Not to be confused with a small
sanctuary
of the same name in the Temple precinct.
Arab-Historians-of-the-Crusades
' 'Because if this army comes here it will need quantities of provisions and fleets of ships to transport it to Africa, as well as reinforcements from my own troops.
Then, if the Franks succeed in conquering this territory they will take it over and will need provisioning from Sicily.
This will cost me my annual profit from the harvest.
If they fail they will return here and be an embarrassment to me here in my own domain.
As well as all this Tami?
m2 will say that I have broken faith
This date clearly refers to the end of the Norman conquest.
This Baldwin (Bardawi? l) is a mythical character, compounded of the various Baldwins of Flanders and Jerusalem; or else the first Baldwin is mistakenly thought to have been already a king in the West.
It is disagreeable to find the great Count acting like a barbarian on the very first page, but the passage is characteristic of the contemptuous crudity with which the Muslims usually spoke of their enemies, as well as giving a fairly accurate picture of Roger's political acumen.
The Zirid ami? r of Tunisia Tami? m ibn Mu'i? zz.
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Part One: From Godfrey to Saladin 3
with him and violated our treaty, and friendly relations and communications between us will be disrupted. As far as we are concerned, Africa is always there. When we are strong enough we will take it. '
He summoned Baldwin's messenger and said to him: 'If you have decided to make war on the Muslims your best course will be to free Jerusalem from their rule and thereby win great honour. I am bound by certain promises and treaties of allegiance with the rulers of Africa. ' So the Franks made ready and set out to attack Syria.
Another story is that the Fatimids of Egypt were afraid when they saw the Seljuqids extending their empire through Syria as far as Gaza, until they reached the Egyptian border and Atsiz3 invaded Egypt itself. They therefore sent to invite the Franks to invade Syria and so protect Egypt from the Muslims. 4 But God knows best.
When the Franks decided to attack Syria they marched east to Constantinople, so that they could cross the straits and advance into Muslim territory by the easier, land route. When they reached Constantinople, the Emperor of the East refused them permission to pass through his domains. He said: 'Unless you first promise me Antioch, I shall not allow you to cross into the Muslim empire. ' His real intention was to incite them to attack the Muslims, for he was convinced that the Turks, whose invincible control over Asia Minor he had observed, would exterminate every one of them. They accepted his conditions and in 490/1097 they crossed the Bosphorus at Constantinople. Iconium and the rest of the area into which they now advanced belonged to Qilij Arsla? n ibn Sulaima? n ibn Qutlumi? sh, who barred their way with his troops. They broke through1 in rajab 490/July 1097, crossed Cilicia,2 and finally reached Antioch, which they besieged.
When Yaghi Siya? n, the ruler of Antioch, heard of their approach, he was not sure how the Christian people of the city would react, so he made the Muslims go outside the city on their own to dig trenches, and the next day sent the Christians out alone to continue the task. When they were ready to return home at the end of the day he refused to allow them. 'Antioch is yours,' he said, 'but you will have to leave it to me until I see what happens between us and the Franks. ' 'Who will protect our children and our wives? ' they said. 'I shall look after them for you. ' So they resigned themselves to their fate, and lived in the Frankish camp for nine months, while the city was under siege.
Yaghi Siya? n showed unparalleled courage and wisdom, strength and judgment. If all the Franks who died had survived they would have overrun all the lands of Isla? m. He protected the families of the Christians in Antioch and would not allow a hair of their heads to be touched.
After the siege had been going on for a long time the Franks made a deal with one of the men who were responsible for the towers. He was a cuirass-maker called Ruzbih1 whom they bribed with. a fortune in money and lands. He worked in the tower that stood over the river-bed, where the river flowed out of the city into the valley. The Franks sealed their pact
A general of the Seljuqid Sultan Maliksha? h, who in 1076 attacked Egypt from Palestine.
Of course the Fatimids were also Muslims, but they were heretics and so opposed to the rest of sunni Isla? m.
At Dorylaeum.
Literally 'the land of the son of Armenus' as the Arab writers call the Lesser Armenia of the Cilician Roupenians.
Firu? z is an alternative reading.
3 4
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4 Arab Historians of the Crusades
with the cuirass-maker, God damn him! and made their way to the water-gate. They opened it and entered the city. Another gang of them climbed the tower with ropes. At dawn, when more than 500 of them were in the city and the defenders were worn out after the night watch, they sounded their trumpets. Yaghi Siya? n woke up and asked what the noise meant. He was told that trumpets had sounded from the citadel and that it must have been taken. In fact the sound came not from the citadel but from the tower. Panic seized Yaghi Siya? n and he opened the city gates and fled in terror, with an escort of thirty pages. His army commander arrived, but when he discovered on enquiry that Yaghi Siya? n had fled, he made his escape by another gate. This was of great help to the Franks, for if he had stood firm for an hour, they would have been wiped out. They entered the city by the gates and sacked it, slaughtering all the Muslims they found there. This happened in jumada I (491/ April/May 1098). 2 As for Yaghi Siya? n, when the sun rose he recovered his self control and realized that his flight had taken him several farsakh3 from the city. He asked his companions where he was, and on hearing that he was four farsakh from Antioch he repented of having rushed to safety instead of staying to fight to the death. He began to groan and weep for his desertion of his household and children. Overcome by the violence of his grief he fell fainting from his horse. His companions tried to lift him back into the saddle, but they could not get him to sit up, and so left him for dead while they escaped.
He was at his last gasp when an Armenian shepherd came past, killed him, cut off his head and took it to the Franks at Antioch.
The Franks had written to the rulers of Aleppo and Damascus to say that they had no interest in any cities but those that had once belonged to Byzantium. This was a piece of deceit calculated to dissuade these rulers from going to the help of Antioch.
THE MUSLIM ATTACK ON THE FRANKS, AND ITS RESULTS (IBN AL-ATHI? R, X, 188-90)
When Qawa? m ad-Daula Kerbuqa? 1 heard that the Franks had taken Antioch he mustered his army and advanced into Syria, where he camped at Marj Dabiq. All the Turkish and Arab forces in Syria rallied to him except for the army from Aleppo. Among his supporters were Duqa? q ibn Tutu? sh,2 the Ata-beg Tughtiki? n, Jana? h ad-Daula of Hims, Arsla? n Tash of Sanja? r, Sulaima? n ibn Artu? q and other less important ami? rs. When the Franks heard of this they were alarmed and afraid, for their troops were weak and short of food. The Muslims advanced and came face to face with the Franks in front of Antioch. Kerbuqa? , thinking that the present crisis would force the Muslims to remain loyal to him, alienated them by his pride and ill-treatment of them. They plotted in secret anger to betray him and desert him in the heat of battle.
