Tbcy in-
formed him that the time occupied by this part of the
undertaking was seven mouths, and that the direction
along which they proceeded inclined from east a little
to the south.
formed him that the time occupied by this part of the
undertaking was seven mouths, and that the direction
along which they proceeded inclined from east a little
to the south.
Charles - 1867 - Classical Dictionary
De Ahum Iran-
quilldatc, '? On Serenity of Mind. " This work, writ-
ten soon after the return of Seneca to Home, has not
the usual form of his productions. It is preceded by
a letter of Annasus Serenus, in which that friend
depicts lo Seneca the disquietude, and disgust of life,
which torment him, and requests his advice. Seneca
replies, and shows the mode in which this mental mal-
ady may be combated. -- 7. De Constantia sapien-
tis, rive quod in savienlem non cadit injuria, "Of
tbe firmness of the sage, or proof that the wise man
can suffer no injury. " This work is based on the
principles and paradoxes of the porch. It is addressed
to Annasus Serenus. --8. De dementia, "On Clem-
uncy. " Addressed to Nero. It was in three books,
and was composed during the second year of the
prince's reign. The subject is rather the mild ad-
ministration of government. A great part of the sec-
ond, and the third book, are lost. --The diction in this
work is simpler and nobler tban in the other works of
Seneca. --9. De Brevilale vita, "On the shortness
of life. " Addressed to Paulir. us, the father, or else
the brother of Seneca's second wife, and who filled
the station of Prafeclus Annona. Seneca recom-
mends him to renounce his public employments in a
spirit directly contrary lo that in which he urges Se-
renus to engage in public affairs. These contradic-
tions sometimes occur in the works of Seneca. --10.
De Vita Beata, "On a Happy Life. " Addressed
to Gallio, the brother of Seneca. --11. De Olio aut
seeessu sapicntis, "On the Leisure or Retirement
of the Sage. " The first twenty-seven chapters are
wanting. Some critics believe that it formed part of
the preceding. --12. De Bencficiis, "On Benefits. "
In seven'books. Seneca treats, in this fine work, of
the manner of conferring benefits, and the duty of
him who receives them, and collaterally of gratitude
and ingratitude. It was written at tbe close of Sene-
ca's life, when he had retired from the court of Nero
to the solitude of his villa. --13. One hundred and
twenty-four letters, addressed to Lucilius Junior.
Though Seneca has given to these pieces an episto-
lary form, they are rather moral treatises on various
subjects. We find in them many excellent maxims,
and a real treasure of practical philosophy. They
were written during the later years of Seneca, after
kia retirement from court. --14. 'AkokoXokvvduoir,
? ? "The Metamorphosis into, a Gourd. " A Varronian
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? SE R
SER
aged Rome. They afterward settled in Umbria, on
the cnast of the Adriatic. After some years of con-
flict with the Romans they were expelled, or rather
exterminated, A. U. C. 471. (Polyb. , 2, 19. ) Livy,
however, makes the date of this event some years ear-
lier. (Lit. , Epit. , 11. )--II. A people of Germany.
(Vid. Semnoncs. )
SeptimTus I. or Titus Septimius, a Roman knight,
intimate with Horace, and to whom the latter address-
ed one of his Odes (2, 6). He appears, from the
words of Horace on another occasion (Epist. , 1, 3, 9,
teqq. ), to have been a votary of the Muses; and, ac-
cording to one of the scholiasts, he composed lyric
pieces and tragedies. None of his productions have
reached us. --II. Aulus Septimius Severus, a Roman
poet, who flourished under Vespasian. He was high-
ly esteemed for his lyric talents, but none of his pieces
have reached us. One of his poems was entitled
Opuscula Ruralia or Opuscula Ruris, consisting of
several books; another was called Falisca, in which
he sang the praises of his villa among the Falisci.
Tho metre of this poem was peculiar in its kind, each
line being composed of three dactyls and a pyrrhic.
Wcrnsdorff ascribes to him the Moretum, a poem
commonly assigned to Virgil. (Burmann, ad Anthol.
tat, lib. 1, ep. 27. --Wernsdorff, Poet. Lat. Min. ,
vol. 2, p. 247, seqq. )--HI. Q. Septimius, the transla-
tor of the work of Dictys Cretensis into Latin, and
who lived in the time of the Emperor Diocleaian.
[Vid. Dictys I. )
Sequana (called by Ptolemy Ecitovavea), a river of
Gallia Transalpina, rising in the territory of the ATAm,
and flowing by Lutetia or Paris into the Atlantic. It
is now the Seine. (0>>? B. &. , 1, I. --Id. ib , 8, 87. )
Sequani, a people of Gallia Transalpina, whose ter-
ritory lay to the east of that of the jEdui and Lingones,
and was separated from them by the Arar; while it
was parted from that of the Helvetii by the range of
Mount Jura. Their country answers to the modern
Department du Doubt el du Jura, (Cat. , B. G. , 1,
B. --Id. ib. , 6, 12, &c. )
Skrapeum or Skrapion, I. a name given to the
temples of Serapis in Egypt, of which there were a
great number. (Crcuzer, Dionysus, p. 181. )--II. A
telebrated temple of Serapis in Alexandrea, and one
}f the two tempies in which the famous library was
Jeposited. (Vii. Serapis, and Alexandrea. )--III.
