesthetic procedures, to practise sleight of hand, and, as always in art, to lie in order to be true.
31. From this viewpoint, absolute objectivity, that is, the story in the third person which presents characters solely by their conduct and words without explanation or incursion into their inner life, while preserving strict chronological order, is rigorously equivalent to absolute subjectivity. Logically, to be sure, it might be claimed that there is at least a witnessing consciousness, that of the reader. But the fact is that the reader forgets to
? Notes to Pages 187-216 \ 347
see himself while he looks and the story retains for him the innocence of a virgin forest whose trees grow far from sight.
32. I sometimes wonder whether the Germans, who had at their disposal a hundred means of knowing the names of the members of the National Writers' Committee, did not spare us. We were pure consumers for them too. Here the process is inverted. The diffusion of our newspapers was highly limited. It would have been more inexpedient in regard to the supposed politics of collaboration to arrest Eluard or Mauriac than dangerous to let them whisper in freedom. The Gestapo doubtless preferred to concentrate its efforts on the underground forces and the members of the Maquis whose acts of real destruction troubled it more than our abstract negativity. Doubtless, they arrested and shot Jacques Decour. But at the time Decour was not yet very well known.
33. See particularly Wind, Sand and Stars.
34. Like Hemingway, for example, in For Whom the Bell Tolls.
35. But don't let us exaggerate. In gross, the situation of the writer has
improved. But, as will be seen, chiefly by extra-literary means (radio, cinema, journalism) which were not available formerly. He who can't or won't have recourse to these means must practise a second profession or have a tough time of it. 'It is extremely rare for me to have coffee to drink and enough cigarettes,' writes Julien Blanc ('Grievances of a Writer', Combat, April 27, 1947). 'Tomorrow I won't put any butter on my bread, and the chemist's price for the phosphorous which I lack is preposterous . . . since 1943 I have undergone five serious operations. Very shortly I am going to have a sixth, a very serious one. Being a writer, I have no social security. I have a wife and child. The state remembers me only to ask for excessive taxes on my trifling royalties. . . .
It is going to be necessary for me to take steps to reduce my hospital expenses. . . . And the Society of Men of Letters and the Authors' Fund? The first will back me up; the second, having given me a gift last month of four thousand francs . . . Let's forget it. '
36. Aside, of course, from Catholic 'writers'. As for the so-called Communist 'writers', I speak about them later on.
37. I admit without difficulty the Marxist description of 'existentialist' anguish as a historical and class phenomenon. Existentialism, in its contemporary form, appears with the decomposition of the bourgeoisie, and its origin is bourgeois. But that this decomposition can disclose certain aspects of the human condition and make possible certain metaphysical intuitions does not mean that these intuitions and this disclosure are illusions of the bourgeois consciousness or mythical representations of the situation.
38. The worker has joined the C. P. under the pressure of circumstances. He is less suspect because his possible choices are more limited.
39. In Communist literature in France, I find only one genuine writer. Nor is it accidental that he writes about mimosa and beach pebbles.
40. They have caused Hugo to be read. More recently they have spread the work of Giono in certain areas.
41. I except the abortive attempt of Pre? vost and his contemporaries. I have spoken of them above.
? 348 I Notes to Pages 220-330
42. This contradiction is met with everywhere, particularly in commu- nist friendship. Nizan had many friends. Where are they? Those he was most fond of belonged to the C. P. These are the ones who revile him today. The only ones who remain faithful are not in the Party. The reason is that the Stalinist community with its excommunicative power is present in love and friendship which are person-to-person relationships.
43. And the idea of freedom? The fantastic criticisms that have been made of existentialism prove that people no longer mean anything by it. Is it their fault? Here is the P . R. L. , antidemocratic and antisocialist, recruiting former fascists, former collaborators and former P. S. F. 's. Yet it calls itself the Republican Party of Freedom {Parti re? publicain de la liberte? ). If you are against it, it means that you are therefore against freedom. But the communists also refer to freedom; only it is Hegelian freedom, which is an assumption of necessity. And the surrealists too, who are determinists. A young simpleton said to me one day, 'After The Flies, in which you spoke splendidly about the freedom of Orestes, you betrayed yourself and you betrayed us by writing Being and Nothingness and by failing to set up a deterministic and materialistic humanism. ' I understand what he meant: that materialism delivers man from his myths. It is a liberation, I agree, but in order the better to enslave him. However, from 1760 on, some American colonists defended slavery in the name of freedom: if the colonist, citizen, and pioneer wants to buy a negro, isn't he free? And having bought him, isn't he free to use him? The argument has remained. In 1947 the proprietor of a public swimming pool refused to admit a Jewish captain, a war hero. The captain wrote letters of complaint to the newspapers. The
papers published his protest and concluded: 'What a wonderful country America is! The proprietor of the pool was free to refuse admittance to a Jew. But the Jew, a citizen of the United States, was free to protest in the press. And the press, which, as everybody knows, is free, mentions the incident without taking sides. Finally, everybody is free. ' The only trouble
is that the word freedom which covers these very different meanings--and a hundred others--is used without anyone's thinking that he ought to indicate the meaning he gives it in each case.
44. Because, like Mind, it is of the type of what I have elsewhere called 'detotalized totality'.
45. Camus's The Plague, which has just been published, seems to me a good example of a unifying movement which bases a plurality of critical and constructive themes on the organic unity of a single myth.
Black Orpheus
1. Ste? phane Mallarme? , "Magie," in Oeuvres comple`tes (Paris: Ple? iade, 1945), p. 400.
2. Aime? Ce? saire, "Tam-Tam II," in Les Armes miraculeuses, 2nd e? d. (Paris: Gallimard, 1946), p. 69.
3. Ce? saire, "Et les chiens se taisaient," in Les Armes miraculeuses, p. 156.
? A Note on the Texts
"Qu'est-ce que la litte? rature? " was originally published in six installments in Les Temps modernes 17-22 (February-July
1947). It subsequently appeared in Situations II (Paris: Gallimard, 1948), along with "Pre? sentation des Temps modernes" and "La Nationalisation de la litte? rature," and was published separately by Gallimard in 1964. The translation used here, published by the Philosophical Library (New York) in 1949, was the first to appear in English and has been reproduced with a small number of corrections. The final section of the essay, "Ecrire pour son e? poque," was first published in Alexandria in the periodical Valeurs 7--8 (October 1946-January 1947), and was reprinted in the
June 1948 issue of Les Temps modernes. English translations appeared in late 1946 and early 1947 in several periodicals, including Virginia Quarterly Review 23 (Spring 1947).
"Pre? sentation des Temps modernes' was published in the inaugural issue of Les Temps modernes on October 1, 1945. It appeared for the first time in English as "The Case for Responsible Literature" in Horizon (London) 2 (May 1945), and in Partisan Review 12 (Summer 1945). The translation used here was commissioned especially for this volume.
"La Nationalisation de la litte? rature" appeared in the second issue of Les Temps modernes, on November 1, 1945. It is published here in English for the first time.
"Orphe? e Noir" appeared originally as the preface to an anthology of works by African and West Indian poets, Anthologie de la nouvelle poe? sie ne`gre et malgache de langue
franc? ais, edited by Leopold Se? dar-Senghor (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1948). Excerpts were also pub- lished in Les Temps modernes yi (October 1948) and Pre? sence africaine 6 (April 1949), and the whole was reprinted, with
? 350 I A Note on the Texts
a supplementary note, in Situations III (Paris: Gallimard, 1949). It first appeared in English in Pre? sence africaine
(1951). Its first American publication was in the Massachusetts Review 6, no. 1 (1965), and it is that text which has been reprinted here.
