Document: Educating Free-Born Children
The free-born child should not be allowed to go without some knowledge, both through hearing and observation, of every branch also of what is called general education; yet these he should learn only incidentally, just to get a taste of them, as it were (for perfection in everything is impossible), but philosophy he should honor above all else.
The free-born child should not be allowed to go without some knowledge, both through hearing and observation, of every branch also of what is called general education; yet these he should learn only incidentally, just to get a taste of them, as it were (for perfection in everything is impossible), but philosophy he should honor above all else.
Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome_nodrm
org/pi-pm/pliny/pliny_y3.
html
Bibliography for Document
Lewis, Naphtali and Meyer Reinhold (eds. ). Roman Civilization. Sourcebook II: The Empire. New York, 1955.
Westcott, John H. (ed. ) Selected Letters of Pliny. Norman, OK, new edition 1965.
5. AN EXTREMELY DEVOTED WIFE
INTRODUCTION
Certainly one of our best sources of information about the role of a wife in a Roman house- hold comes from a lengthy eulogy, preserved in the form of an inscription. The honoree was a first-century BCE lady by the name of Turia; the document is generally known as the Laudatio Turiae (In Praise of Turia). The speaker was her husband, Quintus Lucretius Vespillo.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. Turia and her husband lived through some of the most tumultuous years in Roman history: the unsettled times after the assassination of Julius Caesar (44 BCE). Vespillo's name was placed on a proscription list in 43, but he was later exonerated, and even served a term as consul in 19.
2. Although Roman law and custom placed the husband above the wife as the absolute ruler of the household, it seems clear from the document that Turia exercised a good deal of her own judgment and engaged in actions independent of her husband's approval or permission.
3. There is some scholarly skepticism as to whether this lengthy inscription actually does refer to Turia, since the inscription is fragmentary and pieces are missing in places, and the name "Turia" does not appear on the extant sections. However, the document does contain detailed information that is consistent with information about Vespillo from other ancient sources, and so it seems very likely that the wife in question is Turia. The first-century CE Roman historian Valerius Maximus [6. 7] writes: "When Quintus Lucretius [Vespillo] was proscribed by the triumvirs [Octavian, Lepidus, Mark Antony] his wife Turia hid him in her bedroom above the rafters. A single maidservant knew the secret. At great risk to herself, she kept him safe from imminent death. So rare was her loyalty that, while the other men who had been proscribed found themselves in foreign, hostile places, barely manag- ing to escape the worst tortures of body and soul, Lucretius was safe in that bed- room in the arms of his wife. " [Valerius Maximus. Memorable Doings and Sayings 6. 7; tr. Bailey. ]
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Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
? Document: Turia's Devotion
Marriages of such long duration, not dissolved by divorce, but terminated by death alone, are indeed rare. For our union was prolonged in unclouded happiness for forty-one years. Would that our long marriage had come to its final end by my death, and that I as the older--which was more just--had yielded to fate.
Why recall your natural qualities, your modesty, deference, affability, your amiable disposition, your faithful attendance to household duties, your enlight- ened religion, your unassuming elegance, the modest simplicity of your attire? Need I speak of your attach- ment to your kindred, your affection for your family-- when you cherished my mother as you did your own parents--you who share countless other virtues with Roman matrons who cherish their fair name? These qualities which I claim for you are your own; few have possessed the like and been able to hold on to and main- tain them; the experience of men teaches us how rare they are.
With joint zeal we have preserved all the patrimony which you received from your parents. Entrusting it all to me, you were not troubled with the care of increasing it; thus did we share the task of administering it, that I undertook to protect your fortune, and you to guard mine. On this point I pass by many things in silence, for fear of attributing to myself a portion of your deserts. Suffice it for me to have indicated my sentiments.
You gave proof of your generosity not only towards very many of your kin, but especially in your filial devo- tion. . . You brought up in our home. . . some worthy young girls of your kinship. And that these might attain to a station in life worthy of your family, you provided them with dowries. Gaius Cluvius [Turia's brother-in- law] and myself, by common accord, executed your intention, and approving of your generosity, in order that your patrimony might suffer no diminution, offered our own family possessions instead, and gave up our own estates to provide the dowries settled upon by you. This I have related not to sing my own praises,
but to show that we held ourselves in honor bound to execute from our property those obligations incurred by you out of the fullness of your heart . . .
[Vespillo next devotes several lengthy passages to Turia's role in saving his life during the proscriptions which were issued following the assassination of Julius Caesar. ]
When all the world was again at peace and the Republic reestablished, peaceful and happy days followed for us. We longed for children, which an
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? divorce: The essayist Aulus Gellius reports (4. 3) that for the first 500+ years after the founding of Rome in 753 BCE, divorce was unknown. The first documented divorce occurred in 231, when a distin- guished man named Spurius Carvilius Ruga separated from his wife because she failed to bear children. According to Gellius, Carvilius loved his wife very much, but he divorced her because of a legally binding oath he had taken, in which he publicly professed that he had married in order to father children.
dowries: Unfortunately, Vespillo does not specify how many "worthy young girls" received dowries from Turia and/or Vespillo, but it is probable that the total value of these dowries was considerable, since the family seems to have been fairly wealthy.
the Republic reestablished: This is most likely something of an over- statement. Although the future emperor Augustus claimed to have restored the Roman Republic after the civil war following Caesar's assassination, the reality of the sit- uation was that the Republic remained in name only, and that Augustus had become the sole ruler--for life.
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envious fate denied us for some time. Had Fortune permitted herself to smile on us in the ordinary fashion, what had been lacking to complete our happiness? But advancing age put an end to our hopes. . . . Despairing of your fertility and dis- consolate to see me without children . . . you spoke of divorce because of my unhappiness on this account, offering to yield our home to another spouse more fertile, with no other intention than that of yourself searching for and providing for me a spouse worthy of our well-known mutual affection, whose children you assured me you would have treated as though your own . . . Nothing would have changed, only that you would have rendered to me henceforth the services and devotion of a sister or mother-in-law.