Another temple of Serapis in Egypt, situate to the
south of Heroopolis. A settlement grew up around it;
and the place was also famous for being the middle
point in the road from north to south. (Mannert,
Geogr. , vol. 10, pt. 1, p. 486. )--IV. A temple of Se-
rapis at Rome, on the Capitoline Hill, erected by Car-
acalla. (Vid. Serapis. )
Skrapion. Vid. Serapeum.
Skrapion, I. a physician of Alexandrea, the suc-
cessor of Philinus, in what was called the Empiric
school (i. e. , the school of observation and experience. )
In consequence of the great extension which he gave
10 this system, he is regarded by some as its inventor.
(Celt. , Prof. , p. 3. ) Mead believes that he was a
disciple of Erasistratus, from his having found the
name of Serapion on a medal discovered at Smyrna;
But this opinion is untenable. (Sjrengel, Hut. de la
Med. , vol. 1, p. 483, teqq )-- II. An epigrammatic
poet, a native of Alexandrea, who lived in the time of
Trajan. One of his epigrams is preserved in the An-
? ? thology. (Jaeobt, Catal. Poet. Epig. , t. >>. )--III. An
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? SERES.
SERES.
aior). has ventured, however, in opposition to an opin-
ion so positively expressed, to consider Serica, or the
couatry of the Seres, as including merely the western
parts of Thibet, Serinagur, Cashmere, Little Thibet,
and perhaps a small portion of Little Buckharia. On
the other hand, an English writer, Mr. Murray, in a pa-
per inserted in the Transactions of the Royal Society
of Edinburgh (vol. 8, p. 171), maintains, in accordance
with Vossius, the perfect identity of the Seres with
the natives of China. This latter production we have
never bad the opportunity of perusing. It is said,
however, to be extremely interesting and satisfactory,
and to be based in part upon the narrative of Ptolemy
the geographer, and in part upon various discoveries
made by modern travellers in the mountainous regions
of Asia which lie immediately north of India. This
subject has likewise been discussed in some of the
numbers of the Classical Journal (vol. 1, p. 63; 3, p.
895; 6, p. 204; 7, p. 33). --As Ptolemy is our chief
authority in settling this long-agitated question, his
statement is entitled to the first notice, although he is
? ar from being the earliest writer who makes mention
of the Seres. According to this geographer (Pro/. ,
Geogr. , rd. Erasm. , p. 25, scqq. ), it appears that the
agents of a Macedonian merchant, on their way from
Hierapolis to Sera, crossed the rivers Euphrates and
Tigris, entered Assyria, and advanced to Ecbatana,
the capital of Media; then passing through the Pylaj
Caspian, and the chief cities of Parthia, Hyrcania, and
Margiana, on the north of Persia, they arrived at Bac-
tra; thence they proceeded to the mountainous coun-
try of the Comedos, and reached a place in Scythia
called AtBivoc iripyoc, the Stone- Castle or Tower of
Stone; from this spot to Sera, the capital of Serica,
they were travelling during the space of seven months.
What is meant by the Stone-Castle seems never to
have been satisfactorily explained until very recently.
Pr. Hager, in his Numismaiical History of the Chinese
(Description ies Medatlles Chinoises du Cabinet Im-
perial de France, precedi d'un Essai du Numisma-
ti/ue Chinoise: par J. Hager. --Compare Class. Jour. ,
vol. 1, p. 54), considers the Stone-Castle to have been
the samo with the Tashkand of modern times, and the
principal city of eastern Turkislan. This, indeed, he
demonstrates, not only from geographical coincidences,
but from the obvious etymology of its Tartar name;
Task signifying " a stone," and kand " a castle," " tow-
er," or " fortress. " And in this etymology he is con-
firmed by parallel instances given by Du Halde, in his
description of China, by the Oriental geography of
Ebn Iiaukal, and other works. The route of the car-
avans, after leaving the Stone-Castle and proceeding
farther to the east, is involved in difficulty and obscu-
rity. Ptolemy's only source of information respecting
this part of their journey seems to have been the ver-
bal statements of the traders themselves.
Tbcy in-
formed him that the time occupied by this part of the
undertaking was seven mouths, and that the direction
along which they proceeded inclined from east a little
to the south. Marinus, the geographer, as quoted by
Ptolemy, computes these seven months' travel at
36. 200 stadia; Ptolemy, however, taking into con-
sideration the slow progress which the caravans must
necessarily make in passing over mountains more or
(ess covered with snow, and in stopping at various
places on the route, diminishes this distance by one
half, and makes the space traversed during these seven
? ? months to have been about 18,100 stadia,or 1709geo-
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? SERE3
SERES.
tmtel) than Ptolemy has done; for tha. trie B*~Ji>us
and Hoang-ho are one and the same river hardly ad-
mits of a doubt. Its northern arm, the Olan-Muzen,
rises in the country of the Chochotes, or Calmucka of
Hoho-Nor, among the mountains which bound the
desert of Cobi, and to the northeast of it rises the El-
zinc, which must therefore be one of the sources of
the CEchardes. The Hoang-ho takes its course to-
ward* the southeast, in order to unite with its south-
em arm, the Hara-Muzen, which rises in the southern
ehair, of mountains between China and Thibet, and
directs its course to the northeast. After this, the
united streams take a high northerly direction, cross-
ing the great wall, and then, bending to the south,
pass once more the great wall, and re-enter China
proper. Of the northern part of their course Ptole-
my makes no mention, for a very natural reason^ be-
cause it passes far beyond the ancient caravan routes.