? Adorno, Theodor, 16-17, 18 Aesthetic joy, 39, 63-65, 219 Africa, 2 9 8 - 2 9 9
Alain (Emile Chartier), 165, 167,
172, 3451127; The Citizen versus the Powers That Be, 262
Alienation, 56, 72, 73, 134-137, 192
temporary, 166-168, 195-204, 214-215, 218-224, 253-254. See also Public; Reading
Augier, Emile, 108
Author: remuneration of, 8, 80--
130, 164, 249-250, 347n33; class origins of, 8, 93, 99-103,
141-145, 155-156, 187-188, 204, 223-224, 249-250; histo- ricity of, 9, 68-69, 70-80, 134-137, 175-178, 180, 182- 187, 251-255, 277-279; com- mitment of, 34-41, 46-47, 68-69, 77- 8o, 192-196, 215- 238, 243-245, 251-255, 265- 267, 286-287; function of, 38-39, 228-235, 255; relation of, to reader, 50-58, 60-63, 65-68, 70-75, 78; freedom of, 58, 60-69, 72> 77>> 92> IOO> 191-192, 195, 213-214, 222- 224; bad conscience of, 82,
135; in feudal society, 82-85; cooption of, 82-93; in 17th century, 85-93, 96-97; in
18th century, 93-103; and
the bourgeoisie, 96, 99-100, 103-109, 113-130, 223-224; pretensions of, to class indepen- dence, 97-103, 111-120, 155- 157, 249-250; in 19th
century, 103-130; and the pro- letariat, 109-113, 121-122, 130-132; situation of contem- porary, 132-140, 184-192, 195-196, 279-280, 287-288;
Alquire? , Ferdinand,
Anouilh, Jean, 197
Aragon, Louis (Louis Andrieux),
144, 284, 338n25; Aure? lien, 219
Aristotle, 254
Arland, Marcel, 151; L'Ordre,
150; Terres Etrange`res, 150 Aron, Raymond, 5
Art: formai, 6 2 ; realistic, 6 2 , 66y
67, 78, 119, 249. See also Lit- erature; Poetry; Poetry, black; Writing
Artistic creation, 25-28, 48-52. See also Author; Writing
Art object: as appeal to freedom, 16-17, 56-69; as absolute end, 55-56, 104, 191, 213, 221, 249; in bourgeois society, 1 0 5 - 107. Seealso Literature; Poetry;
Poetry, black; Writing Assouline, Pierre: L'Epuration des
intellectuels, 5n
Audience: historicity of, 15,
7 0 - 8 2 - 85; in 17th century, 85-93; in 18th century, 93-103; in 19th
75, 222; in feudal
century, 103-130, 250; con-
Index
3 3 8 ^ 5
society,
? 352 I Index
Author {continued)
American, 141, 148, 186, 194; contemporary British, 142; con- temporary Italian, 142; rallie? , 147, 169, 170-171; and Com- munist Party, 207--214; "impli- cation" of, 251; in contempo- rary criticism, 276-277; social- ization of, 280-281; situation
of black, 294-299, 306-307. See also Journalism; Literature; Poetry; Poetry, black; Writing
Aveline, Claude, 164
Baboeuf, Gracchus, 225
Bach, J. S. , 43
Balzac, Honore? de, 114, 252 Barbey d'Aurevilly, J. , 114, 125 Barbie, Klaus, 5n
Bariler, Etienne: Les Petits Cama- rades, 20
Barre? s, Maurice, 146, 147 Barthes, Roland: Mythologies, 16;
Writing Degree Zero, 16 Bataille, Georges, 173-174, 302,
330, 333^3, 338n25 Baudelaire, Charles, 80, 114,
115, 157; The Glass Maker, 117 Beaumarchais, Pierre, 91
Beauty: artistic, 39, 55-56, 187;
natural, 55-56, 59; in bour- geois society, 92, 117, 120-
121, 172, 221
Beauvoir, Simone de, 4, 5; The
Prime of Life, 4; L'Invite? e, 275 Beckett, Samuel, 17
Be? dier, Charles: La Chanson de
Roland, 279
Behan, Brendan: The Hostage, 219 Being, 48, 63, 187, 192, 193-
194
Being and Nothingness, 5, 14 Benda, Julien, 10, 70, 84; The
Treason of the Intellectuals, 9; The Great Betrayal, 6()n
Be? ranger, Pierre Jean, 284 Bergson, Henri, 23, 31, 156,
237, 316, 317, 320
Bernanos, 281
Bernard, Claude, 277
Beucler, Andre? , 164
Between Existentialism and Marxism,
16
Bevin, Ernest, 236
Billy, Andre? , 144
"Black," 304-306
"Black Orpheus," 7, 12-13, 15,
291-330
Blanc, Julien, 347n35
Bloch, Marc, 182
Bloch-Michel, Jean, 182
Blum, Leon, 146
Boccaccio, 124 Boileau-Despre? aux, Nicolas, 172 Bonaparte, Napoleon, 285,
335ni3
Bonnefoy, Yves, 338n25 Bordeaux, Henri, 108, 122, 281 Boschetti, Anna: The Intellectual
Enterprise, 7, 18
Bost, Jacques-Laurant, 4
Bost, Pierre, 275; L'Imbe? cile, 164,
167
Bourgeoisie: guilty conscience of,
81, 199-204; as rising class, 94-96, 100; as privileged class, 103-130, 146-148; utilitarian- ism of, 104-107, 108, 147; petty, 166--169; class ignorance of, 255-260
Bourget, Paul, 108, 280
Breton, Andre? , 13, 33, 120, 143,
144, 154, 156, 159-161, 172, 329, 338n25; The Communicat- ing Vessels, 338n25; Nad]a, 338n2 5; Le Point du Jour, 338n25
Brierre, Jean, 322
Brod, Max, 237
Brunschvig, Le? on, 167, 177
? Burget, Charles, 122 Byron, Lord, 145
Caillois, Roger, 130
Camus, Albert, 5, 346029, 348043 Capitalism. See Bourgeoisie; Class;
Marxism; Proletariat Carnaedes, 155
Carrouges, Michel, 319 Cartier-Bresson, Henri, 19-20 Caterus, 254
Ce? line, Louis-Ferdinand, 91, 244 Cendrars, Blaise: Rhum, 101 Cervantes, Miguel de, 115, 124 Ce? saire, Aime? , 306, 308-309,
310, 311-313, 314. 315, 3i6,
telleau), 281
Chateaubriand, Franc? ois de, 44 China, 175, 176
Chips Are Down, The, 15 Christianity, 82-85, 87, 94, 98,
323
Churchill, Winston, 236
Clark, Terry Nichols, Prophets and
Patrons, i^n
Class: proletariat, 73, 107, 109- 113, 121-122, 130-132, 166, 199-201, 204-207, 257, 263, 295-299, 329; noble, 87, 95, 101 ; bourgeoisie, 94--96, 100, 103-130, 147, 166-169, 199- 204, 255-259; and poetry,
294-295, 303, 329; and race,
295-299, 326-330 Claudel, Paul, 127, 146, 151,
220, 280
Cocteau, Jean, 144, 151, 174,
197
Cohen-Solal, Annie: Sartre: A Life,
5"
Index I 3^3 Colonialism, 12, 295-297, 3 0 1 -
304, 323
Combes, Andre? , 157
Comite? National des Ecrivains, 5,
8
Commitment, 15-18, 34-41, 69,
77-80; in writing, 14-16, 18-19, 34-41, 66-69, 251- 255, 265-267; author's, 34-
41, 46-47, 68-69, 77-8o, 192-196, 215-238, 243-245, 251-255, 265-267, 286-287.