After taking Antioch the Franks camped there for twelve days without food. The wealthy ate their horses and the poor ate carrion and leaves from the trees. Their leaders, faced
The Turkish ami? r of Mosul.
The Seljuqid Lord of Damascus, soon to be succeeded by his general, the Ata-beg Tughtiki? n, whose name comes next on the list and who was to be one of the most active and tenacious opponents of the Crusades during this first phase of conquest.
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Part One: From Godfrey to Saladin 5
with this situation, wrote to Kerbuqa? to ask for safe-conduct through his territory but he refused, saying 'You will have to fight your way out. ' Among the Frankish leaders were Baldwin,1 Saint-Gilles, Godfrey of Bouillon, the future Count of Edessa, and their leader Bohemond of Antioch. There was also a holy man who had great influence over them, a man of low cunning, who proclaimed that the Messiah had a lance buried in the Qusya? n, a great building in Antioch:2 'And if you find it you will be victorious and if you fail you will surely die. ' Before saying this he had buried a lance in a certain spot and concealed all trace of it. He exhorted them to fast and repent for three days, and on the fourth day he led them all to the spot with their soldiers and workmen, who dug everywhere and found the lance as he had told them. 3 Whereupon he cried 'Rejoice! For victory is secure. ' So on the fifth day they left the city in groups of five or six. The Muslims said to Kerbuqa? : 'You should go up to the city and kill them one by one as they come out; it is easy to pick them off now that they have split up. ' He replied: 'No, wait until they have all come out and then we will kill them. ' He would not allow them to attack the enemy and when some Muslims killed a group of Franks, he went himself to forbid such behaviour and prevent its recurrence. When all the Franks had come out and not one was left in Antioch, they began to attack strongly, and the Muslims turned and fled. This was Kerbuqa? 's fault, first because he had treated the Muslims with such contempt and scorn, and second because he had prevented their killing the Franks. The Muslims were completely routed without striking a single blow or firing a single arrow. The last to flee were Suqma? n ibn Artu? q and Jana? h ad-Daula, who had been sent to set an ambush. Kerbuqa? escaped with them. When the Franks saw this they were afraid that a trap was being set for them, for there had not even been any fighting to flee from, so they dared not follow them. The only Muslims to stand firm were a detachment of warriors from the Holy Land, who fought to acquire merit in God's eyes and to seek martyrdom. The Franks killed them by the thousand and stripped their camp of food and possessions, equipment, horses and arms, with which they re-equipped themselves.
THE FRANKS TAKE MA'ARRAT AN-NU'MA? N (IBN AL-ATHI? R, X, 190)
After dealing this blow to the Muslims the Franks marched on Ma'arrat an-Nu'ma? n and besieged it. The inhabitants valiantly defended their city. When the Franks realized the fierce determination and devotion of the defenders they built a wooden tower as high as the city wall and fought from the top of it, but failed to do the Muslims any serious harm. One night a few Muslims were seized with panic and in their demoralized state thought that if they barricaded themselves into one of the town's largest buildings they would be in a better position to defend themselves, so they climbed down from the wall and abandoned the position they were defending. Others saw them and followed their example,
Baldwin of Le Bourg, later Baldwin II.
The Church of St. Peter in Antioch, called in Byzantine sources Ka? ? i? vo? ? and in Arabic sources Qusya? n, from the name of the man whose son was raised from the dead by St. Peter.
The Finding of the Sacred Lance, at the instigation of Peter Bartholomew, seen through rationalistic Muslim eyes.
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6 Arab Historians of the Crusades
leaving another stretch of wall undefended, and gradually, as one group followed another, the whole wall was left unprotected and the Franks scaled it with ladders. Their appearance in the city terrified the Muslims, who shut themselves up in their houses. For three days the slaughter never stopped; the Franks killed more than 100,000 men and took innumerable prisoners. After taking the town the Franks spent six weeks shut up there, then sent an expedition to 'Arqa, which they besieged for four months. Although they breached the wall in many places they failed to storm it. Munqidh, the ruler of Shaizar, made a treaty with them about 'Arqa and they left it to pass on to Hims. Here too the ruler Jana? h ad-Daula made a treaty with them, and they advanced to Acre by way of an-Nawaqir. However they did not succeed in taking Acre.
THE FRANKS CONQUER JERUSALEM (IBN AL-ATHI? R, X, 193-95)
Taj ad-Daula Tutu? sh1 was the Lord of Jerusalem but had given it as a feoff to the ami? r Suqma? n ibn Artu? q the Turcoman. When the Franks defeated the Turks at Antioch the massacre demoralized them, and the Egyptians, who saw that the Turkish armies were being weakened by desertion, besieged Jerusalem under the command of al-Afdal ibn Badr al-Jamali. 2 Inside the city were Artu? q's sons, Suqma? n and Ilghazi, their cousin Sunij and their nephew Yaquti. The Egyptians brought more than forty siege engines to attack Jerusalem and broke down the walls at several polnts. The inhabitants put up a defence, and the siege and fighting went on for more than six weeks. In the end the Egyptians forced the city to capitulate, in sha'ba? n 489/August 1096. 3 Suqma? n, Ilghazi and their friends were well treated by al-Afdal, who gave them large gifts of money and let them go free. They made for Damascus and then crossed the Euphrates. Suqma? n settled in Edessa and Ilghazi went on into Iraq. The Egyptian governor of Jerusalem was a certain Iftikha? r ad-Daula, who was still there at the time of which we are speaking.
After their vain attempt to take Acre by siege, the Franks moved on to Jerusalem and besieged it for more than six weeks. They built two towers, one of which, near Sion, the Muslims burnt down, killing everyone inside it. It had scarcely ceased to burn before a messenger arrived to ask for help and to bring the news that the other side of the city had fallen. In fact Jerusalem was taken from the north on the morning of Friday 22 sha'ba? n 492/15 July 1099. The population was put to the sword by the Franks, who pillaged the area for a week. A band of Muslims barricaded themselves into the Oratory of David1 and fought on for several days. They were granted their lives in return for surrendering. The Franks honoured their word, and the group left by night for Ascalon. In the Masjid al-Aqsa the Franks slaughtered more than 70,000 people, among them a large number of Imams
A Syrian Seljuqid, Maliksha? h's brother.
The Fatimid vizier.
If this date were correct the connection with the fall of Antioch would no longer exist. In fact the date given here is wrong: the Egyptians took Jerusalem in August 1098.
The Mihra? b Dawu? d, called the Tower of David in the European sources, in the citadel at Jerusalem.
Not to be confused with a small sanctuary of the same name in the Temple precinct.