I must admit that I was so angry that I was deprived of my mind, and that I was so horrified at your proposal that I scarcely regained control of myself. That you should have spoken of divorce between us before the decree of fate had been given; that you should have conceived of any reason why you, while you were still alive, should cease to be my wife, you who when I was almost an exile from life remained most faithful . . .
Would that our time of life had permitted our union to endure until I, the older, had passed away--which was more just--and that you might perform for me the last rites, and that I might have departed, leaving you behind, with a daughter to replace me in your widowhood.
By fate's decree your course was run before mine. You left me the grief, the longing for you, the sad fate to live alone . . . [Lewis, Naphtali and Meyer Reinhold (eds. ). Roman Civilization: Sourcebook I, The Republic. Harper Torchbooks, 1951. Page numbers: 485, 487. ]
AFTERMATH
Vespillo concludes his eulogy by proclaiming that his wife deserved more in her life, and that he regretted not having the time to repay everything he owed to her. Finally, he prays to the Manes (spirits of the dead) to give peace and protection to Turia
ASK YOURSELF
1. What were the ways in which Vespillo said that his wife helped him, or made his life more secure?
2. What was Vespillo's reaction to Turia's suggestion that they divorce? Why did she make such a suggestion in the first place?
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e HowdidtheRomansviewtheroleofwomen,especiallywives,atthistime in their history? Vespillo makes some very complimentary statements about his wife in this eulogy, especially in the second paragraph, where he specifi- cally enumerates her many outstanding "natural qualities. " How typical-- or nontypical--do you think that Turia was as a wife and a Roman woman?
e Inthethirdparagraph,Vespillosays,"Onthispoint[thematterofthepat- rimony], I pass by many things in silence . . . " He never specifies what he means by "many things. " What might some of those unnamed things be?
An Extremely Devoted Wife
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Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
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e Note again Vespillo's statement that "the Republic [had been] reestab- lished. " What were the true facts of the situation? In what ways did Augustus cleverly claim to be restoring the Republic, when in actuality he was doing something quite different?
e There are a number of instances recorded in Roman history where hus- bands divorced their wives because the wives were incapable of bearing children. Research some of these instances. Were the circumstances similar in all cases? If not, what differences do you notice?
e VespillomentionsthathismarriagetoTurialasted41years. Canyoufind other examples of Roman marriages that endured for an exceptionally long time? (A good starting point: Pliny the Younger's letter [8. 5] referencing his friend Macrinus, who had lived without quarreling for 39 years with his recently deceased wife Acilia. )
Further Information
Fantham, Elaine et al. Women in the Classical World. Oxford, 1994.
Gardner, J. Women in Roman Law and Society. Bloomington, IN, 1986.
Lefkowitz, Mary R. and Maureen B. Fant. Women's Life in Greece & Rome. A Sourcebook in
Translation. Baltimore, 1992.
Treggiari, Susan. Roman Marriage. Oxford, 1991.
Website
On the Laudatio Turiae: http://www. dl. ket. org/latin2/mores/women/womenful. htm Bibliography for Document
Lefkowitz, Mary R. and Maureen B. Fant. Women's Life in Greece & Rome. Online at: http:// www. stoa. org/diotima/anthology/wlgr/wlgr-mensopinions53. shtml [This is the source for the Valerius Maximus quotation in "Keep in Mind as You Read. "]
Lewis, Naphtali and Meyer Reinhold (eds. ). Roman Civilization: Sourcebook I, The Republic. (Adapted from D. C. Munro, A Source Book of Roman History, Boston, 1904. ) New York, 1951.
Rolfe, John C. (tr. ). The Attic Nights of Aulus Gellius. [LCL. ] Cambridge and London, 1927.
EDUCATION
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6. PLUTARCH'S PRESCRIPTION FOR A CHILD'S EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION
Although Plutarch (d. ca. 120 CE) is best remembered as a biographer, he also wrote a collec- tion of short essays usually entitled Moralia, or Moral Essays. Nearly 80 of these essays still survive; the variety of topics indicates the breadth of Plutarch's interests. Some of the titles: How a Young Person Ought to Study Poetry; On Listening to Lectures; How to Distinguish a Flatterer from a Friend; How to Profit from Your Enemies; Instructions for Maintaining Health; The Bravery of Women; Which Is Worse: the Ills of the Mind or the Ills of the Body? ; Should Old Men Take Part in Politics? ; Are Land or Sea Animals More Clever? ; On the Face in the Moon.
Some scholars claim that Plutarch did not author the essay that appears as the first docu- ment, even though it is traditionally grouped with the many other essays that he wrote. Regardless of authorship, however, the essay offers some interesting insights into ancient Greek attitudes about education.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. Plutarch's moral essay entitled The Education of Children usually appears first in the ordering of the surviving essays, and under this general rubric, Plutarch addresses many details; examples: the role of good nutrition; the importance of devoted and conscientious parents, and in particular, that parents should not set unattainable goals for their children or impose unreasonable demands on them; parents should not "be utterly harsh and austere in their nature, but they should in many cases con- cede some shortcomings to the younger person [i. e. , their child], and remind them- selves that they once were young"; choosing proper nursemaids and servants for a child and choosing competent teachers; teaching children to be truthful at all times; shielding children from inappropriate speech and behavior.
2. As mentioned in the general introduction, there were no formal elementary "schools" in ancient Greece, at least not of the sort that we are familiar with in modern times. So Greek parents would either teach their children themselves-- roughly equivalent to the homeschooling movement today--or else hire knowl- edgeable tutors to do the job. Parents who chose the latter option needed to exercise
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great care in selecting tutors, and Plutarch (and other authors) often emphasized to parents the critical importance of making wise choices.