See also Litte? rature engage? e Communist Party, 4, 6, 7, 203,
205-214, 220, 221, 231, 236, 240, 283, 338n25; and surrealism, 157-160, 174; conservatism of, 205, 207- 212, 214; opportunism of, 212-213
Comte, Auguste, 157, 177, 264 Condorcet, Jean-Antoine, 101 Conta^t, Michel: The Writings of
Sartre, 5n
Corneille, Pierre, 85, 108 Courier, P. L. , 91
Criticism, 82, 224-228, 229,
233--235, 237; critiqued, 41 -- 45; contemporary, 272-288; as prediction, 274-287; histori- cized, 279-280, 287-288
Critique of Dialectical Reason, 14 Croisset, Francis de, 251 Culture industry, 18
Dali, Salvador, 153
Damas, Le? on, 301, 322
Dante Alighieri, 115
Daudet, Le? on, 127-128, 211 Davies, Howard, I4n
Debray, Re? gis, 18, 19; Teachers,
Writers, Celebrities, 6 Decour, Jacques, 284, 347n32 Denoe`l, Robert, 8n De? roule`de, Paul, 284
318-319, 320, 322,
Ce? zanne, Paul, 62
Chack, Paul, 203
Chamson, Andre? , 164, 167, 172 Chardonne, Jacques (Jacques Bou-
32 4-32 5
? 354 I Index
Derrida, Jacques, 11
Descartes, Rene? , 60, 85, 254-
255, 277
Descombes, Vincent: Modern
French Philosophy, 15 Desmoulins, Camille, 225 Desnos, Robert, 161, 338n25 Dho^tel, Andre? , 174
Diderot, Denis, 97, 101, 159, 188
Diop, Birago, 301, 308
Diop, David, 306
Dirty Hands, The, 15
Disclosure: in poetry, 11-12; in
prose, 11-12, 16, 19, 37-38,
65-67; in reading, 52
Dos Passos, John, 186
Dreyfus, Alfred, 208
Drieu la Rochelle, Pierre-Euge`ne,
6, 8n, 68, 161, 163, 244,
281, 345n28
Duchamp, Marcel, 153, 306,
338n25
Duhamel, Georges, 146; The Pos-
session of the World, 192 Dullin, Charles, 272 Durkheim, Emile, 167, 220
Ecole Normale Supe? rieure, 4, 5
Education europe? enne, L', 277 Einstein, Albert, 280
Eluard, Paul (Paul-Euge`ne Grin-
del), 274, 347*132 Empiricism, 236 Engels, Friedrich, 212 Epictetus, 156 Epicureanism, 168 Eros, 319
Esprit, 323
Estaunie? , Edouard, 148 Estenne, Charles, 333n2 Ethics. See Morality Etiemble, Rene? , 76, 335n9 Eurydice, 300
Evil, 178-181, 185
Existentialism: and Marxism, 5, 7, 274, 347n37
Exoticism, 162
Faulkner, William, 186 Feelings, 34, 56, 57-58, 259-
260, 314
Fe? nelon, Franc? ois de, 93, 272 Fernandez, Ramon, 41, 281 Flaubert, Gustave, 8 - 9 , 12, 16,
112, 113-114, 117, 118, 151,
186, 250, 251, 252, 335n l 4 Fontanin, Daniel de, 280
Forces Franc? aises de l'Inte? rieur,
254
Form, literary, 39--40
Foster, Hal: The Anti-Aesthetic, 7 Fouchet, Max-Pol, 3 3 8 ^ 5 Fournier, Alain, 150, 174; Le
Grand Meaulnes, 53
France, Anatole, 121
Francis, Claude: Simone de Beau-
voir, 8n
Fraternity, bourgeois, 256-258 Freedom, 70, 287; writing an
appeal to, 16-17, 54-58, 60- 69, 103; and alienation, 56, 72, 73, 134-137, 192; author's, 58, 60-69, 72, 77, 92, 100, 191-192, 195, 2 1 3 - 214, 222-224; a n d beauty, 59-60, 63-65; historicized,
72, 219, 221-223, 259-265, 276-279; meaningless, 348n43
Frehtman, Bernard, 4n
French Academy, 87
Freud, Sigmund, 23, 280 Fromentin, Euge`ne: Dominique,
125
Gallimard, 8n
Garaudy, Roger, 208
Gard, Roger Martin du, 73 Gassendi, Pierre, 254 Gaullism, 229
? Gautier, The? ophile, 57, 117 Genet, Jean, 16, 57
German occupation of France, 12,
71-72, 73-75, 177-189, 274,
282
Gide, Andre? , 6, 46, 117, 119-
120, 145, 151, 172, 198, 220,
250; Fruits of the Earth, 73,
192, 219, 280
Giono, Jean, 347n40 Giraudoux, Jean, 40, 146, 174,
282; Bella, 271; Eglantine, 271 Gobineau, Arthur, 44
Goncourt, Edmond de, 9, 117,
250, 252
Gontier, Fernande: Simone de Beau- voir, 8n
Good will; abstract, 218-219, 221; historicized, 219, 2 2 1 - 223
Gracq, Julien (Louis Poirier): Au Cha^teau d'Argol, 273; Un Beau Te? ne? breaux, 273
Grasset, Bernard, 8n
Great Britain, 230, 236, 284,
285
Green, Julien, 174
Greuze, Jean-Baptiste: "Prodigal
Son," 28
Groult, Marius, 174
Gyp (Marie-Antoinette de Ri-
Index | 355
Historicity: author's, 9-10, 6 8 - 69, 70-80, 134-137, 175- 178, 180, 182-187, 251-255; and freedom, 72, 219, 221- 223, 259-265, 276-279; con- temporary discovery of, 174-- 178, 182-188, 259-262, 277- 279; and good will, 219, 2 2 1 - 223; and race, 325
Hitler, Adolf, 34, 75, 261, 277 Hittites, 252
Hollier, Denis: The Politics of
Prose,3
Homosexuality, 259-260
Hugo, Victor, 109-110, 347n40 Humanism, 167
Humanite? , L', 207, 219
Human nature, 107
Human project, 64-65
Ideology: religious, 86-87, 89, 94, 111; revolutionary, 100
In Camera, 198 "Introduction to Les Temps
modernes," 8-9, 10, 13, 249-
267
Iron in the Soul, 15
Jaloux, Edmond, 108 Jameson, Fredric: Marxism and
Form, 5
Janet, P . , 128
Janke? le? vitch, Vladimir, 5n Jaspers, Karl, 327, 338n25 Jeremiah, 80
Jouhandeau, Marcel, 3 3 8 ^ 5 Jourdan, P. , 34
Journalism, 10, 13, 272-276 Joyce, James, 346n30
Juare? s, Jean, 146
Kafka, Franz, 17, 53, 186, 209,
237
Kant, Immanuel, 54, 55-56,
218-219, 221, 235
quetti de Mirabeau),
337m9
Hachette, Louis, 251
Hamp, Pierre, 191
Hayman, Ronald: Sartre: A Biogra-
phy, 5n
Hegel, G. W. F. , 29, 126, 252,
280, 338n25
Heidegger, Martin, 14-15, 49,
194, 202, 279, 314
Heine, Heinrich, 151 Hemingway, Ernest, 186, 194 Hermant, Abel, 281, 337m9 Hesiod, 191
? 3$6 I Index
Koestler, Arthur, 74, 3461129; Spanish Testament, 267
Ku Klux Klan, 158
La Bruye`re, Jean de, 87, 93, 3361115
Lalande, Andre? , 227
Laleau, Rene? , 301, 317
Lalou, Rene? , 275
Lamarck, Chevalier de, 277 Language: de? signa^tive function
29, 35; pragmatic, 295; and oppression, 300-307. See also Poetry; Poetry, black; Prose; Writing
Lanson, Gustave, 279
Larbaud, Vale? ry, 337m9
La Rochefoucauld, Franc?