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Part One: From Godfrey to Saladin 7
and Muslim scholars, devout and ascetic men who had left their homelands to live lives of pious seclusion in the Holy Place. The Franks stripped the Dome of the Rock2 of more than forty silver candelabra, each of them weighing 3,600 drams, and a great silver lamp weighing forty-four Syrian pounds, as well as a hundred and fifty smaller silver candelabra and more than twenty gold ones, and a great deal more booty. Refugees from Syria reached Baghda? d in ramadan, among them the qadi Abu Sa'd al-Ha? rawi. They told the Caliph's ministers a story that wrung their hearts and brought tears to their eyes. On Friday they went to the Cathedral Mosque and begged for help, weeping so that their hearers wept with them as they described the sufferings of the Muslims in that Holy City: the men killed, the women and children taken prisoner, the homes pillaged. Because of the terrible hardships they had suffered, they were allowed to break the fast.
** *
It was the discord between the Muslim princes, as we shall describe, that enabled the
Franks to overrun the country. Abu l-Muzaffar al-Abiwardi1 composed several poems on this subject, in one of which he says:
We have mingled blood with flowing tears, and there is no room left in us for pity(? ) To shed tears is a man's worst weapon when the swords stir up the embers of war. Sons of Isla? m, behind you are battles in which heads rolled at your feet.
Dare you slumber in the blessed shade of safety, where life is as soft as an orchard
flower?
How can the eye sleep between the lids at a time of disasters that would waken any sleeper? While your Syrian brothers can only sleep on the backs of their chargers, or in vultures'
bellies!
Must the foreigners feed on our ignominy, while you trail behind you the train of a
pleasant life, like men whose world is at peace?
When blood has been spilt, when sweet girls must for shame hide their lovely faces in
their hands!
When the white swords' points are red with blood, and the iron of the brown lances is
stained with gore!
At the sound of sword hammering on lance young children's hair turns white.
This is war, and the man who shuns the whirlpool to save his life shall grind his teeth
in penitence.
This is war, and the infidel's sword is naked in his hand, ready to be sheathed again in
men's necks and skulls.
This is war, and he who lies in the tomb at Medina seems to raise his voice and cry: 'O
sons of Hashim! 2
The rock from which, the Muslims believe, Muhammad ascended into heaven. Over it was built the so-called 'Mosque of 'Umar', the chief Islamic monument in Jerusalem. It was from this Mosque that the conquerors took their booty. Near by, but separate from it, is the 'Farthest Mosque' (al-Masjid al-Aqsa), where according to Ibn al-Athi? r the armies of the Cross showed even greater barbarity. The two sanctuaries are often confused in both Arabic and European sources. An Iraqi poet of the eleventh and twelfth centuries.
The Prophet, who from the tomb raises his voice to rebuke his descendants (the sons of Hashim), that is, the unworthy Caliphs whose opposition to the Crusades is only half-hearted.
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8 Arab Historians of the Crusades
I see my people slow to raise the lance against the enemy: I see the Faith resting on feeble pillars.
For fear of death the Muslims are evading the fire of battle, refusing to believe that death will surely strike them. '
Must the Arab champions then suffer with resignation, while the gallant Persians shut their eyes to their dishonour?
THE CAPTURE OF BOHEMOND OF ANTIOCH (IBN AL-ATHI? R, X, 203-4)
In dhu l-qa'da of this year (493/September 1100) Kumushtiki? n ibn ad-Danishma? nd Tailu? , Prince of Malatia, Siwa? s and other territories, met Bohemond the Frank, one of the Frankish leaders, near Malatia. The former governor of Malatia had a treaty of friendship with Bohemond and asked for his help. Bohemond came with 5,000 men, but was defeated in battle by Ibn ad-Danishma? nd and taken prisoner. Then seven Frankish Counts came from across the sea to seek Bohemond's release. They came to a fortress called Ankuriyya, took it and killed the Muslims they found there, before passing on to another fort, which they besieged. Isma'i? l ibn ad-Danishma? nd, who was defending the fort, mustered his great army, set an ambush for the Franks and then challenged them to battle. Battle was joined, the ambush sprung and of the 300,000 Franks only 3,000 escaped, during the night, and even they were wounded and exhausted. Ibn ad-Danishma? nd attacked Malatia, took it and imprisoned the governor. The Frankish army from Antioch came out to challenge him, but he fought and defeated them. All this happened in the space of a few months.
THE DEATH OF GODFREY AND
THE FRANKISH CONQUESTS THAT FOLLOWED IT
(IBN AL-ATHI? R, X, 222)
In this year (493/1100) Godfrey, the Frankish King of Syria and ruler of Jerusalem, marched on the coastal city of Acre and besieged it, but was killed by an arrow. 1 Before his death he had fortified the city of Jaffa and handed it over to a Frankish Count named Tancred. At Godfrey's death his brother Baldwin marched on Jerusalem with 500 cavalry and infantry. When Ibn Duqa? q, King of Damascus, heard of this he led his army out against them, accompanied by Jana? h ad-Daula of Hims, and together they defeated the Franks.
In the same year the Franks took Saru? j in Mesopotamia. They already held Edessa by agreement with its inhabitants, most of whom were Armenians with only a few Muslims. At this point Suqma? n mustered a strong Turcoman army in Saru? j and attacked the Franks, but was defeated (in rabi? ' I January-February 1100). When the Franks had smashed the Muslim army in this way they marched on Saru? j, besieged it and took it. They slaughtered most of the men, enslaved the women and sacked the city. Only those who succeeded in getting out of the city escaped with their lives.
All the Muslim sources say that Godfrey was killed in battle.
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Part One: From Godfrey to Saladin 9
In the same year the Franks took the port of Haifa, near Acre, by storm and by a treaty with Arsu? f, and expelled the population. In rajab/May they attacked and took Caesarea, murdered the inhabitants and sacked the city.