They make their appearance again near the site of the
ancient capital of Seiica, where Ptolemy again men-
tions them, and where he places the third tributary,
probably the Hori-ho. From all that has been said, it
follows, as an irresistible consequence, that the Serica
of antiquity comprehends the eastern portion of the
country of the Chochotcs, the Chinese province of
Skin-si and also Mogul Tartary from the northern con-
fines of China as far as the southern limits of Siberia.
(Mannert, uii supra. )--D'Anville, it is true, gives in
his map of the ancient world a somewhat different view
of this quarter. But D'Anville erred in placing too
much reliance on the false representations given by
Mercator to the rivers of Serica, in his maps illustrating
the geography of Ptolemy. Still, the authority of the
French geographer is valuable as far as it goes, since he
so far makes Serica a portion of China as to consider
Sera, its metropolis, identical with Kanlcheon in the
modem province of Shcft-si. (D'Anville, Giogr. Anc.
tlreg,vol. 2, p. 326. --Id. , Rccherches Gtogr. ct His-
lorujues sur la Serique des A neiens. -- Mcmoires de
PAcademic des Inscriptions, vol. 32, p. 573, ct scqq )
Tn pointing out the land of Serica, Ptolemy (Ptolcm. ,
Scogr. -- Compare Mannert, vol. 4, p. 606) makes
jiention also of two other caravan routes, a northern
and a southern one. The former of these commenced
nt the city of Tanais. situate at the mouth of the river
of the same name (the modern Don), and ran onward
to the farthest east. It was by means of this route
that Ptolemy obtained his information respecting what
are now the Volga and Jeik, of which nothing was
known before his time by the Greeks. He learned also
the existence of the mountainous chains along the south-
ern confines of Siberia, and was enabled to give a tol-
erably correct account of their situation anc1. direction.
He even pushed his inquiries as far as the Issedones,
the most remote people to the east. All this informa-
tion he obtained from the traders. No Greek seems
ever to have undertaken this long and perilous journey.
Unacquainted with the manners and language of the
various predatory tribes which roamed along this vast
tract of country, the attempt would have exposed
themselves to certain destruction, and their merchan-
dise to the cupidity of the savage Nomades. The
traders, therefore, of whom mention has just been
made, must have belonged to some one of the native
tribes in this quarter, perhaps to the same Kirgish Tar-
tars who at the present day carry on the Russia inland
traffic with the countries to the south. In this way,
? ? and in this alone, can we satisfactorily account for the
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? SERES.
stem to have bad some acquaintance long before the
lime of Ptolemy. In the earlier fables and traditions
of the West, mention is made of a people named Alia-
tori, dwelling in a valley which was always warmed
by the genial rays of the sun, and protected by encir-
cling mountains from the rude blasts of the north, a
people closely assimilated in the peculiarities of their
situation to the fabled Hyperboreans. (Compare Plin. ,
6,17, who quotes an earlier author, A moments. )--Af-
ter leaving the Ottorokorne, the route led by Solona, in
a northeast direction, to the city of Sera. --Kosmas
Indicopleustes (Kosmas Indicopl. , Montfauc, iV. Coll.