of negativity; it raises itself above this life like the spirit of the master. ' Surrealism, on the contrary, 'penetrates this life like the spirit of the slave'. This is certainly its value and, without any doubt, that is the way it can hope to join hands with the worker who experiences his freedom in work. However, the worker destroys in order to construct. By destroying the tree he constructs beams and boards. Thus, he learns the two aspects of freedom, which is a constructive negativity. Surrealism, borrowing meth- ods from bourgeois analysis, inverts the process: instead of destroying in order to construct, it constructs in order to destroy. Its construction is always alienated; it is compounded in a process whose end is annihilation. However, as the construction is real and the destruction is symbolic, the surrealist object may also be directly conceived as an end in itself. It is 'marble sugar' or a contestation of sugar, according to the way one looks at it. The surrealist object is necessarily iridescent because it represents the human order as topsy-turvy and because, as such, it contains within itself its own contradiction. That is what permits its constructor to claim that he is both destroying the real and is poetically creating a super-reality beyond reality. In fact, the super-real thus constructed becomes one object among others in the world, or it is only the crystallized indication of the possible destruction of the world. The fox-table of the last Exhibition is as much a syncretic effort to imbue our flesh with a vague sense of woodiness as it is a reciprocal challenge of the inert by the living and the living by the inert. The effort of the surrealists aims to present these two aspects of their production in the unity of the same movement. But the synthesis is lacking; the reason is that our authors do not want it. They are content
? 342 I Notes to Page 164
with presenting the two moments as blended in an essential unity and, at the same time, as being each essential, which does not remove the contradiction. And doubtless the expected result is achieved: the created object arouses a tension in the mind of the spectator, and it is this tension which is, strictly speaking, the surrealist instant; the given thing is destroyed by internal challenge, but the challenge itself and the destruction are in turn contested by the positive character and the concrete being-there of the creation. But this irritating iridescence of the impossible is, at bottom, nothing, unless it be the irreconcilable divergence between the two terms of a contradiction. W e have a case of technically provoking Baudelairean dissatisfaction. We have no revelation, no intuition of a new object, no seizure of matter or content, but only the purely formal consciousness of the mind as a surpassing, an appeal, and an emptiness. I shall again apply to surrealism Hegel's formula on scepticism: 'In [surrealism] consciousness actually experiences itself as a consciousness contradicting itself within itself. ' Will it at least turn in on itself? Will it bring about a philosophical conversion? Will the surrealist object have the concrete efficiency of the hypothesis of the evil genius? But a second preconception of surrealism intervenes at this point: I have shown that it utterly rejects subjectivity as the free arbiter. Its deep love of materiality (the object and the unfathomable support of its destructions) leads it to
profess materialism. Thus, it immediately covers up the consciousness which it for a moment discovered; it substantiates contradiction. It is no longer a matter of tension of subjectivity but of an objective structure of the universe. Read The Communicating Vessels: the title as well as the text shows the regrettable absence of any mediation; dream and waking are commu- nicating vessels; that means that there is a merging, an ebb and flow but not a synthetic unity. I know perfectly well what will be said: 'But this synthetic unity has to be made and that is precisely the aim which surrealism sets up for itself. ' 'Surrealism', says Mezer, 'starts from realities distinct from the conscious and the unconscious and goes towards the synthesis of those components. ' All well and good; but with what does it propose to do it? What is the instrument of mediation?
To see a whole merry-go-round of fairies whirling round a pumpkin (even if it is possible, which I doubt) is to mix dream and reality; it is not to unify them in a new form which would retain within it, transformed and surpassed, elements of the dream and the real. In fact, we are always on the level of contestation; the real pumpkin supported by the entire real world contests these fading fairies which run about its rind; and vice versa, the fairies contest the gourd. There remains consciousness, the only witness, the only recourse, of this reciprocal destruction; but it is not wanted. Whether we paint or sculpt our dreams, it is sleep which is eaten by waking: the scandalous object, retrieved by the electric lights, presented in a closed room, in the midst of other objects, two yards and ten inches from one wall and three yards and fifteen inches from another, becomes a thing of the world (I place myself here in the surrealist hypothesis which recognizes the same nature in the use as in the perception; it is evident that there would not even be any use in discussing the matter if one thought, as I do, that these natures are radically distinct) in so far as it is a positive
? Notes to Page 164 \ 343
creation and only escapes in so far as it is a pure negativity. Thus, surrealist man is an addition, a mixture, but never a synthesis.
It is no accident that our authors owe so much to psycho-analysis; it offered them under the name of 'complexes' precisely the model of those contradictory and multiple interpretations which they everywhere make use of and which are without real cohesion. It is true that 'complexes' exist. But what has not been sufficiently observed is that they can exist only on the foundation of a previously given synthetic reality. Thus, for surrealism the total man is only the sum total of all his manifestations. Lacking the synthetic idea, they have organized whirligigs of contraries; this flutter of being and non-being might have been able to reveal subjectivity, just as the contradiction of the sensible sent Plato back to intelligible forms; but their rejection of the subjective has transformed man into a plain haunted house: in that vague atrium of consciousness there appear and disappear self-destructive objects which are exactly similar to things. They enter by the eyes or by the back door. Powerful disembodied voices ring out like those which announced the death of Pan. This odd collection brings to mind American neo-realism even more than it does materialism. After this, as a substitute for the synthetic unifications which are effected by consciousness, one will conceive, by participation, a sort of magical unity which manifests itself capriciously and which will be called objective chance. But it is not the inverted image of human activity. One does not liberate a collection; one makes an inventory of it. And surrealism is just that--an inventory. It is only a matter of fighting against the discredit into which certain portions of the human condition have fallen. Surrealism is haunted by the ready-made, the solid; it abhors gene`ses and births; it never regards
creation as an emanation, a passing from the potential to the act, a gestation; it is the surging up ex nihilo, the abrupt appearance of a completely formed object which enriches the collection. At bottom, a discovery. So how could it 'deliver man from his monsters'? It has perhaps killed the monsters, but it has also killed man. It will be said that there remains desire. The surrealists have wanted to liberate human desire, they have proclaimed that man was desire. But that is not quite true; they have proscripted a whole category of desires (homosexuality, vices, etc. ), without ever justifying this proscription. Then, they have judged it conformable to their hatred of the subjective never to come to know desire except by its products, as psycho-analysis does too. Thus, desire is still a thing, a collection. But instead of referring back from things (abortive acts, objects of oneiric symbolism, etc. ) to their subjective source (which, strictly speaking, is desire) the surrealists remain fixed upon the thing. At bottom, desire is paltry and does not in itself interest them, and then it represents the rational explanation of the contradictions offered by com- plexes and their products. One will find very few and rather vague things in Breton about the unconscious and the libido. What interests him a great deal is not raw desire but crystallized desire, what might be called, to borrow an expression of Jaspers, the emblem of desire in the world. What has also struck me among the surrealists or ex-surrealists whom I have known has never been the magnificence of their desires or of their freedom. They have led lives which were modest and full of restraints; their sporadic
? 344 I Notes to Page 164
violence made me think rather of the spasms of a maniac than of a concerted action; as for the rest, they were solidly harpooned by powerful complexes. As far as freeing desire goes, it has always seemed to me that the great roaring boys of the Renaissance or even the Romantics did a great deal more. You may say that, at least, they are great poets. Fine; there we have a meeting-ground. Some naive people have said that I was 'anti-poetic' or
against poetry'. What an absurd phrase! As well say that I am against air or against water. On the contrary, I recognize in no uncertain terms that surrealism is the only poetic movement of the first half of the twentieth century; I even recognize that in a certain way it contributes to the liberation of man. But what it liberates is neither desire nor the human totality, but pure imagination. Now, the fact is that the purely imaginary and praxis are not easily reconciled. I find a touching admission of this in a surrealist of 1947, whose name seems predisposed to the utmost honesty:
'I must recognize (and probably I am not alone among those who are not easily satisfied) that there is a divergence between my feeling of rebellion, the reality of my life, and the fields of the battle of poetry which I may be waging, which the works of those who are my friends help me to wage. Despite them, despite myself, I hardly know how to live.