Document: Educating Free-Born Children
The free-born child should not be allowed to go without some knowledge, both through hearing and observation, of every branch also of what is called general education; yet these he should learn only incidentally, just to get a taste of them, as it were (for perfection in everything is impossible), but philosophy he should honor above all else. I can perhaps make my opinion clear by means of a figure: for example, it is a fine thing to voyage about and view many cities, but profitable to dwell only in the best one. And it was a clever saying of Bion, the philosopher, that, just as the suitors, not being able to approach Penelope, consorted with her maid-servants, so also do those who are not able to attain philosophy wear themselves to a shadow over the other kinds of education which have no value. Wherefore it is necessary to make philosophy . . . the head and front of all education. For as regards the care of the body, men have discovered two sciences, the medical and the gymnastic, of which the one implants health, the other sturdiness, in the body; but for illnesses and affec- tions of the mind, philosophy alone is the remedy . . . [I]t is necessary not to be indifferent about acquiring the works of earlier writers, but to make a collection of these, like a set of tools in farming. For the corresponding tool of educa- tion is the use of books, and by their means it has come to pass that we are able to study knowledge at its source. It is not proper, either, to overlook the exercise of the body, but we should send the children to the trainers and culti- vate adequately this side of education with all diligence, not merely for the sake of gracefulness of body but also with an eye for strength; for sturdiness of body in child- hood is the foundation of a hale old age. Just as in fair weather, then, one ought to prepare for storm, so also in youth one should store up discipline and self-restraint as a provision for old age. But the amount of bodily exercise should be so limited as not to be a drain on the children and make them too tired to study; for, according to Plato, sleep and weariness are the enemies of learning . . . This also I assert, that children ought to be led to honor- able practices by means of encouragement and reasoning, and not by blows or ill-treatment, for it surely is agreed that these are fitting rather for slaves than for the free-born. For so they grow numb and shudder at their tasks, partly from
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? according to Plato: The reference to Plato is taken from his Republic (Book 7), where he is discussing the proper and effective ways to educate children. Plato, like Plutarch, shuns the idea that physi- cal force, corporal punishment, or harsh discipline have appropriate roles to play in a child's education. Rather, he suggests that a child's lessons should incorporate play and enjoyment if the child is to learn well and thoroughly.
Bion, the philosopher: Bion (ca. 325- ca. 255 BCE) had an interesting life. Because of his father's criminal activity, the entire family was sold into slavery. Fortunately for Bion, however, he wound up serving a rhetorician, and apparently serving him well: his master eventually freed him and left him a fortune in his will. Bion made his way to Athens, and studied with many noted philosophers of the time. Eventually, he became a wandering philosopher, traveling from place to place and earning his living by offering lectures, for a fee.
every branch . . . general education: Here Plutarch seems to be articu- lating the idea, still current, of the importance of a liberal arts educa- tion, wherein students are exposed to all the branches of knowledge and learning.
suitors . . . Penelope: A reference to Homer's Odyssey, in which the 100+ young men, all vying for Penelope's hand in marriage,
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the pain of the blows, partly from the degradation. [Tr. Frank Cole Babbitt. Plutarch's Moralia. (7 C-D; 8 B, C, D, F. ). Volume I. LCL, 1927. Page numbers: 33, 35, 37, 39, 41. ]
AFTERMATH
Plutarch's influence on later writers has been profound. Shakespearean plays set in ancient Rome--Coriolanus, Julius Caesar, and Antony and Cleopatra--borrow heavily on information drawn from Plutarch's works. The French essayist Michel de Montaigne was also greatly influenced by Plutarch; his writings contain over 400 references to Plutarchian works. Ralph Waldo Emerson and other transcendentalists also came under Plutarch's spell.
ASK YOURSELF
1. Plutarch has a very high opinion of the importance of studying philosophy. Does he provide sound arguments for his point of view? Do you agree or disagree with his line of reasoning?
2. For educated Romans, the principle of mens sana in sano corpore (sound mind in a sound body, the body-mind con- nection) was centrally important. Do you get a sense from Plutarch's essay that the Greeks had the same attitude?
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e Plutarch's recommendations for the education of
children are clearly directed at families who have
the financial wherewithal to hire tutors and train-
ers, and to buy books and other materials for their
children. But what about children born into less fortunate circumstances? Plutarch does address that issue, in a sort of roundabout way, by acknowl- edging the reality of it, but then deflecting any blame for it away from him- self. He also says that the poor must do the best that they can for their children, and should that be impossible, they must do at least as much as they can. In other words, he does not offer any specific suggestions for funding or supporting the education of the children of needy families. Can you find any information or examples of children in ancient Greek families who rose above impoverished circumstances to have an impact on the course of Greek history?
e Plutarchwasaveryprolificauthor,andsoitfollowsthatinhismanyother writings--especially the moral essays--he addressed problems and aspects of education in ancient Greece. Research some of these other writings to discover what else he might have had to say about issues in education.
Plutarch's Prescription for a Child's Education
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? contented themselves with the "maid-servants" while waiting for Penelope to choose one of them. Since Penelope's husband Odysseus had been away from home for nearly 20 years while fighting in the Trojan War, the assumption was that he had been killed, and would never return.
trainers: Trainers--paidotribes, plural paidotribai, in Plutarch's Greek-- were somewhat like modern physi- cal education teachers. A trainer, as E. Norman Gardiner explains it, "was a private teacher, often with a palaestra [wrestling facility] of his own. His fee for a course in the fourth century [BCE] was a mina . . . Parents took considerable pains in choosing a paidotribes for their sons . . . In Hellenistic times [fourth to first centuries BCE] they [the paidotribai] had a number of assistants for special exercises, the sphairistes who taught ball play, the akontistes and toxotes who gave instruction in the use of the javelin and the bow, and the hoplomachus who gave lessons in the use of arms. "
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Further Information
Beck, Frederick A. Greek Education 450-350 B. C. London, 1964.