Pair. , 2, 137, ? >. , et seqq. ) states, that the Brahmins
informed him, that if a line were drawn from the coun-
try of the Sinai (TJa. rJo) through Persia into the Ro-
man world, so as to strike Byzantium, it would divide
the earth into two equal parts. From this account
also, loose as it is, we may obtain very satisfactory
data for the position of Serica, which in the days of
Kosmas was confounded with the land of the Sina? ,
both of them being known merely as the country of
silk. --Among modern writers, the author of the " De-
cline and Fall of the Roman Empire" is decidedly in
favour of identifying the Seres with the people of Chi-
na {Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the R. E. , c. 40), and
hi* extensive and accurate learning is sufficiently well
known. But the most conclusive authority on the
subject is to be found in the pages of one of the first
Oriental scholars of the present day. (Klaproth, Ta-
bleaux Historiqucs de VAsie, depuis la monarchic de
Cyrus jusqu'a nos jours. , p. 58. ) "II n'y a plus de
doute," observes this writer, " que les Seres des an-
ciens ne soient les Chinois. D'apres les autcurs Grccs,
lo mot orjp desigue et le ver a soie et les habitants de
la Sirique ou les Sires; or, ce fait demontrc, que le
nom de ces derniers leur venait de la marchandise
precicusc que les peuples de l'Occident allaient cher-
chcr chez eux. En Armenien, l'insecto qui produit
la soie s'appelle chiram, nom qui ressemble assez au
o*i? p des Grccs. II est naturel de croire que ces deux
mots avaient ete empruntes a des peuples plus Orien-
taux. C'cst ce que les Ungues Mogole ct Mandchoue
aous donnent la facility de demontrcr. II en resultera
que le nom de la soie, chez les anciens, eft veritable-
inent originaire de la partie Orientate de l'Asie. I . a
<<ie s'appelle sirkek chez les Mcgols, et sirghe chez
es Mandchoux. Ces deux nations habitaient au nord
f t au nord-est de la Chine. Est-il presumable qu'elles
eussent rcc;u ces denominations des peuples Occiden-
laux? D'un aufre cdte, le mot Chinois sse ou sxu,
qui designe la Boie, monlre de la ressemblance avec
sirgh't ou sirkek, et avec le or/p des Urecs. Cctte
analogic frappcra d'autant plus quand on saura que,
dans la langue mandarine, le r ne se prononce pas,
tandis que cette finale se trouvait vraisemblablement
dans les anciens dialects de la Chine. Mais le mot co-
r? en str, qui designe la soie, est tout a fait idemique
avec le arip des Grecs, qui devait se prononcer aussi
sir. La soie a done donne son nom au peuple qui la
fabriquait et qui l'envoyait dans l'Occident, et lea Seres
sonl evidemment les Chinois, quoi qu'en puissent dire
les geographes, qui ne savent employer que le compas
pour chercher l'cmplacenient des nations. " Previous
to the appearance of the work from which the above
extract is made, its author had already published a
conjecture on the name of the Seres in one of the pe-
riodicals of the day. It is to this last that M Abel-
Remusat, another distinguished Orientalist, alludes in
? ? the following remarks (Melanges Asialiqucs, vol. 1,
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? SERES.
SERES.
rot) jetweeti tbe Bat lames and Roxolani, and, conse-
quently, on the two banks of the Borysthenes. The
Armenian historians make mention of them under the
lame of Hounk, and assign them, for their place of
residence, the country to the north of Caucasus, be-
tween the V dlga and the Don. For this same reason
they call the pass of Derbend the rampart of the Huns.
In the geography which is incorrectly ascribed to Mo-
ses of Khorene, the following passage also occurs:
"The Massagetas inhabit as far as the Caspian, where
is the branch of Mount Caucasus which contains the
rampart of Tarpant (Derbend), and a wonderful lower
built in the sea: to the north are the Huns, with their
city of Varhatchan, and others besides. " Moses of
Khorene, in his Armenian history, makes mention of
the wars which King Tiridates the Great, who reigned
from A. D. 259 to A. D. 312, waged against the north-
ern nations who had made an irruption into Armenia.
This monarch attacked them in the plains of tbe Kar-
keriens, in northern Albania, between Derbend and Te-
rek, defeated them, slow their prince, and pursued them
into the country of the Hounk or Huns. It were use-
less, however, to multiply authorities. (Compare
Klaproth, p. 235. ) Sufficient has been said to prove
that, in all probability, the original seats of the Huns
were in the vicinity of the Caspian. That they were
not of tbe Mongol or Calmuck race, is apparent of it-
self, if any reliance is to be placed upon the descrip-
tions that are given of their personal deformity by the
ancient writers. Scarcely a single feature of ihe well-
known Tartar physiognomy enters into these accounts
of them. They were probably Ihe same with the eastern
division of the Fins (Klaproth, p. 246), and hence the
theory which makes them to have dispossessed of their
primitive seals the ancient nations of the Seres, errs
in placing the original settlements of the Huns too far
altogether to the east. --We will now proceed to the
more immediate subject of inquiry, the knowledge
wnich the Greeks and Romans possessed in relation
to tbe silk manufacture of antiquity. The first writer
who gives Bny direct information on this head is Aris-
totle (Hist. Animal. , 5, 19). The surprising accuracy
of his account, considering his imperfect sources of in-
telligence, may well demand our attention. The pas-
sags is as follows: 'E/t it tivoc okM^koc fteyaXov,
<Sf Ixti olov Kipara ko< iiatyipet tuv i. XXuv, yivcrai
6i irpC'Tov /lev, fitrafaO. ovTos row OKuXnuoc, ku/itzv,
faeira po/tiiXwf, ex ie tovtov vexviaXoe. - iv If il
ur/ai nrraZuXhei ravrac rdc yuop^ac iruaaf in ie tov-
rov tov ? wov xai ru HopCvxia avaXvovai tuv ywat-
xuv nrcc uvaKT/vt^ofievat K&Treira vcpaivovat. tlpurtj
il Xtyerai i<j>uvai iv Ku Uaii$i? ,ri Aaruov dvyarr/p.