'Does recourse to the imaginary, which is a criticism of the social order, which is a protestation and a hastening of history, risk burning the bridges which connect us with other men and, at the same time, with reality? I know that there can be no question of freedom for man himself (Yves Bonnefoy, Surrealism in 1947, p. 68). [Bonnefoy (la bonnefoi)--good faith, honesty. This will explain M. Sartre's play on words in the sentence immediately preceding the quotation. --Translator. ]
But between the two wars surrealism spoke in a quite different tone. And it's something quite different that I attacked above concerning the surrealists' singing political manifestoes, their bringing judgement to bear against those among them who did not stick to the line, their defining a method of social action, their entering the C. P. and leaving it with a flourish, their rapprochement with Trotsky, and their concern about clarifying their position with regard to Soviet Russia. It's hard for me to believe that they thought they were acting as poets. It may be objected that man is a whole and that he is not to be divided up into a politician and a poet. I agree, and I will even add that I am more at ease for knowing that there are authors who make poetry a product of automatism and politics a conscious and reflective effort. But after all it is a truism; it is both true and false. For if man is one and the same, if, in a way, his mark is found everywhere, that does not at all mean that the activities are identical; and if, in each case, they bring the whole mind into question, one need not conclude that they do so in the same way, nor that the success of one justifies the failures of the other. Besides, does one think that one would be flattering the surrealists by telling them that they have been carrying on political activity as poets?
Still, it is reasonable for a writer who wants to mark the unity of his life and his work to show by a theory the community of aims of his poetry and his practice. But the fact is that this theory can itself only belong to prose. There is a surrealist prose, and that is the only thing I was considering in
? Notes to Pages 164-174 \ 345
the pages that are under attack. But surrealism is hard to pin down; it is Proteus. Sometimes it presents itself as completely involved in reality, struggle, and life; and if you call it to account, it starts screaming that it's pure poetry and that you're murdering it, and that you don't know what poetry is all about. This is shown rather clearly in the following anecdote which everyone knows but which is pregnant with meaning: Aragon had written a poem which rightly appeared as a provocation to murder; there was talk of legal prosecution; whereupon, the whole surrealist group solemnly asserted the irresponsibility of the poet; the products of autom- atism were not to be likened to concerted undertakings. However, to anyone who had some experience with automatic writing, it was apparent that Aragon's poem was of a quite different kind. Here was a man quivering with indignation, who, in clear and violent terms, called for the death of the oppressor; the oppressor was stirred to action, and all at once he found before him nothing more than a poet who woke up and rubbed his eyes and was amazed that he was being blamed for his dreams. This is what has just happened again: I attempted a critical examination of the totality of the fact 'surrealism' as a commitment in the world, in so far as surrealists were attempting, by means ofprose, to make its meanings clear. I was answered that I am harming poets and that I misunderstand their contribution' to the inner life. But really, they didn't give a rap about the inner life; they wanted to shatter it, to break down the walls between subjective and objective, and to wage the Revolution on the side of the
proletariat.
To conclude: surrealism is entering a period of withdrawal; it is breaking with Marxism and the C. P. It wants to demolish the Christian-Thomist edifice stone by stone. Very well, but I should like to know what public it expects to reach. In other words, in what souls it expects to ruin western civilization. It has said over and over again that it could not affect the workers directly and that they were not yet accessible to its action. The facts show that they are right: how many workers visited the 1947 Exhibition? On the other hand, how many bourgeois? Thus, its purpose can only be negative: to destroy the last remnants of the Christian myths in the minds of the bourgeois who form their public. That was what I wanted to show.
26. Which has particularly characterized them for the last hundred years because of the misunderstanding which has separated them from the public and has obliged them to decide upon the marks of their talent themselves.
27. Pre? vost declared, more than once, his sympathy for Epicureanism as revised and corrected by Alain.
28. If I did not speak of Malraux or Saint-Exupe? ry earlier, it is because they belong to our generation. They were writing before we were and are doubtless a little older than we. But whereas we needed the urgency and the physical reality of a conflict in order to discover ourselves, Malraux had the immense merit of recognizing as early as his first work that we were at war and of producing a war literature when the surrealists and even Drieu were devoting themselves to a literature of peace. As to Saint-Exupe? ry, against the subjectivism and the quietism of our predecessors he was able
? 346 I Notes to Pages 174-187
to sketch the chief features of a literature of work and tool. I shall show later that he is the precursor of a literature of construction which tends to replace the literature of consumption. War and construction, heroism and work, doing, having and being--it will be seen, at the end of this chapter, that these are the chief literary and philosophical themes of today. Consequently, when I say we, I believe that I can speak of them too.
29. What are Camus, Malraux, Koestler, etc. now producing if not a literature of extreme situations? Their characters are at the height of power or in prison cells, on the eve of death or of being tortured or of killing. Wars, coups d'e? tat, revolutionary action, bombardments, massacres. There you have their everday life. On every page, in every line, it is always the whole man who is in question.
30. Of course, some minds are richer than others, more intuitive, or better qualified for analysis or synthesis. Some of them are even prophetic and some are in a better position to foresee because they hold certain cards in their hand or because they discern a broader horizon. But these differences are a posteriori and the evaluation of the present and the near future remains conjectural. For us too the event appears only through subjectivities. But its transcendence comes from the fact that it exceeds them all because it extends through them and reveals to each person a different aspect of itself and of himself.
Thus, our technical problem is to find an orchestration of conscious- nesses which may permit us to render the multi-dimensionality of the event. Moreover, in giving up the fiction of the omniscient narrator, we have assumed the obligation of suppressing the intermediaries between the reader and the subjectivities--the viewpoints of our characters. It is a matter of having him enter into their minds as into a windmill. He must even coincide successively with each one of them. We have learned from
Joyce to look for a second kind of realism, the raw realism of subjectivity without mediation or distance. Which leads us to profess a third realism, that of temporality. Indeed, if without mediation we plunge the reader into a consciousness, if we refuse him all means of surveying the whole, then the time of this consciousness must be imposed upon him without abridge- ment. If I pack six months into a single page, the reader jumps out of the book.
This last aspect raises difficulties that none of us has resolved and which are perhaps partially insoluble, for it is neither possible nor desirable to limit all novels to the story of a single day. Even if one should resign oneself to that, the feet would remain that devoting a book to twenty-four hours rather than to one, or to an hour rather than to a minute, implies the intervention of the author and a transcendent choice. It will then be necessary to mask this choice by purely aesthetic procedures, to practise sleight of hand, and, as always in art, to lie in order to be true.
31. From this viewpoint, absolute objectivity, that is, the story in the third person which presents characters solely by their conduct and words without explanation or incursion into their inner life, while preserving strict chronological order, is rigorously equivalent to absolute subjectivity. Logically, to be sure, it might be claimed that there is at least a witnessing consciousness, that of the reader. But the fact is that the reader forgets to
? Notes to Pages 187-216 \ 347
see himself while he looks and the story retains for him the innocence of a virgin forest whose trees grow far from sight.