SAINT-GILLES THE FRANK BESIEGES TRIPOLI (IBN AL-ATHI? R, X, 236-37)
Saint-Gilles the Frank1--God damn him! --and Qili? j Arsla? n ibn Sulaima? n ibn Qutlumi? sh, ruler of Iconium, met in battle. Saint-Gilles had 100,000 men2 and Qili? j Arsla? n only a few. In the battle the Franks were routed, many of them killed or captured, and Qili? j Arsla? n returned home with the booty of this unexpected victory. Saint-Gilles, defeated, retired into Syria with 300 men. The Prince of Tripoli, Fakhr al-Mulk ibn 'Amma? r, sent to the Ami? r Yakhu? z, who governed Hims for Jana? h ad-Daula, and to Duqa? q ibn Tutu? sh, King of Damascus, to tell them of the opportunity to take advantage of Saint-Gilles' weakness. So Yakhu? z went in person and Duqa? q sent 2,000 men, who were joined by reinforcements from Tripoli. They gathered at the gates of Tripoli and challenged Saint-Gilles to battle. The Frankish prince ordered 100 of his men to attack the detachment from Tripoli, 100 more the army from Damascus, and another 50 the party from Hims. He kept the remaining 50 at his side. The men from Hims fled at the mere sight of the enemy, followed by the men from Damascus. Only the men from Tripoli stood firm and gave battle. When Saint- Gilles understood what had happened, he led a charge of the other 200 Franks against the Muslims, scattered them and killed 7,000 of them. Then he settled down to besiege Tripoli, aided by local men from the hills and the surrounding countryside, most of them Christians. The citizens defended themselves stubbornly, and 300 Franks were killed. Saint-Gilles made a pact with them, and in return for money and horses left Tripoli to attack Tortosa in the same province. The siege was successful: the Franks killed most of the inhabitants and then moved on to the fort of at-Tuba? n, near Rafaniyya, which was commanded by a certain Ibn al-'Ari? d. In the battle that took place the Muslims were victorious and captured one of the leading Franks, for whom Saint-Gilles offered a ransom of 100,000 dinar1 and 1,000 prisoners; but the offer was refused.
BOHEMOND IS LIBERATED, AND BALDWIN DEFEATED AT RAMLA (IBN AL-ATHI? R, X, 237-8)
In this year (495/1102), Danishma? nd freed Bohemond the Frank, ruler of Antioch, whose capture has just been described. The ransom was 100,000 dinar and the return of Yaghi Siya? n's daughter, whom Bohemond had captured. On his release Bohemond went straight to
Raymond of Saint-Gilles, Count of Toulouse and founder of the Frankish dynasty in Tripoli.
It is hardly necessary to point out that this is a ridiculous exaggeration, as is often the case with figures given by the Muslim chroniclers.
Various standards of dinar were current in the mediaeval Muslim world; the weight of the 'legal' standard was 4. 25 grams of fine gold.
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10 Arab Historians of the Crusades
Antioch, where his arrival gave his people new enthusiasm. It was not long before he sent em issaries through Syria to Qinnasrin and the surrounding area to demand tribute. This caused the Muslims suffering that cancelled out the effects of Danishma? nd's glorious exploits.
In the same year Saint-Gilles besieged Hisn al-Akra? d. 1 Jana? h ad-Daula was mustering an army to attack the Franks from the rear when he was murdered in the Great Mosque at Hims by one of the Batinite sect. 2 It is said that his kinsman King Ridwa? n put the knife into the assassin's hand. On the morning after his death Saint-Gilles appeared at the walls of Hims, which he besieged and took. From Hims he took over the control of all Jana? h ad-Daula's domains.
In jumada II/April 1102 the Count besieged Acre and almost captured it. He brought up siege engines and towers, and blockaded the harbour with sixteen galleys. Muslims gathered from all along the coast, burnt the enemy's siege engines and towers and sank their ships. God gave the Muslims a glorious victory and cast down the infidels.
The Frankish Count of Edessa spent many months besieging Beiru? t, but in the end he abandoned his efforts and withdrew his troops.
Finally in rajab/May 1102, the Egyptian armies marched on Ascalon to prevent the Franks from occupying what was left of the former Egyptian possessions in Syria. When Baldwin of Jerusalem heard the news he marched out against them at the head of 700 cavalry. But God granted the Muslims victory and the Franks were routed with heavy losses. Baldwin tried to escape by hiding in a cane-brake but he was smoked out, badly burned. He fled to Ramla, closely pursued by the Muslims, and succeeded in reaching Haifa, although many of his followers died or were captured.
THE FRANKS TAKE JUBA? lL AND ACRE (IBN AL-ATHI? R, X, 225)
In this year (497/1103-4) some ships reached Laodicea from the land of the Franks bringing merchants, soldiers, pilgrims and so on. Saint-Gilles used these as land and sea reinforcements in his siege of Tripoli, and continued his attack on the city. But he could not force an issue and so moved on to attack Juba? il vigorously. When the inhabitants realized that further resistance was useless they sued for peace and handed over the city. But the Franks failed to keep to the terms of the surrender; they seized the Muslims' possessions, using every form of violence and torture to extort them. After Juba? il they marched on to Acre to assist Baldwin, King of Jerusalem. The city was besieged by land and sea. The governor was a certain Banna? , known as Zahr ad-Daula al-Juyushi after the (Fatimid) vizier al-Malik al-Juyushi al-Afdal. He put up a vigorous resistance under repeated attacks, but finally capitulated and abandoned the city. The Franks took it by assault, and unleashed the full violence of their brutality on the population. The governor escaped to Damascus but after a while returned to Egypt to defend his conduct before al-Afdal, who accepted his explanation.
'Krak des Chevaliers', the mighty fortress north-east of Tripoli that played so important a part in the history of the Crusades.
A member of the sect of Batinites, Isma'ilites or Assassins. Their terrorist activities, to which every history of the Crusades contains numerous references, were as unwelcome to the Muslims as to the Franks.
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CHAPTER TWO
The following pages, also taken from Ibn al-Athi? r, describe two important developments: the vigorous Muslim reaction to the Frankish drive on Harra? n, an advance-post on the road to Baghda? d, and the even more important Franco-Muslim coalitions that developed at this time to wage war among themselves. The Muslims' lack of any sort of unified policy, which had been of such advantage to the Crusaders, infected the victors as well, and Baldwin of Edessa and Tancred of Antioch had no scruples about entering into opposing alliance with rival Muslim ami? rs.
SUQ A? N AND CHEKERMI? SH LEAD AN EXPEDITION AGAINST THE FRANKS
(IBN AL-ATHI? R, X, 256-7)
While the Franks--God damn them! --were conquering and settling in a part of the territories of Isla? m, the rulers and armies of Isla? m were fighting among themselves, causing discord and disunity among their people and weakening their power to combat the enemy. The city of Harra? n was ruled by one of Maliksha? h's mamlu? ks, a man called Qaraja who a year before this had left the city under the command of a certain Muhammad al-Isfahani. This man, with popular support, rebelled against Qaraja because he was a tyrant, whereas al-Isfahani was an intelligent and energetic man. Qaraja's only supporter in Harra? n was a Turkish page called Jawali? , whom al-Isfahani befriended and made commander of the army. One day, when they were drinking together and al-Isfahani was drunk, Jawali? killed him, with the connivance of one of his servants. Then the Frankish army from Edessa marched on Harra? n.