Athen. TMs refers to this passage in the following terms:
'loropci ['ApiororAjfcj bri koX ix 77c tuv fdeipuv
bxtlaf al xoviier; yewuvrai, xai Jn ix tov okuXvkoc;
fieraoViAXovrof yivtrai xufiirv, i? ' r/f Ho/i6v? . ibf, a<j>' oi
veKvia)j>{ 6vo/ia^6uevoc. -- Dr. Vincent unites these
two passages together, making the one supply what is
defective in the other, and gives the following transla-
tion of them : "There is a worm which issues from [an
egg as small as] the nit of lice: it is of a large size,
and has [protuberances, bearing the resemblance of]
horns, [in which respect] it diners from other worms.
The first change which it undergoes is by the conver-
sion of the worm into a caterpillar; it then becomes a
grub or chrysalis, and at length a moth. The whole
of this transformation is completed in six months.
? ? There are women who wind off a thread from this an-
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? SERES
8ERES.
tnerales two distinct races, the eastern and western
/Ethiopians. It is easy to perceive, from his descrip-
tion of the former, and their "long, straight hair,"
that none other are meant than the people of India.
if this deduction be correct, the Seres of Virgil will,
>>f course, be the people of China. As to their comb-
ing fleeces from the leave* of trees, the allusion is
manifestly to silk, which many of the ancients be-
lieved to be a sort of down gathered from the leaves
>>f trees. Thus Piiny (Ptin. , 6, 17), in a subsequent
age, remarks, "I'nmi aunt hominum qui noscantur
Seres, lanicio sylzarum nobilcs, perfusam aqua depec-
tentes frondium camciem. "--The moment silk be-
came known among the western nations, it was ea-
gerly purchased as an article of luxury, and began to
form a conspicuous part of Greek and Roman attire.
At that period of growing corruption, it was no won-
der that such an invention should be hailed with trans-
port, which, while it supplied the person with a cov-
ering, still, like our gauze, exposed every limb to the
eye of the beholder in almost perfect nudity. The
Emperor Hcliogabalus, it is true, in a later age, was
Ihe first who disgraced himself by appearing in a dress
wholly of silk ; yet Seric and Coan vestments are fre-
quently mentioned by the Roman writers either con-
temporary with, or not long subsequent to, the time
of Virgil. (Tibullus, 2, 4, 29 --1,1. , 2, 6. 35-- Pro-
pert. , 1, 4, 22. --Id. , 4, 8, 23-- Ovid, Am. , 1, 4, 16. )
About the period of which we are speaking, it would
appear that Seric vestments found their way to Rome
also from foreign nations. Florus (Florus, 4, 12, 16)
states, that in the reign of Augustus, an embassy
from the Seres came to Rome, with presents of pre-
cious stones, elephants, and other gifts. Among
these last, Seric vestments, or else raw silk, were no
doubt included. If we glance at the Greek writers
who flourished about this period, we shall be surprised
to find Strabo passing over, in almost total silence,
both the nation of the Seres as well as their singular
manufacture, the more especially as his contemporary,
Dionysius Periegetes, makes such full mention of it.
Thus we find Dionysius describing the Seres as a na-
tion of the farthest East, who paid no attention to cat-
tle or sheep, but occupied themselves in combing the
variegated flome'rs produced from their otherwise neg-
lected land, and in making vestments of an ingenious
and costly kind, resembling in hue the meadow-flow-
ers, and with which even spiders' techs could not com-
pare as to the fineness of texture. (Dionysii Perie-
gesis, v. 752, et seqq. ) Eustathius, archbishop of
Thessalonica, who flourished about 1160 A. D. , and
wrote a learned commentary on the work whence this
extract is taken, gives a very curious account of the
Seres, which would tend still more strongly to con-
firm the belief that they were identical with the Chi-
nese. He describes them (Eustath. , in Dionys. Pe-
rieg. , p. 239, ed. Oxon. ) as an unsocial nation, refu-
sing all intercourse with strangers (uirpoopiyeic av-
dfw-oi Kni (ivnui? . rjToi). They marked the price on
the articles which they wished to sell, and, having,
left them in a particular place, retired. The traders
then came, and placed by the side of the goods the
amount demanded, or else so much as they were will-
ing to give. Upon this they withdrew in their turn,
and the Seres coming back, either took what was of-
fered, or carried away the goods again. We have here
the same cautious system of commercial dealing which
? ? characterizes the Chinese of our own days, only in a
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quilldatc, '? On Serenity of Mind. " This work, writ-
ten soon after the return of Seneca to Home, has not
the usual form of his productions. It is preceded by
a letter of Annasus Serenus, in which that friend
depicts lo Seneca the disquietude, and disgust of life,
which torment him, and requests his advice. Seneca
replies, and shows the mode in which this mental mal-
ady may be combated. -- 7. De Constantia sapien-
tis, rive quod in savienlem non cadit injuria, "Of
tbe firmness of the sage, or proof that the wise man
can suffer no injury. " This work is based on the
principles and paradoxes of the porch. It is addressed
to Annasus Serenus. --8. De dementia, "On Clem-
uncy. " Addressed to Nero. It was in three books,
and was composed during the second year of the
prince's reign. The subject is rather the mild ad-
ministration of government. A great part of the sec-
ond, and the third book, are lost. --The diction in this
work is simpler and nobler tban in the other works of
Seneca. --9. De Brevilale vita, "On the shortness
of life. " Addressed to Paulir. us, the father, or else
the brother of Seneca's second wife, and who filled
the station of Prafeclus Annona. Seneca recom-
mends him to renounce his public employments in a
spirit directly contrary lo that in which he urges Se-
renus to engage in public affairs. These contradic-
tions sometimes occur in the works of Seneca. --10.