32. I sometimes wonder whether the Germans, who had at their disposal a hundred means of knowing the names of the members of the National Writers' Committee, did not spare us. We were pure consumers for them too. Here the process is inverted. The diffusion of our newspapers was highly limited. It would have been more inexpedient in regard to the supposed politics of collaboration to arrest Eluard or Mauriac than dangerous to let them whisper in freedom. The Gestapo doubtless preferred to concentrate its efforts on the underground forces and the members of the Maquis whose acts of real destruction troubled it more than our abstract negativity. Doubtless, they arrested and shot Jacques Decour. But at the time Decour was not yet very well known.
33. See particularly Wind, Sand and Stars.
34. Like Hemingway, for example, in For Whom the Bell Tolls.
35. But don't let us exaggerate. In gross, the situation of the writer has
improved. But, as will be seen, chiefly by extra-literary means (radio, cinema, journalism) which were not available formerly. He who can't or won't have recourse to these means must practise a second profession or have a tough time of it. 'It is extremely rare for me to have coffee to drink and enough cigarettes,' writes Julien Blanc ('Grievances of a Writer', Combat, April 27, 1947). 'Tomorrow I won't put any butter on my bread, and the chemist's price for the phosphorous which I lack is preposterous . . . since 1943 I have undergone five serious operations. Very shortly I am going to have a sixth, a very serious one. Being a writer, I have no social security. I have a wife and child. The state remembers me only to ask for excessive taxes on my trifling royalties. . . .
It is going to be necessary for me to take steps to reduce my hospital expenses. . . . And the Society of Men of Letters and the Authors' Fund? The first will back me up; the second, having given me a gift last month of four thousand francs . . . Let's forget it. '
36. Aside, of course, from Catholic 'writers'. As for the so-called Communist 'writers', I speak about them later on.
37. I admit without difficulty the Marxist description of 'existentialist' anguish as a historical and class phenomenon. Existentialism, in its contemporary form, appears with the decomposition of the bourgeoisie, and its origin is bourgeois. But that this decomposition can disclose certain aspects of the human condition and make possible certain metaphysical intuitions does not mean that these intuitions and this disclosure are illusions of the bourgeois consciousness or mythical representations of the situation.
38. The worker has joined the C. P. under the pressure of circumstances. He is less suspect because his possible choices are more limited.
39. In Communist literature in France, I find only one genuine writer. Nor is it accidental that he writes about mimosa and beach pebbles.
40. They have caused Hugo to be read. More recently they have spread the work of Giono in certain areas.
41. I except the abortive attempt of Pre? vost and his contemporaries. I have spoken of them above.
? 348 I Notes to Pages 220-330
42. This contradiction is met with everywhere, particularly in commu- nist friendship. Nizan had many friends. Where are they? Those he was most fond of belonged to the C. P. These are the ones who revile him today. The only ones who remain faithful are not in the Party. The reason is that the Stalinist community with its excommunicative power is present in love and friendship which are person-to-person relationships.
43. And the idea of freedom? The fantastic criticisms that have been made of existentialism prove that people no longer mean anything by it. Is it their fault? Here is the P . R. L. , antidemocratic and antisocialist, recruiting former fascists, former collaborators and former P. S. F. 's. Yet it calls itself the Republican Party of Freedom {Parti re? publicain de la liberte? ). If you are against it, it means that you are therefore against freedom. But the communists also refer to freedom; only it is Hegelian freedom, which is an assumption of necessity. And the surrealists too, who are determinists. A young simpleton said to me one day, 'After The Flies, in which you spoke splendidly about the freedom of Orestes, you betrayed yourself and you betrayed us by writing Being and Nothingness and by failing to set up a deterministic and materialistic humanism. ' I understand what he meant: that materialism delivers man from his myths. It is a liberation, I agree, but in order the better to enslave him. However, from 1760 on, some American colonists defended slavery in the name of freedom: if the colonist, citizen, and pioneer wants to buy a negro, isn't he free? And having bought him, isn't he free to use him? The argument has remained. In 1947 the proprietor of a public swimming pool refused to admit a Jewish captain, a war hero. The captain wrote letters of complaint to the newspapers. The
papers published his protest and concluded: 'What a wonderful country America is! The proprietor of the pool was free to refuse admittance to a Jew. But the Jew, a citizen of the United States, was free to protest in the press. And the press, which, as everybody knows, is free, mentions the incident without taking sides. Finally, everybody is free. ' The only trouble
is that the word freedom which covers these very different meanings--and a hundred others--is used without anyone's thinking that he ought to indicate the meaning he gives it in each case.
44. Because, like Mind, it is of the type of what I have elsewhere called 'detotalized totality'.
45. Camus's The Plague, which has just been published, seems to me a good example of a unifying movement which bases a plurality of critical and constructive themes on the organic unity of a single myth.
Black Orpheus
1. Ste? phane Mallarme? , "Magie," in Oeuvres comple`tes (Paris: Ple? iade, 1945), p. 400.
2. Aime? Ce? saire, "Tam-Tam II," in Les Armes miraculeuses, 2nd e? d. (Paris: Gallimard, 1946), p. 69.
3. Ce? saire, "Et les chiens se taisaient," in Les Armes miraculeuses, p. 156.
? A Note on the Texts
"Qu'est-ce que la litte? rature? " was originally published in six installments in Les Temps modernes 17-22 (February-July
1947). It subsequently appeared in Situations II (Paris: Gallimard, 1948), along with "Pre? sentation des Temps modernes" and "La Nationalisation de la litte? rature," and was published separately by Gallimard in 1964. The translation used here, published by the Philosophical Library (New York) in 1949, was the first to appear in English and has been reproduced with a small number of corrections. The final section of the essay, "Ecrire pour son e? poque," was first published in Alexandria in the periodical Valeurs 7--8 (October 1946-January 1947), and was reprinted in the
June 1948 issue of Les Temps modernes. English translations appeared in late 1946 and early 1947 in several periodicals, including Virginia Quarterly Review 23 (Spring 1947).
"Pre? sentation des Temps modernes' was published in the inaugural issue of Les Temps modernes on October 1, 1945. It appeared for the first time in English as "The Case for Responsible Literature" in Horizon (London) 2 (May 1945), and in Partisan Review 12 (Summer 1945). The translation used here was commissioned especially for this volume.
"La Nationalisation de la litte? rature" appeared in the second issue of Les Temps modernes, on November 1, 1945. It is published here in English for the first time.
"Orphe? e Noir" appeared originally as the preface to an anthology of works by African and West Indian poets, Anthologie de la nouvelle poe? sie ne`gre et malgache de langue
franc? ais, edited by Leopold Se? dar-Senghor (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1948). Excerpts were also pub- lished in Les Temps modernes yi (October 1948) and Pre? sence africaine 6 (April 1949), and the whole was reprinted, with
? 350 I A Note on the Texts
a supplementary note, in Situations III (Paris: Gallimard, 1949). It first appeared in English in Pre? sence africaine
(1951). Its first American publication was in the Massachusetts Review 6, no. 1 (1965), and it is that text which has been reprinted here.