Mu'i? n ad-Daula Suqma? n and Shams ad-Daula Chekermi? sh1 were involved in a vendetta caused by Chekermi? sh's murder of Suqma? n's nephew, as will be narrated later on, God willing. When they heard what had happened they suggested joining forces to save the situation at Harra? n. Each declared that he offered himself to God and sought a reward in heaven alone. They welcomed one-another's overtures and set out for a rendezvous on the bank of the river Khabu? r, where they sealed their alliance.
This date clearly refers to the end of the Norman conquest.
This Baldwin (Bardawi? l) is a mythical character, compounded of the various Baldwins of Flanders and Jerusalem; or else the first Baldwin is mistakenly thought to have been already a king in the West.
It is disagreeable to find the great Count acting like a barbarian on the very first page, but the passage is characteristic of the contemptuous crudity with which the Muslims usually spoke of their enemies, as well as giving a fairly accurate picture of Roger's political acumen.
The Zirid ami? r of Tunisia Tami? m ibn Mu'i? zz.
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Part One: From Godfrey to Saladin 3
with him and violated our treaty, and friendly relations and communications between us will be disrupted. As far as we are concerned, Africa is always there. When we are strong enough we will take it. '
He summoned Baldwin's messenger and said to him: 'If you have decided to make war on the Muslims your best course will be to free Jerusalem from their rule and thereby win great honour. I am bound by certain promises and treaties of allegiance with the rulers of Africa. ' So the Franks made ready and set out to attack Syria.
Another story is that the Fatimids of Egypt were afraid when they saw the Seljuqids extending their empire through Syria as far as Gaza, until they reached the Egyptian border and Atsiz3 invaded Egypt itself. They therefore sent to invite the Franks to invade Syria and so protect Egypt from the Muslims. 4 But God knows best.
When the Franks decided to attack Syria they marched east to Constantinople, so that they could cross the straits and advance into Muslim territory by the easier, land route. When they reached Constantinople, the Emperor of the East refused them permission to pass through his domains. He said: 'Unless you first promise me Antioch, I shall not allow you to cross into the Muslim empire. ' His real intention was to incite them to attack the Muslims, for he was convinced that the Turks, whose invincible control over Asia Minor he had observed, would exterminate every one of them. They accepted his conditions and in 490/1097 they crossed the Bosphorus at Constantinople. Iconium and the rest of the area into which they now advanced belonged to Qilij Arsla? n ibn Sulaima? n ibn Qutlumi? sh, who barred their way with his troops. They broke through1 in rajab 490/July 1097, crossed Cilicia,2 and finally reached Antioch, which they besieged.
When Yaghi Siya? n, the ruler of Antioch, heard of their approach, he was not sure how the Christian people of the city would react, so he made the Muslims go outside the city on their own to dig trenches, and the next day sent the Christians out alone to continue the task. When they were ready to return home at the end of the day he refused to allow them. 'Antioch is yours,' he said, 'but you will have to leave it to me until I see what happens between us and the Franks. ' 'Who will protect our children and our wives? ' they said. 'I shall look after them for you. ' So they resigned themselves to their fate, and lived in the Frankish camp for nine months, while the city was under siege.
Yaghi Siya? n showed unparalleled courage and wisdom, strength and judgment. If all the Franks who died had survived they would have overrun all the lands of Isla? m. He protected the families of the Christians in Antioch and would not allow a hair of their heads to be touched.
After the siege had been going on for a long time the Franks made a deal with one of the men who were responsible for the towers. He was a cuirass-maker called Ruzbih1 whom they bribed with. a fortune in money and lands. He worked in the tower that stood over the river-bed, where the river flowed out of the city into the valley. The Franks sealed their pact
A general of the Seljuqid Sultan Maliksha? h, who in 1076 attacked Egypt from Palestine.
Of course the Fatimids were also Muslims, but they were heretics and so opposed to the rest of sunni Isla? m.
At Dorylaeum.
Literally 'the land of the son of Armenus' as the Arab writers call the Lesser Armenia of the Cilician Roupenians.
Firu? z is an alternative reading.
3 4
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with the cuirass-maker, God damn him! and made their way to the water-gate. They opened it and entered the city. Another gang of them climbed the tower with ropes. At dawn, when more than 500 of them were in the city and the defenders were worn out after the night watch, they sounded their trumpets. Yaghi Siya? n woke up and asked what the noise meant. He was told that trumpets had sounded from the citadel and that it must have been taken. In fact the sound came not from the citadel but from the tower. Panic seized Yaghi Siya? n and he opened the city gates and fled in terror, with an escort of thirty pages. His army commander arrived, but when he discovered on enquiry that Yaghi Siya? n had fled, he made his escape by another gate. This was of great help to the Franks, for if he had stood firm for an hour, they would have been wiped out. They entered the city by the gates and sacked it, slaughtering all the Muslims they found there. This happened in jumada I (491/ April/May 1098). 2 As for Yaghi Siya? n, when the sun rose he recovered his self control and realized that his flight had taken him several farsakh3 from the city. He asked his companions where he was, and on hearing that he was four farsakh from Antioch he repented of having rushed to safety instead of staying to fight to the death. He began to groan and weep for his desertion of his household and children. Overcome by the violence of his grief he fell fainting from his horse. His companions tried to lift him back into the saddle, but they could not get him to sit up, and so left him for dead while they escaped.
He was at his last gasp when an Armenian shepherd came past, killed him, cut off his head and took it to the Franks at Antioch.
The Franks had written to the rulers of Aleppo and Damascus to say that they had no interest in any cities but those that had once belonged to Byzantium. This was a piece of deceit calculated to dissuade these rulers from going to the help of Antioch.
THE MUSLIM ATTACK ON THE FRANKS, AND ITS RESULTS (IBN AL-ATHI? R, X, 188-90)
When Qawa? m ad-Daula Kerbuqa? 1 heard that the Franks had taken Antioch he mustered his army and advanced into Syria, where he camped at Marj Dabiq. All the Turkish and Arab forces in Syria rallied to him except for the army from Aleppo. Among his supporters were Duqa? q ibn Tutu? sh,2 the Ata-beg Tughtiki? n, Jana? h ad-Daula of Hims, Arsla? n Tash of Sanja? r, Sulaima? n ibn Artu? q and other less important ami? rs. When the Franks heard of this they were alarmed and afraid, for their troops were weak and short of food. The Muslims advanced and came face to face with the Franks in front of Antioch. Kerbuqa? , thinking that the present crisis would force the Muslims to remain loyal to him, alienated them by his pride and ill-treatment of them. They plotted in secret anger to betray him and desert him in the heat of battle.
After taking Antioch the Franks camped there for twelve days without food. The wealthy ate their horses and the poor ate carrion and leaves from the trees. Their leaders, faced
The Turkish ami? r of Mosul.