Kenyon, F. G. Books and Readers in Ancient Greece and Rome. Oxford, 1932.
Marrou, Henri-Irenee. A History of Education in Antiquity, translated by George Lamb.
Madison, WI, 1956.
Morgan, Teresa. Literate Education in the Hellenistic and Roman Worlds. Cambridge, 1998.
Websites
Ancient Greek Education. http://www. crystalinks. com/greekeducation. html
Education in Ancient Greece. http://www. mlahanas. de/Greeks/EducationAncientGreece
. htm
Bibliography for Document
Babbitt, Frank Cole (tr. ). Plutarch's Moralia. Volume I. [LCL. ] London and Cambridge, 1927.
Gardiner, E. Norman. Athletics of the Ancient World. Oxford, 1930.
7. SOCRATES AND PROTAGORAS DISCUSS ISSUES IN EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION
The second document comes from the prolific pen of the famous philosopher Plato (427- 347 BCE). He is noted for his 25 philosophical dialogues, all of which still survive. Many of these dialogues, including the one excerpted here, Protagoras, feature Plato's teacher Socrates in a leading role.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. Protagoras was a leading fifth-century BCE sophist. Like most sophists, he traveled from town to town to present lectures and offer tutorial services, although it is thought that he spent much of his professional career in Athens. He became a close friend of Pericles, and it was through Pericles's influence that Protagoras was assigned the task of drawing up a code of laws for the recently founded (443 BCE) Athenian colony of Thurii, in southern Italy. Protagoras's pedagogical proclivities impressed even the likes of Socrates, who says of him in Plato's Republic (10. 600) that teachers like Protagoras were so highly respected for their wisdom that their stu- dents would be tempted to carry them about on their shoulders. Given his ability to inspire zealous admiration like this--how many teachers down through the ages were so well regarded by their students that the students would be willing to carry them triumphantly on their shoulders? --it is not surprising to learn that Protagoras was the first sophist to command a fee for his instructional services.
2. The second document consists of a conversation between Protagoras and Socrates, and several secondary characters, around 432 BCE, in which they discuss the role and teachings of the sophists and in particular, whether it is possible to teach a per- son to be virtuous.
3. Although Socrates was undoubtedly one of the most famous individuals in ancient Athens, he never wrote any books or essays (as far as we know) in which he articu- lated his philosophy, opinions, or beliefs. That task was left to his student Plato, and most of what we know of Socrates's teachings are recorded in the Socratic dialogues and other works of Plato.
4. Socrates never accepted any money for his teachings, never opened a school, never recruited any students or disciples. Instead, he frequented public places and
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Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
initiated, or joined, conversations, dialogues, and debates with anyone who hap- pened to be present. These discussions covered a wide range of topics and often lasted for days at a time. (Socrates's apparent indifference to earning an income did not please his wife, Xanthippe, who gained an unenviable reputation as some- thing of an ill-tempered nag. )
Document: Practiced in the Art of Sophistry
[Socrates and Protagoras are conversing about issues in education, and Socrates inquires of Protagoras why he claims that his teaching would be a better choice for a prospective student than the teachings offered by rival sophists. ]
[Socrates is speaking]: "My friend Hippocrates finds himself desirous of join- ing your classes, and therefore, he says he would be glad to know what result he will get from joining them . . .
Then Protagoras answered at once, saying: Young man, you will gain this by coming to my classes, that on the day when you join them you will go home a better man, and on the day after, it will be the same; every day you will con- stantly improve more and more.
When I heard this, I said: Protagoras, what you say is not at all surprising, but quite likely, since even you, though so old and wise would be made better if someone taught you what you happen not to know. But let me put it another
Greek red-figure vessel of students learning to play the lyre (left); and being instructed in speech, from Cerveteri, fifth century BCE. (Jupiterimages)
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way: suppose Hippocrates here should change his desire all at once, and become desirous of this young fellow's lessons who was just recently come to town, Zeuxippus of Heraclea, and should approach him, as he now does you, and should hear the very same thing from him as from you, how on each day that he spent with him he would be better, and make constant progress. And suppose he were to question him on this and ask: In what shall I become better as you say, and to what will my progress be? Zeuxippus's reply would be, to painting. Then suppose he came to the lessons of Orthagoras the Theban, and heard the same thing from him as from you, and then inquired of him for what he would be better each day through attending his classes, the answer would be, for fluting. In the same way you also must satisfy this youth and me on this point, and tell us for what, Protagoras, and in what con- nection my friend Hippocrates, on any day of atten- dance at the classes of Protagoras, will go away a better man, and on each of the succeeding days will make a like advance.
When Protagoras heard my words, You do right, he said, to ask that . . . For Hippocrates, if he comes to me, will not be treated as he would have been if he had joined the classes of an ordinary sophist. The gen- erality of them mistreat the young; for when they have escaped from the arts, they bring them back against their will and force them into arts, teaching them arith- metic and astronomy and geometry and music (and here he glanced at Hippias); whereas, if he applies to me, he will learn precisely and solely that for which he has come. That learning consists of good judgment in his own affairs, showing how best to order his own home; and in the affairs of his city, showing how he may have most influence on public affairs both in speech and in action. " [Tr. W. R. M. Lamb. Plato: Laches, Protagoras, Meno, Euthydemus. (318 A-E). Volume II. LCL, 1924. Page numbers: 121, 123, 125. ]
AFTERMATH
The document is excerpted from the early stages of this fairly lengthy conversation. In the remainder of the dialogue, Protagoras and Socrates continue the debate about whether virtue can be taught and whether other qualities, such as wisdom, justice, and holiness, are categories of virtue or the same thing as virtue. The two philosophers also discuss the distinction between "becoming
Socrates and Protagoras Discuss Issues in Education
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Bibliography for Document
Lewis, Naphtali and Meyer Reinhold (eds. ). Roman Civilization. Sourcebook II: The Empire. New York, 1955.