De Vita Beata, "On a Happy Life. " Addressed
to Gallio, the brother of Seneca. --11. De Olio aut
seeessu sapicntis, "On the Leisure or Retirement
of the Sage. " The first twenty-seven chapters are
wanting. Some critics believe that it formed part of
the preceding. --12. De Bencficiis, "On Benefits. "
In seven'books. Seneca treats, in this fine work, of
the manner of conferring benefits, and the duty of
him who receives them, and collaterally of gratitude
and ingratitude. It was written at tbe close of Sene-
ca's life, when he had retired from the court of Nero
to the solitude of his villa. --13. One hundred and
twenty-four letters, addressed to Lucilius Junior.
Though Seneca has given to these pieces an episto-
lary form, they are rather moral treatises on various
subjects. We find in them many excellent maxims,
and a real treasure of practical philosophy. They
were written during the later years of Seneca, after
kia retirement from court. --14. 'AkokoXokvvduoir,
? ? "The Metamorphosis into, a Gourd. " A Varronian
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? SE R
SER
aged Rome. They afterward settled in Umbria, on
the cnast of the Adriatic. After some years of con-
flict with the Romans they were expelled, or rather
exterminated, A. U. C. 471. (Polyb. , 2, 19. ) Livy,
however, makes the date of this event some years ear-
lier. (Lit. , Epit. , 11. )--II. A people of Germany.
(Vid. Semnoncs. )
SeptimTus I. or Titus Septimius, a Roman knight,
intimate with Horace, and to whom the latter address-
ed one of his Odes (2, 6). He appears, from the
words of Horace on another occasion (Epist. , 1, 3, 9,
teqq. ), to have been a votary of the Muses; and, ac-
cording to one of the scholiasts, he composed lyric
pieces and tragedies. None of his productions have
reached us. --II. Aulus Septimius Severus, a Roman
poet, who flourished under Vespasian. He was high-
ly esteemed for his lyric talents, but none of his pieces
have reached us. One of his poems was entitled
Opuscula Ruralia or Opuscula Ruris, consisting of
several books; another was called Falisca, in which
he sang the praises of his villa among the Falisci.
Tho metre of this poem was peculiar in its kind, each
line being composed of three dactyls and a pyrrhic.
Wcrnsdorff ascribes to him the Moretum, a poem
commonly assigned to Virgil. (Burmann, ad Anthol.
tat, lib. 1, ep. 27. --Wernsdorff, Poet. Lat. Min. ,
vol. 2, p. 247, seqq. )--HI. Q. Septimius, the transla-
tor of the work of Dictys Cretensis into Latin, and
who lived in the time of the Emperor Diocleaian.
[Vid. Dictys I. )
Sequana (called by Ptolemy Ecitovavea), a river of
Gallia Transalpina, rising in the territory of the ATAm,
and flowing by Lutetia or Paris into the Atlantic. It
is now the Seine. (0>>? B. &. , 1, I. --Id. ib , 8, 87. )
Sequani, a people of Gallia Transalpina, whose ter-
ritory lay to the east of that of the jEdui and Lingones,
and was separated from them by the Arar; while it
was parted from that of the Helvetii by the range of
Mount Jura. Their country answers to the modern
Department du Doubt el du Jura, (Cat. , B. G. , 1,
B. --Id. ib. , 6, 12, &c. )
Skrapeum or Skrapion, I. a name given to the
temples of Serapis in Egypt, of which there were a
great number. (Crcuzer, Dionysus, p. 181. )--II. A
telebrated temple of Serapis in Alexandrea, and one
}f the two tempies in which the famous library was
Jeposited. (Vii. Serapis, and Alexandrea. )--III.
Another temple of Serapis in Egypt, situate to the
south of Heroopolis. A settlement grew up around it;
and the place was also famous for being the middle
point in the road from north to south. (Mannert,
Geogr. , vol. 10, pt. 1, p. 486. )--IV. A temple of Se-
rapis at Rome, on the Capitoline Hill, erected by Car-
acalla. (Vid. Serapis. )
Skrapion. Vid. Serapeum.
Skrapion, I. a physician of Alexandrea, the suc-
cessor of Philinus, in what was called the Empiric
school (i. e. , the school of observation and experience. )
In consequence of the great extension which he gave
10 this system, he is regarded by some as its inventor.
(Celt. , Prof. , p. 3. ) Mead believes that he was a
disciple of Erasistratus, from his having found the
name of Serapion on a medal discovered at Smyrna;
But this opinion is untenable. (Sjrengel, Hut. de la
Med. , vol. 1, p. 483, teqq )-- II. An epigrammatic
poet, a native of Alexandrea, who lived in the time of
Trajan. One of his epigrams is preserved in the An-
? ? thology. (Jaeobt, Catal. Poet. Epig. , t. >>. )--III. An
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? SERES.