The Seljuqid Lord of Damascus, soon to be succeeded by his general, the Ata-beg Tughtiki? n, whose name comes next on the list and who was to be one of the most active and tenacious opponents of the Crusades during this first phase of conquest.
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Part One: From Godfrey to Saladin 5
with this situation, wrote to Kerbuqa? to ask for safe-conduct through his territory but he refused, saying 'You will have to fight your way out. ' Among the Frankish leaders were Baldwin,1 Saint-Gilles, Godfrey of Bouillon, the future Count of Edessa, and their leader Bohemond of Antioch. There was also a holy man who had great influence over them, a man of low cunning, who proclaimed that the Messiah had a lance buried in the Qusya? n, a great building in Antioch:2 'And if you find it you will be victorious and if you fail you will surely die. ' Before saying this he had buried a lance in a certain spot and concealed all trace of it. He exhorted them to fast and repent for three days, and on the fourth day he led them all to the spot with their soldiers and workmen, who dug everywhere and found the lance as he had told them. 3 Whereupon he cried 'Rejoice! For victory is secure. ' So on the fifth day they left the city in groups of five or six. The Muslims said to Kerbuqa? : 'You should go up to the city and kill them one by one as they come out; it is easy to pick them off now that they have split up. ' He replied: 'No, wait until they have all come out and then we will kill them. ' He would not allow them to attack the enemy and when some Muslims killed a group of Franks, he went himself to forbid such behaviour and prevent its recurrence. When all the Franks had come out and not one was left in Antioch, they began to attack strongly, and the Muslims turned and fled. This was Kerbuqa? 's fault, first because he had treated the Muslims with such contempt and scorn, and second because he had prevented their killing the Franks. The Muslims were completely routed without striking a single blow or firing a single arrow. The last to flee were Suqma? n ibn Artu? q and Jana? h ad-Daula, who had been sent to set an ambush. Kerbuqa? escaped with them. When the Franks saw this they were afraid that a trap was being set for them, for there had not even been any fighting to flee from, so they dared not follow them. The only Muslims to stand firm were a detachment of warriors from the Holy Land, who fought to acquire merit in God's eyes and to seek martyrdom. The Franks killed them by the thousand and stripped their camp of food and possessions, equipment, horses and arms, with which they re-equipped themselves.
THE FRANKS TAKE MA'ARRAT AN-NU'MA? N (IBN AL-ATHI? R, X, 190)
After dealing this blow to the Muslims the Franks marched on Ma'arrat an-Nu'ma? n and besieged it. The inhabitants valiantly defended their city. When the Franks realized the fierce determination and devotion of the defenders they built a wooden tower as high as the city wall and fought from the top of it, but failed to do the Muslims any serious harm. One night a few Muslims were seized with panic and in their demoralized state thought that if they barricaded themselves into one of the town's largest buildings they would be in a better position to defend themselves, so they climbed down from the wall and abandoned the position they were defending. Others saw them and followed their example,
Baldwin of Le Bourg, later Baldwin II.
The Church of St. Peter in Antioch, called in Byzantine sources Ka? ? i? vo? ? and in Arabic sources Qusya? n, from the name of the man whose son was raised from the dead by St. Peter.
The Finding of the Sacred Lance, at the instigation of Peter Bartholomew, seen through rationalistic Muslim eyes.
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6 Arab Historians of the Crusades
leaving another stretch of wall undefended, and gradually, as one group followed another, the whole wall was left unprotected and the Franks scaled it with ladders. Their appearance in the city terrified the Muslims, who shut themselves up in their houses. For three days the slaughter never stopped; the Franks killed more than 100,000 men and took innumerable prisoners. After taking the town the Franks spent six weeks shut up there, then sent an expedition to 'Arqa, which they besieged for four months. Although they breached the wall in many places they failed to storm it. Munqidh, the ruler of Shaizar, made a treaty with them about 'Arqa and they left it to pass on to Hims. Here too the ruler Jana? h ad-Daula made a treaty with them, and they advanced to Acre by way of an-Nawaqir. However they did not succeed in taking Acre.
THE FRANKS CONQUER JERUSALEM (IBN AL-ATHI? R, X, 193-95)
Taj ad-Daula Tutu? sh1 was the Lord of Jerusalem but had given it as a feoff to the ami? r Suqma? n ibn Artu? q the Turcoman. When the Franks defeated the Turks at Antioch the massacre demoralized them, and the Egyptians, who saw that the Turkish armies were being weakened by desertion, besieged Jerusalem under the command of al-Afdal ibn Badr al-Jamali. 2 Inside the city were Artu? q's sons, Suqma? n and Ilghazi, their cousin Sunij and their nephew Yaquti. The Egyptians brought more than forty siege engines to attack Jerusalem and broke down the walls at several polnts. The inhabitants put up a defence, and the siege and fighting went on for more than six weeks. In the end the Egyptians forced the city to capitulate, in sha'ba? n 489/August 1096. 3 Suqma? n, Ilghazi and their friends were well treated by al-Afdal, who gave them large gifts of money and let them go free. They made for Damascus and then crossed the Euphrates. Suqma? n settled in Edessa and Ilghazi went on into Iraq. The Egyptian governor of Jerusalem was a certain Iftikha? r ad-Daula, who was still there at the time of which we are speaking.
After their vain attempt to take Acre by siege, the Franks moved on to Jerusalem and besieged it for more than six weeks. They built two towers, one of which, near Sion, the Muslims burnt down, killing everyone inside it. It had scarcely ceased to burn before a messenger arrived to ask for help and to bring the news that the other side of the city had fallen. In fact Jerusalem was taken from the north on the morning of Friday 22 sha'ba? n 492/15 July 1099. The population was put to the sword by the Franks, who pillaged the area for a week. A band of Muslims barricaded themselves into the Oratory of David1 and fought on for several days. They were granted their lives in return for surrendering. The Franks honoured their word, and the group left by night for Ascalon. In the Masjid al-Aqsa the Franks slaughtered more than 70,000 people, among them a large number of Imams
A Syrian Seljuqid, Maliksha? h's brother.
The Fatimid vizier.
If this date were correct the connection with the fall of Antioch would no longer exist. In fact the date given here is wrong: the Egyptians took Jerusalem in August 1098.
The Mihra? b Dawu? d, called the Tower of David in the European sources, in the citadel at Jerusalem.
Not to be confused with a small sanctuary of the same name in the Temple precinct.