Westcott, John H. (ed. ) Selected Letters of Pliny. Norman, OK, new edition 1965.
5. AN EXTREMELY DEVOTED WIFE
INTRODUCTION
Certainly one of our best sources of information about the role of a wife in a Roman house- hold comes from a lengthy eulogy, preserved in the form of an inscription. The honoree was a first-century BCE lady by the name of Turia; the document is generally known as the Laudatio Turiae (In Praise of Turia). The speaker was her husband, Quintus Lucretius Vespillo.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. Turia and her husband lived through some of the most tumultuous years in Roman history: the unsettled times after the assassination of Julius Caesar (44 BCE). Vespillo's name was placed on a proscription list in 43, but he was later exonerated, and even served a term as consul in 19.
2. Although Roman law and custom placed the husband above the wife as the absolute ruler of the household, it seems clear from the document that Turia exercised a good deal of her own judgment and engaged in actions independent of her husband's approval or permission.
3. There is some scholarly skepticism as to whether this lengthy inscription actually does refer to Turia, since the inscription is fragmentary and pieces are missing in places, and the name "Turia" does not appear on the extant sections. However, the document does contain detailed information that is consistent with information about Vespillo from other ancient sources, and so it seems very likely that the wife in question is Turia. The first-century CE Roman historian Valerius Maximus [6. 7] writes: "When Quintus Lucretius [Vespillo] was proscribed by the triumvirs [Octavian, Lepidus, Mark Antony] his wife Turia hid him in her bedroom above the rafters. A single maidservant knew the secret. At great risk to herself, she kept him safe from imminent death. So rare was her loyalty that, while the other men who had been proscribed found themselves in foreign, hostile places, barely manag- ing to escape the worst tortures of body and soul, Lucretius was safe in that bed- room in the arms of his wife. " [Valerius Maximus. Memorable Doings and Sayings 6. 7; tr. Bailey. ]
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Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
? Document: Turia's Devotion
Marriages of such long duration, not dissolved by divorce, but terminated by death alone, are indeed rare. For our union was prolonged in unclouded happiness for forty-one years. Would that our long marriage had come to its final end by my death, and that I as the older--which was more just--had yielded to fate.
Why recall your natural qualities, your modesty, deference, affability, your amiable disposition, your faithful attendance to household duties, your enlight- ened religion, your unassuming elegance, the modest simplicity of your attire? Need I speak of your attach- ment to your kindred, your affection for your family-- when you cherished my mother as you did your own parents--you who share countless other virtues with Roman matrons who cherish their fair name? These qualities which I claim for you are your own; few have possessed the like and been able to hold on to and main- tain them; the experience of men teaches us how rare they are.
With joint zeal we have preserved all the patrimony which you received from your parents. Entrusting it all to me, you were not troubled with the care of increasing it; thus did we share the task of administering it, that I undertook to protect your fortune, and you to guard mine. On this point I pass by many things in silence, for fear of attributing to myself a portion of your deserts. Suffice it for me to have indicated my sentiments.
You gave proof of your generosity not only towards very many of your kin, but especially in your filial devo- tion. . . You brought up in our home. . . some worthy young girls of your kinship. And that these might attain to a station in life worthy of your family, you provided them with dowries. Gaius Cluvius [Turia's brother-in- law] and myself, by common accord, executed your intention, and approving of your generosity, in order that your patrimony might suffer no diminution, offered our own family possessions instead, and gave up our own estates to provide the dowries settled upon by you. This I have related not to sing my own praises,
but to show that we held ourselves in honor bound to execute from our property those obligations incurred by you out of the fullness of your heart . . .
[Vespillo next devotes several lengthy passages to Turia's role in saving his life during the proscriptions which were issued following the assassination of Julius Caesar. ]
When all the world was again at peace and the Republic reestablished, peaceful and happy days followed for us. We longed for children, which an
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? divorce: The essayist Aulus Gellius reports (4. 3) that for the first 500+ years after the founding of Rome in 753 BCE, divorce was unknown. The first documented divorce occurred in 231, when a distin- guished man named Spurius Carvilius Ruga separated from his wife because she failed to bear children. According to Gellius, Carvilius loved his wife very much, but he divorced her because of a legally binding oath he had taken, in which he publicly professed that he had married in order to father children.
dowries: Unfortunately, Vespillo does not specify how many "worthy young girls" received dowries from Turia and/or Vespillo, but it is probable that the total value of these dowries was considerable, since the family seems to have been fairly wealthy.
the Republic reestablished: This is most likely something of an over- statement. Although the future emperor Augustus claimed to have restored the Roman Republic after the civil war following Caesar's assassination, the reality of the sit- uation was that the Republic remained in name only, and that Augustus had become the sole ruler--for life.
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envious fate denied us for some time. Had Fortune permitted herself to smile on us in the ordinary fashion, what had been lacking to complete our happiness? But advancing age put an end to our hopes. . . . Despairing of your fertility and dis- consolate to see me without children . . . you spoke of divorce because of my unhappiness on this account, offering to yield our home to another spouse more fertile, with no other intention than that of yourself searching for and providing for me a spouse worthy of our well-known mutual affection, whose children you assured me you would have treated as though your own . . . Nothing would have changed, only that you would have rendered to me henceforth the services and devotion of a sister or mother-in-law.