SERES.
aior). has ventured, however, in opposition to an opin-
ion so positively expressed, to consider Serica, or the
couatry of the Seres, as including merely the western
parts of Thibet, Serinagur, Cashmere, Little Thibet,
and perhaps a small portion of Little Buckharia. On
the other hand, an English writer, Mr. Murray, in a pa-
per inserted in the Transactions of the Royal Society
of Edinburgh (vol. 8, p. 171), maintains, in accordance
with Vossius, the perfect identity of the Seres with
the natives of China. This latter production we have
never bad the opportunity of perusing. It is said,
however, to be extremely interesting and satisfactory,
and to be based in part upon the narrative of Ptolemy
the geographer, and in part upon various discoveries
made by modern travellers in the mountainous regions
of Asia which lie immediately north of India. This
subject has likewise been discussed in some of the
numbers of the Classical Journal (vol. 1, p. 63; 3, p.
895; 6, p. 204; 7, p. 33). --As Ptolemy is our chief
authority in settling this long-agitated question, his
statement is entitled to the first notice, although he is
? ar from being the earliest writer who makes mention
of the Seres. According to this geographer (Pro/. ,
Geogr. , rd. Erasm. , p. 25, scqq. ), it appears that the
agents of a Macedonian merchant, on their way from
Hierapolis to Sera, crossed the rivers Euphrates and
Tigris, entered Assyria, and advanced to Ecbatana,
the capital of Media; then passing through the Pylaj
Caspian, and the chief cities of Parthia, Hyrcania, and
Margiana, on the north of Persia, they arrived at Bac-
tra; thence they proceeded to the mountainous coun-
try of the Comedos, and reached a place in Scythia
called AtBivoc iripyoc, the Stone- Castle or Tower of
Stone; from this spot to Sera, the capital of Serica,
they were travelling during the space of seven months.
What is meant by the Stone-Castle seems never to
have been satisfactorily explained until very recently.
Pr. Hager, in his Numismaiical History of the Chinese
(Description ies Medatlles Chinoises du Cabinet Im-
perial de France, precedi d'un Essai du Numisma-
ti/ue Chinoise: par J. Hager. --Compare Class. Jour. ,
vol. 1, p. 54), considers the Stone-Castle to have been
the samo with the Tashkand of modern times, and the
principal city of eastern Turkislan. This, indeed, he
demonstrates, not only from geographical coincidences,
but from the obvious etymology of its Tartar name;
Task signifying " a stone," and kand " a castle," " tow-
er," or " fortress. " And in this etymology he is con-
firmed by parallel instances given by Du Halde, in his
description of China, by the Oriental geography of
Ebn Iiaukal, and other works. The route of the car-
avans, after leaving the Stone-Castle and proceeding
farther to the east, is involved in difficulty and obscu-
rity. Ptolemy's only source of information respecting
this part of their journey seems to have been the ver-
bal statements of the traders themselves.
Tbcy in-
formed him that the time occupied by this part of the
undertaking was seven mouths, and that the direction
along which they proceeded inclined from east a little
to the south. Marinus, the geographer, as quoted by
Ptolemy, computes these seven months' travel at
36. 200 stadia; Ptolemy, however, taking into con-
sideration the slow progress which the caravans must
necessarily make in passing over mountains more or
(ess covered with snow, and in stopping at various
places on the route, diminishes this distance by one
half, and makes the space traversed during these seven
? ? months to have been about 18,100 stadia,or 1709geo-
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? SERE3
SERES.
tmtel) than Ptolemy has done; for tha. trie B*~Ji>us
and Hoang-ho are one and the same river hardly ad-
mits of a doubt. Its northern arm, the Olan-Muzen,
rises in the country of the Chochotes, or Calmucka of
Hoho-Nor, among the mountains which bound the
desert of Cobi, and to the northeast of it rises the El-
zinc, which must therefore be one of the sources of
the CEchardes. The Hoang-ho takes its course to-
ward* the southeast, in order to unite with its south-
em arm, the Hara-Muzen, which rises in the southern
ehair, of mountains between China and Thibet, and
directs its course to the northeast. After this, the
united streams take a high northerly direction, cross-
ing the great wall, and then, bending to the south,
pass once more the great wall, and re-enter China
proper. Of the northern part of their course Ptole-
my makes no mention, for a very natural reason^ be-
cause it passes far beyond the ancient caravan routes.
They make their appearance again near the site of the
ancient capital of Seiica, where Ptolemy again men-
tions them, and where he places the third tributary,
probably the Hori-ho. From all that has been said, it
follows, as an irresistible consequence, that the Serica
of antiquity comprehends the eastern portion of the
country of the Chochotcs, the Chinese province of
Skin-si and also Mogul Tartary from the northern con-
fines of China as far as the southern limits of Siberia.