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Part One: From Godfrey to Saladin 7
and Muslim scholars, devout and ascetic men who had left their homelands to live lives of pious seclusion in the Holy Place. The Franks stripped the Dome of the Rock2 of more than forty silver candelabra, each of them weighing 3,600 drams, and a great silver lamp weighing forty-four Syrian pounds, as well as a hundred and fifty smaller silver candelabra and more than twenty gold ones, and a great deal more booty. Refugees from Syria reached Baghda? d in ramadan, among them the qadi Abu Sa'd al-Ha? rawi. They told the Caliph's ministers a story that wrung their hearts and brought tears to their eyes. On Friday they went to the Cathedral Mosque and begged for help, weeping so that their hearers wept with them as they described the sufferings of the Muslims in that Holy City: the men killed, the women and children taken prisoner, the homes pillaged. Because of the terrible hardships they had suffered, they were allowed to break the fast.
** *
It was the discord between the Muslim princes, as we shall describe, that enabled the
Franks to overrun the country. Abu l-Muzaffar al-Abiwardi1 composed several poems on this subject, in one of which he says:
We have mingled blood with flowing tears, and there is no room left in us for pity(? ) To shed tears is a man's worst weapon when the swords stir up the embers of war. Sons of Isla? m, behind you are battles in which heads rolled at your feet.
Dare you slumber in the blessed shade of safety, where life is as soft as an orchard
flower?
How can the eye sleep between the lids at a time of disasters that would waken any sleeper? While your Syrian brothers can only sleep on the backs of their chargers, or in vultures'
bellies!
Must the foreigners feed on our ignominy, while you trail behind you the train of a
pleasant life, like men whose world is at peace?
When blood has been spilt, when sweet girls must for shame hide their lovely faces in
their hands!
When the white swords' points are red with blood, and the iron of the brown lances is
stained with gore!
At the sound of sword hammering on lance young children's hair turns white.
This is war, and the man who shuns the whirlpool to save his life shall grind his teeth
in penitence.
This is war, and the infidel's sword is naked in his hand, ready to be sheathed again in
men's necks and skulls.
This is war, and he who lies in the tomb at Medina seems to raise his voice and cry: 'O
sons of Hashim! 2
The rock from which, the Muslims believe, Muhammad ascended into heaven. Over it was built the so-called 'Mosque of 'Umar', the chief Islamic monument in Jerusalem. It was from this Mosque that the conquerors took their booty. Near by, but separate from it, is the 'Farthest Mosque' (al-Masjid al-Aqsa), where according to Ibn al-Athi? r the armies of the Cross showed even greater barbarity. The two sanctuaries are often confused in both Arabic and European sources. An Iraqi poet of the eleventh and twelfth centuries.
The Prophet, who from the tomb raises his voice to rebuke his descendants (the sons of Hashim), that is, the unworthy Caliphs whose opposition to the Crusades is only half-hearted.
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8 Arab Historians of the Crusades
I see my people slow to raise the lance against the enemy: I see the Faith resting on feeble pillars.
For fear of death the Muslims are evading the fire of battle, refusing to believe that death will surely strike them. '
Must the Arab champions then suffer with resignation, while the gallant Persians shut their eyes to their dishonour?
THE CAPTURE OF BOHEMOND OF ANTIOCH (IBN AL-ATHI? R, X, 203-4)
In dhu l-qa'da of this year (493/September 1100) Kumushtiki? n ibn ad-Danishma? nd Tailu? , Prince of Malatia, Siwa? s and other territories, met Bohemond the Frank, one of the Frankish leaders, near Malatia. The former governor of Malatia had a treaty of friendship with Bohemond and asked for his help. Bohemond came with 5,000 men, but was defeated in battle by Ibn ad-Danishma? nd and taken prisoner. Then seven Frankish Counts came from across the sea to seek Bohemond's release. They came to a fortress called Ankuriyya, took it and killed the Muslims they found there, before passing on to another fort, which they besieged. Isma'i? l ibn ad-Danishma? nd, who was defending the fort, mustered his great army, set an ambush for the Franks and then challenged them to battle. Battle was joined, the ambush sprung and of the 300,000 Franks only 3,000 escaped, during the night, and even they were wounded and exhausted. Ibn ad-Danishma? nd attacked Malatia, took it and imprisoned the governor. The Frankish army from Antioch came out to challenge him, but he fought and defeated them. All this happened in the space of a few months.
THE DEATH OF GODFREY AND
THE FRANKISH CONQUESTS THAT FOLLOWED IT
(IBN AL-ATHI? R, X, 222)
In this year (493/1100) Godfrey, the Frankish King of Syria and ruler of Jerusalem, marched on the coastal city of Acre and besieged it, but was killed by an arrow. 1 Before his death he had fortified the city of Jaffa and handed it over to a Frankish Count named Tancred. At Godfrey's death his brother Baldwin marched on Jerusalem with 500 cavalry and infantry. When Ibn Duqa? q, King of Damascus, heard of this he led his army out against them, accompanied by Jana? h ad-Daula of Hims, and together they defeated the Franks.
In the same year the Franks took Saru? j in Mesopotamia. They already held Edessa by agreement with its inhabitants, most of whom were Armenians with only a few Muslims. At this point Suqma? n mustered a strong Turcoman army in Saru? j and attacked the Franks, but was defeated (in rabi? ' I January-February 1100). When the Franks had smashed the Muslim army in this way they marched on Saru? j, besieged it and took it. They slaughtered most of the men, enslaved the women and sacked the city. Only those who succeeded in getting out of the city escaped with their lives.
All the Muslim sources say that Godfrey was killed in battle.
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Part One: From Godfrey to Saladin 9
In the same year the Franks took the port of Haifa, near Acre, by storm and by a treaty with Arsu? f, and expelled the population. In rajab/May they attacked and took Caesarea, murdered the inhabitants and sacked the city.
SAINT-GILLES THE FRANK BESIEGES TRIPOLI (IBN AL-ATHI? R, X, 236-37)
Saint-Gilles the Frank1--God damn him! --and Qili? j Arsla? n ibn Sulaima? n ibn Qutlumi? sh, ruler of Iconium, met in battle. Saint-Gilles had 100,000 men2 and Qili? j Arsla? n only a few. In the battle the Franks were routed, many of them killed or captured, and Qili? j Arsla? n returned home with the booty of this unexpected victory. Saint-Gilles, defeated, retired into Syria with 300 men. The Prince of Tripoli, Fakhr al-Mulk ibn 'Amma? r, sent to the Ami? r Yakhu? z, who governed Hims for Jana? h ad-Daula, and to Duqa? q ibn Tutu? sh, King of Damascus, to tell them of the opportunity to take advantage of Saint-Gilles' weakness. So Yakhu? z went in person and Duqa? q sent 2,000 men, who were joined by reinforcements from Tripoli. They gathered at the gates of Tripoli and challenged Saint-Gilles to battle. The Frankish prince ordered 100 of his men to attack the detachment from Tripoli, 100 more the army from Damascus, and another 50 the party from Hims. He kept the remaining 50 at his side. The men from Hims fled at the mere sight of the enemy, followed by the men from Damascus. Only the men from Tripoli stood firm and gave battle. When Saint- Gilles understood what had happened, he led a charge of the other 200 Franks against the Muslims, scattered them and killed 7,000 of them. Then he settled down to besiege Tripoli, aided by local men from the hills and the surrounding countryside, most of them Christians. The citizens defended themselves stubbornly, and 300 Franks were killed. Saint-Gilles made a pact with them, and in return for money and horses left Tripoli to attack Tortosa in the same province. The siege was successful: the Franks killed most of the inhabitants and then moved on to the fort of at-Tuba? n, near Rafaniyya, which was commanded by a certain Ibn al-'Ari? d. In the battle that took place the Muslims were victorious and captured one of the leading Franks, for whom Saint-Gilles offered a ransom of 100,000 dinar1 and 1,000 prisoners; but the offer was refused.