I must admit that I was so angry that I was deprived of my mind, and that I was so horrified at your proposal that I scarcely regained control of myself. That you should have spoken of divorce between us before the decree of fate had been given; that you should have conceived of any reason why you, while you were still alive, should cease to be my wife, you who when I was almost an exile from life remained most faithful . . .
Would that our time of life had permitted our union to endure until I, the older, had passed away--which was more just--and that you might perform for me the last rites, and that I might have departed, leaving you behind, with a daughter to replace me in your widowhood.
By fate's decree your course was run before mine. You left me the grief, the longing for you, the sad fate to live alone . . . [Lewis, Naphtali and Meyer Reinhold (eds. ). Roman Civilization: Sourcebook I, The Republic. Harper Torchbooks, 1951. Page numbers: 485, 487. ]
AFTERMATH
Vespillo concludes his eulogy by proclaiming that his wife deserved more in her life, and that he regretted not having the time to repay everything he owed to her. Finally, he prays to the Manes (spirits of the dead) to give peace and protection to Turia
ASK YOURSELF
1. What were the ways in which Vespillo said that his wife helped him, or made his life more secure?
2. What was Vespillo's reaction to Turia's suggestion that they divorce? Why did she make such a suggestion in the first place?
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e HowdidtheRomansviewtheroleofwomen,especiallywives,atthistime in their history? Vespillo makes some very complimentary statements about his wife in this eulogy, especially in the second paragraph, where he specifi- cally enumerates her many outstanding "natural qualities. " How typical-- or nontypical--do you think that Turia was as a wife and a Roman woman?
e Inthethirdparagraph,Vespillosays,"Onthispoint[thematterofthepat- rimony], I pass by many things in silence . . . " He never specifies what he means by "many things. " What might some of those unnamed things be?
An Extremely Devoted Wife
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Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
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e Note again Vespillo's statement that "the Republic [had been] reestab- lished. " What were the true facts of the situation? In what ways did Augustus cleverly claim to be restoring the Republic, when in actuality he was doing something quite different?
e There are a number of instances recorded in Roman history where hus- bands divorced their wives because the wives were incapable of bearing children. Research some of these instances. Were the circumstances similar in all cases? If not, what differences do you notice?
e VespillomentionsthathismarriagetoTurialasted41years. Canyoufind other examples of Roman marriages that endured for an exceptionally long time? (A good starting point: Pliny the Younger's letter [8. 5] referencing his friend Macrinus, who had lived without quarreling for 39 years with his recently deceased wife Acilia. )
Further Information
Fantham, Elaine et al. Women in the Classical World. Oxford, 1994.
Gardner, J. Women in Roman Law and Society. Bloomington, IN, 1986.
Lefkowitz, Mary R. and Maureen B. Fant. Women's Life in Greece & Rome. A Sourcebook in
Translation. Baltimore, 1992.
Treggiari, Susan. Roman Marriage. Oxford, 1991.
Website
On the Laudatio Turiae: http://www. dl. ket. org/latin2/mores/women/womenful. htm Bibliography for Document
Lefkowitz, Mary R. and Maureen B. Fant. Women's Life in Greece & Rome. Online at: http:// www. stoa. org/diotima/anthology/wlgr/wlgr-mensopinions53. shtml [This is the source for the Valerius Maximus quotation in "Keep in Mind as You Read. "]
Lewis, Naphtali and Meyer Reinhold (eds. ). Roman Civilization: Sourcebook I, The Republic. (Adapted from D. C. Munro, A Source Book of Roman History, Boston, 1904. ) New York, 1951.
Rolfe, John C. (tr. ). The Attic Nights of Aulus Gellius. [LCL. ] Cambridge and London, 1927.
EDUCATION
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6. PLUTARCH'S PRESCRIPTION FOR A CHILD'S EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION
Although Plutarch (d. ca. 120 CE) is best remembered as a biographer, he also wrote a collec- tion of short essays usually entitled Moralia, or Moral Essays. Nearly 80 of these essays still survive; the variety of topics indicates the breadth of Plutarch's interests. Some of the titles: How a Young Person Ought to Study Poetry; On Listening to Lectures; How to Distinguish a Flatterer from a Friend; How to Profit from Your Enemies; Instructions for Maintaining Health; The Bravery of Women; Which Is Worse: the Ills of the Mind or the Ills of the Body? ; Should Old Men Take Part in Politics? ; Are Land or Sea Animals More Clever? ; On the Face in the Moon.
Some scholars claim that Plutarch did not author the essay that appears as the first docu- ment, even though it is traditionally grouped with the many other essays that he wrote. Regardless of authorship, however, the essay offers some interesting insights into ancient Greek attitudes about education.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. Plutarch's moral essay entitled The Education of Children usually appears first in the ordering of the surviving essays, and under this general rubric, Plutarch addresses many details; examples: the role of good nutrition; the importance of devoted and conscientious parents, and in particular, that parents should not set unattainable goals for their children or impose unreasonable demands on them; parents should not "be utterly harsh and austere in their nature, but they should in many cases con- cede some shortcomings to the younger person [i. e. , their child], and remind them- selves that they once were young"; choosing proper nursemaids and servants for a child and choosing competent teachers; teaching children to be truthful at all times; shielding children from inappropriate speech and behavior.
2. As mentioned in the general introduction, there were no formal elementary "schools" in ancient Greece, at least not of the sort that we are familiar with in modern times. So Greek parents would either teach their children themselves-- roughly equivalent to the homeschooling movement today--or else hire knowl- edgeable tutors to do the job. Parents who chose the latter option needed to exercise
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great care in selecting tutors, and Plutarch (and other authors) often emphasized to parents the critical importance of making wise choices.