? Adorno, Theodor, 16-17, 18 Aesthetic joy, 39, 63-65, 219 Africa, 2 9 8 - 2 9 9
Alain (Emile Chartier), 165, 167,
172, 3451127; The Citizen versus the Powers That Be, 262
Alienation, 56, 72, 73, 134-137, 192
temporary, 166-168, 195-204, 214-215, 218-224, 253-254. See also Public; Reading
Augier, Emile, 108
Author: remuneration of, 8, 80--
130, 164, 249-250, 347n33; class origins of, 8, 93, 99-103,
141-145, 155-156, 187-188, 204, 223-224, 249-250; histo- ricity of, 9, 68-69, 70-80, 134-137, 175-178, 180, 182- 187, 251-255, 277-279; com- mitment of, 34-41, 46-47, 68-69, 77- 8o, 192-196, 215- 238, 243-245, 251-255, 265- 267, 286-287; function of, 38-39, 228-235, 255; relation of, to reader, 50-58, 60-63, 65-68, 70-75, 78; freedom of, 58, 60-69, 72> 77>> 92> IOO> 191-192, 195, 213-214, 222- 224; bad conscience of, 82,
135; in feudal society, 82-85; cooption of, 82-93; in 17th century, 85-93, 96-97; in
18th century, 93-103; and
the bourgeoisie, 96, 99-100, 103-109, 113-130, 223-224; pretensions of, to class indepen- dence, 97-103, 111-120, 155- 157, 249-250; in 19th
century, 103-130; and the pro- letariat, 109-113, 121-122, 130-132; situation of contem- porary, 132-140, 184-192, 195-196, 279-280, 287-288;
Alquire? , Ferdinand,
Anouilh, Jean, 197
Aragon, Louis (Louis Andrieux),
144, 284, 338n25; Aure? lien, 219
Aristotle, 254
Arland, Marcel, 151; L'Ordre,
150; Terres Etrange`res, 150 Aron, Raymond, 5
Art: formai, 6 2 ; realistic, 6 2 , 66y
67, 78, 119, 249. See also Lit- erature; Poetry; Poetry, black; Writing
Artistic creation, 25-28, 48-52. See also Author; Writing
Art object: as appeal to freedom, 16-17, 56-69; as absolute end, 55-56, 104, 191, 213, 221, 249; in bourgeois society, 1 0 5 - 107. Seealso Literature; Poetry;
Poetry, black; Writing Assouline, Pierre: L'Epuration des
intellectuels, 5n
Audience: historicity of, 15,
7 0 - 8 2 - 85; in 17th century, 85-93; in 18th century, 93-103; in 19th
75, 222; in feudal
century, 103-130, 250; con-
Index
3 3 8 ^ 5
society,
? 352 I Index
Author {continued)
American, 141, 148, 186, 194; contemporary British, 142; con- temporary Italian, 142; rallie? , 147, 169, 170-171; and Com- munist Party, 207--214; "impli- cation" of, 251; in contempo- rary criticism, 276-277; social- ization of, 280-281; situation
of black, 294-299, 306-307. See also Journalism; Literature; Poetry; Poetry, black; Writing
Aveline, Claude, 164
Baboeuf, Gracchus, 225
Bach, J. S. , 43
Balzac, Honore? de, 114, 252 Barbey d'Aurevilly, J. , 114, 125 Barbie, Klaus, 5n
Bariler, Etienne: Les Petits Cama- rades, 20
Barre? s, Maurice, 146, 147 Barthes, Roland: Mythologies, 16;
Writing Degree Zero, 16 Bataille, Georges, 173-174, 302,
330, 333^3, 338n25 Baudelaire, Charles, 80, 114,
115, 157; The Glass Maker, 117 Beaumarchais, Pierre, 91
Beauty: artistic, 39, 55-56, 187;
natural, 55-56, 59; in bour- geois society, 92, 117, 120-
121, 172, 221
Beauvoir, Simone de, 4, 5; The
Prime of Life, 4; L'Invite? e, 275 Beckett, Samuel, 17
Be? dier, Charles: La Chanson de
Roland, 279
Behan, Brendan: The Hostage, 219 Being, 48, 63, 187, 192, 193-
194
Being and Nothingness, 5, 14 Benda, Julien, 10, 70, 84; The
Treason of the Intellectuals, 9; The Great Betrayal, 6()n
Be? ranger, Pierre Jean, 284 Bergson, Henri, 23, 31, 156,
237, 316, 317, 320
Bernanos, 281
Bernard, Claude, 277
Beucler, Andre? , 164
Between Existentialism and Marxism,
16
Bevin, Ernest, 236
Billy, Andre? , 144
"Black," 304-306
"Black Orpheus," 7, 12-13, 15,
291-330
Blanc, Julien, 347n35
Bloch, Marc, 182
Bloch-Michel, Jean, 182
Blum, Leon, 146
Boccaccio, 124 Boileau-Despre? aux, Nicolas, 172 Bonaparte, Napoleon, 285,
335ni3
Bonnefoy, Yves, 338n25 Bordeaux, Henri, 108, 122, 281 Boschetti, Anna: The Intellectual
Enterprise, 7, 18
Bost, Jacques-Laurant, 4
Bost, Pierre, 275; L'Imbe? cile, 164,
167
Bourgeoisie: guilty conscience of,
81, 199-204; as rising class, 94-96, 100; as privileged class, 103-130, 146-148; utilitarian- ism of, 104-107, 108, 147; petty, 166--169; class ignorance of, 255-260
Bourget, Paul, 108, 280
Breton, Andre? , 13, 33, 120, 143,
144, 154, 156, 159-161, 172, 329, 338n25; The Communicat- ing Vessels, 338n25; Nad]a, 338n2 5; Le Point du Jour, 338n25
Brierre, Jean, 322
Brod, Max, 237
Brunschvig, Le? on, 167, 177
? Burget, Charles, 122 Byron, Lord, 145
Caillois, Roger, 130
Camus, Albert, 5, 346029, 348043 Capitalism. See Bourgeoisie; Class;
Marxism; Proletariat Carnaedes, 155
Carrouges, Michel, 319 Cartier-Bresson, Henri, 19-20 Caterus, 254
Ce? line, Louis-Ferdinand, 91, 244 Cendrars, Blaise: Rhum, 101 Cervantes, Miguel de, 115, 124 Ce? saire, Aime? , 306, 308-309,
310, 311-313, 314. 315, 3i6,
telleau), 281
Chateaubriand, Franc? ois de, 44 China, 175, 176
Chips Are Down, The, 15 Christianity, 82-85, 87, 94, 98,
323
Churchill, Winston, 236
Clark, Terry Nichols, Prophets and
Patrons, i^n
Class: proletariat, 73, 107, 109- 113, 121-122, 130-132, 166, 199-201, 204-207, 257, 263, 295-299, 329; noble, 87, 95, 101 ; bourgeoisie, 94--96, 100, 103-130, 147, 166-169, 199- 204, 255-259; and poetry,
294-295, 303, 329; and race,
295-299, 326-330 Claudel, Paul, 127, 146, 151,
220, 280
Cocteau, Jean, 144, 151, 174,
197
Cohen-Solal, Annie: Sartre: A Life,
5"
Index I 3^3 Colonialism, 12, 295-297, 3 0 1 -
304, 323
Combes, Andre? , 157
Comite? National des Ecrivains, 5,
8
Commitment, 15-18, 34-41, 69,
77-80; in writing, 14-16, 18-19, 34-41, 66-69, 251- 255, 265-267; author's, 34-
41, 46-47, 68-69, 77-8o, 192-196, 215-238, 243-245, 251-255, 265-267, 286-287.