BOHEMOND IS LIBERATED, AND BALDWIN DEFEATED AT RAMLA (IBN AL-ATHI? R, X, 237-8)
In this year (495/1102), Danishma? nd freed Bohemond the Frank, ruler of Antioch, whose capture has just been described. The ransom was 100,000 dinar and the return of Yaghi Siya? n's daughter, whom Bohemond had captured. On his release Bohemond went straight to
Raymond of Saint-Gilles, Count of Toulouse and founder of the Frankish dynasty in Tripoli.
It is hardly necessary to point out that this is a ridiculous exaggeration, as is often the case with figures given by the Muslim chroniclers.
Various standards of dinar were current in the mediaeval Muslim world; the weight of the 'legal' standard was 4. 25 grams of fine gold.
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Antioch, where his arrival gave his people new enthusiasm. It was not long before he sent em issaries through Syria to Qinnasrin and the surrounding area to demand tribute. This caused the Muslims suffering that cancelled out the effects of Danishma? nd's glorious exploits.
In the same year Saint-Gilles besieged Hisn al-Akra? d. 1 Jana? h ad-Daula was mustering an army to attack the Franks from the rear when he was murdered in the Great Mosque at Hims by one of the Batinite sect. 2 It is said that his kinsman King Ridwa? n put the knife into the assassin's hand. On the morning after his death Saint-Gilles appeared at the walls of Hims, which he besieged and took. From Hims he took over the control of all Jana? h ad-Daula's domains.
In jumada II/April 1102 the Count besieged Acre and almost captured it. He brought up siege engines and towers, and blockaded the harbour with sixteen galleys. Muslims gathered from all along the coast, burnt the enemy's siege engines and towers and sank their ships. God gave the Muslims a glorious victory and cast down the infidels.
The Frankish Count of Edessa spent many months besieging Beiru? t, but in the end he abandoned his efforts and withdrew his troops.
Finally in rajab/May 1102, the Egyptian armies marched on Ascalon to prevent the Franks from occupying what was left of the former Egyptian possessions in Syria. When Baldwin of Jerusalem heard the news he marched out against them at the head of 700 cavalry. But God granted the Muslims victory and the Franks were routed with heavy losses. Baldwin tried to escape by hiding in a cane-brake but he was smoked out, badly burned. He fled to Ramla, closely pursued by the Muslims, and succeeded in reaching Haifa, although many of his followers died or were captured.
THE FRANKS TAKE JUBA? lL AND ACRE (IBN AL-ATHI? R, X, 225)
In this year (497/1103-4) some ships reached Laodicea from the land of the Franks bringing merchants, soldiers, pilgrims and so on. Saint-Gilles used these as land and sea reinforcements in his siege of Tripoli, and continued his attack on the city. But he could not force an issue and so moved on to attack Juba? il vigorously. When the inhabitants realized that further resistance was useless they sued for peace and handed over the city. But the Franks failed to keep to the terms of the surrender; they seized the Muslims' possessions, using every form of violence and torture to extort them. After Juba? il they marched on to Acre to assist Baldwin, King of Jerusalem. The city was besieged by land and sea. The governor was a certain Banna? , known as Zahr ad-Daula al-Juyushi after the (Fatimid) vizier al-Malik al-Juyushi al-Afdal. He put up a vigorous resistance under repeated attacks, but finally capitulated and abandoned the city. The Franks took it by assault, and unleashed the full violence of their brutality on the population. The governor escaped to Damascus but after a while returned to Egypt to defend his conduct before al-Afdal, who accepted his explanation.
'Krak des Chevaliers', the mighty fortress north-east of Tripoli that played so important a part in the history of the Crusades.
A member of the sect of Batinites, Isma'ilites or Assassins. Their terrorist activities, to which every history of the Crusades contains numerous references, were as unwelcome to the Muslims as to the Franks.
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CHAPTER TWO
The following pages, also taken from Ibn al-Athi? r, describe two important developments: the vigorous Muslim reaction to the Frankish drive on Harra? n, an advance-post on the road to Baghda? d, and the even more important Franco-Muslim coalitions that developed at this time to wage war among themselves. The Muslims' lack of any sort of unified policy, which had been of such advantage to the Crusaders, infected the victors as well, and Baldwin of Edessa and Tancred of Antioch had no scruples about entering into opposing alliance with rival Muslim ami? rs.
SUQ A? N AND CHEKERMI? SH LEAD AN EXPEDITION AGAINST THE FRANKS
(IBN AL-ATHI? R, X, 256-7)
While the Franks--God damn them! --were conquering and settling in a part of the territories of Isla? m, the rulers and armies of Isla? m were fighting among themselves, causing discord and disunity among their people and weakening their power to combat the enemy. The city of Harra? n was ruled by one of Maliksha? h's mamlu? ks, a man called Qaraja who a year before this had left the city under the command of a certain Muhammad al-Isfahani. This man, with popular support, rebelled against Qaraja because he was a tyrant, whereas al-Isfahani was an intelligent and energetic man. Qaraja's only supporter in Harra? n was a Turkish page called Jawali? , whom al-Isfahani befriended and made commander of the army. One day, when they were drinking together and al-Isfahani was drunk, Jawali? killed him, with the connivance of one of his servants. Then the Frankish army from Edessa marched on Harra? n.
Mu'i? n ad-Daula Suqma? n and Shams ad-Daula Chekermi? sh1 were involved in a vendetta caused by Chekermi? sh's murder of Suqma? n's nephew, as will be narrated later on, God willing. When they heard what had happened they suggested joining forces to save the situation at Harra? n. Each declared that he offered himself to God and sought a reward in heaven alone. They welcomed one-another's overtures and set out for a rendezvous on the bank of the river Khabu? r, where they sealed their alliance.