Document: Educating Free-Born Children
The free-born child should not be allowed to go without some knowledge, both through hearing and observation, of every branch also of what is called general education; yet these he should learn only incidentally, just to get a taste of them, as it were (for perfection in everything is impossible), but philosophy he should honor above all else. I can perhaps make my opinion clear by means of a figure: for example, it is a fine thing to voyage about and view many cities, but profitable to dwell only in the best one. And it was a clever saying of Bion, the philosopher, that, just as the suitors, not being able to approach Penelope, consorted with her maid-servants, so also do those who are not able to attain philosophy wear themselves to a shadow over the other kinds of education which have no value. Wherefore it is necessary to make philosophy . . . the head and front of all education. For as regards the care of the body, men have discovered two sciences, the medical and the gymnastic, of which the one implants health, the other sturdiness, in the body; but for illnesses and affec- tions of the mind, philosophy alone is the remedy . . . [I]t is necessary not to be indifferent about acquiring the works of earlier writers, but to make a collection of these, like a set of tools in farming. For the corresponding tool of educa- tion is the use of books, and by their means it has come to pass that we are able to study knowledge at its source. It is not proper, either, to overlook the exercise of the body, but we should send the children to the trainers and culti- vate adequately this side of education with all diligence, not merely for the sake of gracefulness of body but also with an eye for strength; for sturdiness of body in child- hood is the foundation of a hale old age. Just as in fair weather, then, one ought to prepare for storm, so also in youth one should store up discipline and self-restraint as a provision for old age. But the amount of bodily exercise should be so limited as not to be a drain on the children and make them too tired to study; for, according to Plato, sleep and weariness are the enemies of learning . . . This also I assert, that children ought to be led to honor- able practices by means of encouragement and reasoning, and not by blows or ill-treatment, for it surely is agreed that these are fitting rather for slaves than for the free-born. For so they grow numb and shudder at their tasks, partly from
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? according to Plato: The reference to Plato is taken from his Republic (Book 7), where he is discussing the proper and effective ways to educate children. Plato, like Plutarch, shuns the idea that physi- cal force, corporal punishment, or harsh discipline have appropriate roles to play in a child's education. Rather, he suggests that a child's lessons should incorporate play and enjoyment if the child is to learn well and thoroughly.
Bion, the philosopher: Bion (ca. 325- ca. 255 BCE) had an interesting life. Because of his father's criminal activity, the entire family was sold into slavery. Fortunately for Bion, however, he wound up serving a rhetorician, and apparently serving him well: his master eventually freed him and left him a fortune in his will. Bion made his way to Athens, and studied with many noted philosophers of the time. Eventually, he became a wandering philosopher, traveling from place to place and earning his living by offering lectures, for a fee.
every branch . . . general education: Here Plutarch seems to be articu- lating the idea, still current, of the importance of a liberal arts educa- tion, wherein students are exposed to all the branches of knowledge and learning.
suitors . . . Penelope: A reference to Homer's Odyssey, in which the 100+ young men, all vying for Penelope's hand in marriage,
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the pain of the blows, partly from the degradation. [Tr. Frank Cole Babbitt. Plutarch's Moralia. (7 C-D; 8 B, C, D, F. ). Volume I. LCL, 1927. Page numbers: 33, 35, 37, 39, 41. ]
AFTERMATH
Plutarch's influence on later writers has been profound. Shakespearean plays set in ancient Rome--Coriolanus, Julius Caesar, and Antony and Cleopatra--borrow heavily on information drawn from Plutarch's works. The French essayist Michel de Montaigne was also greatly influenced by Plutarch; his writings contain over 400 references to Plutarchian works. Ralph Waldo Emerson and other transcendentalists also came under Plutarch's spell.
ASK YOURSELF
1. Plutarch has a very high opinion of the importance of studying philosophy. Does he provide sound arguments for his point of view? Do you agree or disagree with his line of reasoning?
2. For educated Romans, the principle of mens sana in sano corpore (sound mind in a sound body, the body-mind con- nection) was centrally important. Do you get a sense from Plutarch's essay that the Greeks had the same attitude?
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e Plutarch's recommendations for the education of
children are clearly directed at families who have
the financial wherewithal to hire tutors and train-
ers, and to buy books and other materials for their
children. But what about children born into less fortunate circumstances? Plutarch does address that issue, in a sort of roundabout way, by acknowl- edging the reality of it, but then deflecting any blame for it away from him- self. He also says that the poor must do the best that they can for their children, and should that be impossible, they must do at least as much as they can. In other words, he does not offer any specific suggestions for funding or supporting the education of the children of needy families. Can you find any information or examples of children in ancient Greek families who rose above impoverished circumstances to have an impact on the course of Greek history?
e Plutarchwasaveryprolificauthor,andsoitfollowsthatinhismanyother writings--especially the moral essays--he addressed problems and aspects of education in ancient Greece. Research some of these other writings to discover what else he might have had to say about issues in education.
Plutarch's Prescription for a Child's Education
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? contented themselves with the "maid-servants" while waiting for Penelope to choose one of them. Since Penelope's husband Odysseus had been away from home for nearly 20 years while fighting in the Trojan War, the assumption was that he had been killed, and would never return.
trainers: Trainers--paidotribes, plural paidotribai, in Plutarch's Greek-- were somewhat like modern physi- cal education teachers. A trainer, as E. Norman Gardiner explains it, "was a private teacher, often with a palaestra [wrestling facility] of his own. His fee for a course in the fourth century [BCE] was a mina . . . Parents took considerable pains in choosing a paidotribes for their sons . . . In Hellenistic times [fourth to first centuries BCE] they [the paidotribai] had a number of assistants for special exercises, the sphairistes who taught ball play, the akontistes and toxotes who gave instruction in the use of the javelin and the bow, and the hoplomachus who gave lessons in the use of arms. "
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Further Information
Beck, Frederick A. Greek Education 450-350 B. C. London, 1964.