See also Litte? rature engage? e Communist Party, 4, 6, 7, 203,
205-214, 220, 221, 231, 236, 240, 283, 338n25; and surrealism, 157-160, 174; conservatism of, 205, 207- 212, 214; opportunism of, 212-213
Comte, Auguste, 157, 177, 264 Condorcet, Jean-Antoine, 101 Conta^t, Michel: The Writings of
Sartre, 5n
Corneille, Pierre, 85, 108 Courier, P. L. , 91
Criticism, 82, 224-228, 229,
233--235, 237; critiqued, 41 -- 45; contemporary, 272-288; as prediction, 274-287; histori- cized, 279-280, 287-288
Critique of Dialectical Reason, 14 Croisset, Francis de, 251 Culture industry, 18
Dali, Salvador, 153
Damas, Le? on, 301, 322
Dante Alighieri, 115
Daudet, Le? on, 127-128, 211 Davies, Howard, I4n
Debray, Re? gis, 18, 19; Teachers,
Writers, Celebrities, 6 Decour, Jacques, 284, 347n32 Denoe`l, Robert, 8n De? roule`de, Paul, 284
318-319, 320, 322,
Ce? zanne, Paul, 62
Chack, Paul, 203
Chamson, Andre? , 164, 167, 172 Chardonne, Jacques (Jacques Bou-
32 4-32 5
? 354 I Index
Derrida, Jacques, 11
Descartes, Rene? , 60, 85, 254-
255, 277
Descombes, Vincent: Modern
French Philosophy, 15 Desmoulins, Camille, 225 Desnos, Robert, 161, 338n25 Dho^tel, Andre? , 174
Diderot, Denis, 97, 101, 159, 188
Diop, Birago, 301, 308
Diop, David, 306
Dirty Hands, The, 15
Disclosure: in poetry, 11-12; in
prose, 11-12, 16, 19, 37-38,
65-67; in reading, 52
Dos Passos, John, 186
Dreyfus, Alfred, 208
Drieu la Rochelle, Pierre-Euge`ne,
6, 8n, 68, 161, 163, 244,
281, 345n28
Duchamp, Marcel, 153, 306,
338n25
Duhamel, Georges, 146; The Pos-
session of the World, 192 Dullin, Charles, 272 Durkheim, Emile, 167, 220
Ecole Normale Supe? rieure, 4, 5
Education europe? enne, L', 277 Einstein, Albert, 280
Eluard, Paul (Paul-Euge`ne Grin-
del), 274, 347*132 Empiricism, 236 Engels, Friedrich, 212 Epictetus, 156 Epicureanism, 168 Eros, 319
Esprit, 323
Estaunie? , Edouard, 148 Estenne, Charles, 333n2 Ethics. See Morality Etiemble, Rene? , 76, 335n9 Eurydice, 300
Evil, 178-181, 185
Existentialism: and Marxism, 5, 7, 274, 347n37
Exoticism, 162
Faulkner, William, 186 Feelings, 34, 56, 57-58, 259-
260, 314
Fe? nelon, Franc? ois de, 93, 272 Fernandez, Ramon, 41, 281 Flaubert, Gustave, 8 - 9 , 12, 16,
112, 113-114, 117, 118, 151,
186, 250, 251, 252, 335n l 4 Fontanin, Daniel de, 280
Forces Franc? aises de l'Inte? rieur,
254
Form, literary, 39--40
Foster, Hal: The Anti-Aesthetic, 7 Fouchet, Max-Pol, 3 3 8 ^ 5 Fournier, Alain, 150, 174; Le
Grand Meaulnes, 53
France, Anatole, 121
Francis, Claude: Simone de Beau-
voir, 8n
Fraternity, bourgeois, 256-258 Freedom, 70, 287; writing an
appeal to, 16-17, 54-58, 60- 69, 103; and alienation, 56, 72, 73, 134-137, 192; author's, 58, 60-69, 72, 77, 92, 100, 191-192, 195, 2 1 3 - 214, 222-224; a n d beauty, 59-60, 63-65; historicized,
72, 219, 221-223, 259-265, 276-279; meaningless, 348n43
Frehtman, Bernard, 4n
French Academy, 87
Freud, Sigmund, 23, 280 Fromentin, Euge`ne: Dominique,
125
Gallimard, 8n
Garaudy, Roger, 208
Gard, Roger Martin du, 73 Gassendi, Pierre, 254 Gaullism, 229
? Gautier, The? ophile, 57, 117 Genet, Jean, 16, 57
German occupation of France, 12,
71-72, 73-75, 177-189, 274,
282
Gide, Andre? , 6, 46, 117, 119-
120, 145, 151, 172, 198, 220,
250; Fruits of the Earth, 73,
192, 219, 280
Giono, Jean, 347n40 Giraudoux, Jean, 40, 146, 174,
282; Bella, 271; Eglantine, 271 Gobineau, Arthur, 44
Goncourt, Edmond de, 9, 117,
250, 252
Gontier, Fernande: Simone de Beau- voir, 8n
Good will; abstract, 218-219, 221; historicized, 219, 2 2 1 - 223
Gracq, Julien (Louis Poirier): Au Cha^teau d'Argol, 273; Un Beau Te? ne? breaux, 273
Grasset, Bernard, 8n
Great Britain, 230, 236, 284,
285
Green, Julien, 174
Greuze, Jean-Baptiste: "Prodigal
Son," 28
Groult, Marius, 174
Gyp (Marie-Antoinette de Ri-
Index | 355
Historicity: author's, 9-10, 6 8 - 69, 70-80, 134-137, 175- 178, 180, 182-187, 251-255; and freedom, 72, 219, 221- 223, 259-265, 276-279; con- temporary discovery of, 174-- 178, 182-188, 259-262, 277- 279; and good will, 219, 2 2 1 - 223; and race, 325
Hitler, Adolf, 34, 75, 261, 277 Hittites, 252
Hollier, Denis: The Politics of
Prose,3
Homosexuality, 259-260
Hugo, Victor, 109-110, 347n40 Humanism, 167
Humanite? , L', 207, 219
Human nature, 107
Human project, 64-65
Ideology: religious, 86-87, 89, 94, 111; revolutionary, 100
In Camera, 198 "Introduction to Les Temps
modernes," 8-9, 10, 13, 249-
267
Iron in the Soul, 15
Jaloux, Edmond, 108 Jameson, Fredric: Marxism and
Form, 5
Janet, P . , 128
Janke? le? vitch, Vladimir, 5n Jaspers, Karl, 327, 338n25 Jeremiah, 80
Jouhandeau, Marcel, 3 3 8 ^ 5 Jourdan, P. , 34
Journalism, 10, 13, 272-276 Joyce, James, 346n30
Juare? s, Jean, 146
Kafka, Franz, 17, 53, 186, 209,
237
Kant, Immanuel, 54, 55-56,
218-219, 221, 235
quetti de Mirabeau),
337m9
Hachette, Louis, 251
Hamp, Pierre, 191
Hayman, Ronald: Sartre: A Biogra-
phy, 5n
Hegel, G. W. F. , 29, 126, 252,
280, 338n25
Heidegger, Martin, 14-15, 49,
194, 202, 279, 314
Heine, Heinrich, 151 Hemingway, Ernest, 186, 194 Hermant, Abel, 281, 337m9 Hesiod, 191
? 3$6 I Index
Koestler, Arthur, 74, 3461129; Spanish Testament, 267
Ku Klux Klan, 158
La Bruye`re, Jean de, 87, 93, 3361115
Lalande, Andre? , 227
Laleau, Rene? , 301, 317
Lalou, Rene? , 275
Lamarck, Chevalier de, 277 Language: de? signa^tive function
29, 35; pragmatic, 295; and oppression, 300-307. See also Poetry; Poetry, black; Prose; Writing
Lanson, Gustave, 279
Larbaud, Vale? ry, 337m9
La Rochefoucauld, Franc?