Kenyon, F. G. Books and Readers in Ancient Greece and Rome. Oxford, 1932.
Marrou, Henri-Irenee. A History of Education in Antiquity, translated by George Lamb.
Madison, WI, 1956.
Morgan, Teresa. Literate Education in the Hellenistic and Roman Worlds. Cambridge, 1998.
Websites
Ancient Greek Education. http://www. crystalinks. com/greekeducation. html
Education in Ancient Greece. http://www. mlahanas. de/Greeks/EducationAncientGreece
. htm
Bibliography for Document
Babbitt, Frank Cole (tr. ). Plutarch's Moralia. Volume I. [LCL. ] London and Cambridge, 1927.
Gardiner, E. Norman. Athletics of the Ancient World. Oxford, 1930.
7. SOCRATES AND PROTAGORAS DISCUSS ISSUES IN EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION
The second document comes from the prolific pen of the famous philosopher Plato (427- 347 BCE). He is noted for his 25 philosophical dialogues, all of which still survive. Many of these dialogues, including the one excerpted here, Protagoras, feature Plato's teacher Socrates in a leading role.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. Protagoras was a leading fifth-century BCE sophist. Like most sophists, he traveled from town to town to present lectures and offer tutorial services, although it is thought that he spent much of his professional career in Athens. He became a close friend of Pericles, and it was through Pericles's influence that Protagoras was assigned the task of drawing up a code of laws for the recently founded (443 BCE) Athenian colony of Thurii, in southern Italy. Protagoras's pedagogical proclivities impressed even the likes of Socrates, who says of him in Plato's Republic (10. 600) that teachers like Protagoras were so highly respected for their wisdom that their stu- dents would be tempted to carry them about on their shoulders. Given his ability to inspire zealous admiration like this--how many teachers down through the ages were so well regarded by their students that the students would be willing to carry them triumphantly on their shoulders? --it is not surprising to learn that Protagoras was the first sophist to command a fee for his instructional services.
2. The second document consists of a conversation between Protagoras and Socrates, and several secondary characters, around 432 BCE, in which they discuss the role and teachings of the sophists and in particular, whether it is possible to teach a per- son to be virtuous.
3. Although Socrates was undoubtedly one of the most famous individuals in ancient Athens, he never wrote any books or essays (as far as we know) in which he articu- lated his philosophy, opinions, or beliefs. That task was left to his student Plato, and most of what we know of Socrates's teachings are recorded in the Socratic dialogues and other works of Plato.
4. Socrates never accepted any money for his teachings, never opened a school, never recruited any students or disciples. Instead, he frequented public places and
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Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
initiated, or joined, conversations, dialogues, and debates with anyone who hap- pened to be present. These discussions covered a wide range of topics and often lasted for days at a time. (Socrates's apparent indifference to earning an income did not please his wife, Xanthippe, who gained an unenviable reputation as some- thing of an ill-tempered nag. )
Document: Practiced in the Art of Sophistry
[Socrates and Protagoras are conversing about issues in education, and Socrates inquires of Protagoras why he claims that his teaching would be a better choice for a prospective student than the teachings offered by rival sophists. ]
[Socrates is speaking]: "My friend Hippocrates finds himself desirous of join- ing your classes, and therefore, he says he would be glad to know what result he will get from joining them . . .
Then Protagoras answered at once, saying: Young man, you will gain this by coming to my classes, that on the day when you join them you will go home a better man, and on the day after, it will be the same; every day you will con- stantly improve more and more.
When I heard this, I said: Protagoras, what you say is not at all surprising, but quite likely, since even you, though so old and wise would be made better if someone taught you what you happen not to know. But let me put it another
Greek red-figure vessel of students learning to play the lyre (left); and being instructed in speech, from Cerveteri, fifth century BCE. (Jupiterimages)
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way: suppose Hippocrates here should change his desire all at once, and become desirous of this young fellow's lessons who was just recently come to town, Zeuxippus of Heraclea, and should approach him, as he now does you, and should hear the very same thing from him as from you, how on each day that he spent with him he would be better, and make constant progress. And suppose he were to question him on this and ask: In what shall I become better as you say, and to what will my progress be? Zeuxippus's reply would be, to painting. Then suppose he came to the lessons of Orthagoras the Theban, and heard the same thing from him as from you, and then inquired of him for what he would be better each day through attending his classes, the answer would be, for fluting. In the same way you also must satisfy this youth and me on this point, and tell us for what, Protagoras, and in what con- nection my friend Hippocrates, on any day of atten- dance at the classes of Protagoras, will go away a better man, and on each of the succeeding days will make a like advance.
When Protagoras heard my words, You do right, he said, to ask that . . . For Hippocrates, if he comes to me, will not be treated as he would have been if he had joined the classes of an ordinary sophist. The gen- erality of them mistreat the young; for when they have escaped from the arts, they bring them back against their will and force them into arts, teaching them arith- metic and astronomy and geometry and music (and here he glanced at Hippias); whereas, if he applies to me, he will learn precisely and solely that for which he has come. That learning consists of good judgment in his own affairs, showing how best to order his own home; and in the affairs of his city, showing how he may have most influence on public affairs both in speech and in action. " [Tr. W. R. M. Lamb. Plato: Laches, Protagoras, Meno, Euthydemus. (318 A-E). Volume II. LCL, 1924. Page numbers: 121, 123, 125. ]
AFTERMATH
The document is excerpted from the early stages of this fairly lengthy conversation. In the remainder of the dialogue, Protagoras and Socrates continue the debate about whether virtue can be taught and whether other qualities, such as wisdom, justice, and holiness, are categories of virtue or the same thing as virtue. The two philosophers also discuss the distinction between "becoming
Socrates and Protagoras Discuss Issues in Education
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