(Mannert, uii supra. )--D'Anville, it is true, gives in
his map of the ancient world a somewhat different view
of this quarter. But D'Anville erred in placing too
much reliance on the false representations given by
Mercator to the rivers of Serica, in his maps illustrating
the geography of Ptolemy. Still, the authority of the
French geographer is valuable as far as it goes, since he
so far makes Serica a portion of China as to consider
Sera, its metropolis, identical with Kanlcheon in the
modem province of Shcft-si. (D'Anville, Giogr. Anc.
tlreg,vol. 2, p. 326. --Id. , Rccherches Gtogr. ct His-
lorujues sur la Serique des A neiens. -- Mcmoires de
PAcademic des Inscriptions, vol. 32, p. 573, ct scqq )
Tn pointing out the land of Serica, Ptolemy (Ptolcm. ,
Scogr. -- Compare Mannert, vol. 4, p. 606) makes
jiention also of two other caravan routes, a northern
and a southern one. The former of these commenced
nt the city of Tanais. situate at the mouth of the river
of the same name (the modern Don), and ran onward
to the farthest east. It was by means of this route
that Ptolemy obtained his information respecting what
are now the Volga and Jeik, of which nothing was
known before his time by the Greeks. He learned also
the existence of the mountainous chains along the south-
ern confines of Siberia, and was enabled to give a tol-
erably correct account of their situation anc1. direction.
He even pushed his inquiries as far as the Issedones,
the most remote people to the east. All this informa-
tion he obtained from the traders. No Greek seems
ever to have undertaken this long and perilous journey.
Unacquainted with the manners and language of the
various predatory tribes which roamed along this vast
tract of country, the attempt would have exposed
themselves to certain destruction, and their merchan-
dise to the cupidity of the savage Nomades. The
traders, therefore, of whom mention has just been
made, must have belonged to some one of the native
tribes in this quarter, perhaps to the same Kirgish Tar-
tars who at the present day carry on the Russia inland
traffic with the countries to the south. In this way,
? ? and in this alone, can we satisfactorily account for the
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? SERES.
stem to have bad some acquaintance long before the
lime of Ptolemy. In the earlier fables and traditions
of the West, mention is made of a people named Alia-
tori, dwelling in a valley which was always warmed
by the genial rays of the sun, and protected by encir-
cling mountains from the rude blasts of the north, a
people closely assimilated in the peculiarities of their
situation to the fabled Hyperboreans. (Compare Plin. ,
6,17, who quotes an earlier author, A moments. )--Af-
ter leaving the Ottorokorne, the route led by Solona, in
a northeast direction, to the city of Sera. --Kosmas
Indicopleustes (Kosmas Indicopl. , Montfauc, iV. Coll.
Pair. , 2, 137, ? >. , et seqq. ) states, that the Brahmins
informed him, that if a line were drawn from the coun-
try of the Sinai (TJa. rJo) through Persia into the Ro-
man world, so as to strike Byzantium, it would divide
the earth into two equal parts. From this account
also, loose as it is, we may obtain very satisfactory
data for the position of Serica, which in the days of
Kosmas was confounded with the land of the Sina? ,
both of them being known merely as the country of
silk. --Among modern writers, the author of the " De-
cline and Fall of the Roman Empire" is decidedly in
favour of identifying the Seres with the people of Chi-
na {Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the R. E. , c. 40), and
hi* extensive and accurate learning is sufficiently well
known. But the most conclusive authority on the
subject is to be found in the pages of one of the first
Oriental scholars of the present day. (Klaproth, Ta-
bleaux Historiqucs de VAsie, depuis la monarchic de
Cyrus jusqu'a nos jours. , p. 58. ) "II n'y a plus de
doute," observes this writer, " que les Seres des an-
ciens ne soient les Chinois. D'apres les autcurs Grccs,
lo mot orjp desigue et le ver a soie et les habitants de
la Sirique ou les Sires; or, ce fait demontrc, que le
nom de ces derniers leur venait de la marchandise
precicusc que les peuples de l'Occident allaient cher-
chcr chez eux. En Armenien, l'insecto qui produit
la soie s'appelle chiram, nom qui ressemble assez au
o*i? p des Grccs. II est naturel de croire que ces deux
mots avaient ete empruntes a des peuples plus Orien-
taux. C'cst ce que les Ungues Mogole ct Mandchoue
aous donnent la facility de demontrcr. II en resultera
que le nom de la soie, chez les anciens, eft veritable-
inent originaire de la partie Orientate de l'Asie. I . a
<<ie s'appelle sirkek chez les Mcgols, et sirghe chez
es Mandchoux. Ces deux nations habitaient au nord
f t au nord-est de la Chine. Est-il presumable qu'elles
eussent rcc;u ces denominations des peuples Occiden-
laux? D'un aufre cdte, le mot Chinois sse ou sxu,
qui designe la Boie, monlre de la ressemblance avec
sirgh't ou sirkek, et avec le or/p des Urecs. Cctte
analogic frappcra d'autant plus quand on saura que,
dans la langue mandarine, le r ne se prononce pas,
tandis que cette finale se trouvait vraisemblablement
dans les anciens dialects de la Chine. Mais le mot co-
r? en str, qui designe la soie, est tout a fait idemique
avec le arip des Grecs, qui devait se prononcer aussi
sir. La soie a done donne son nom au peuple qui la
fabriquait et qui l'envoyait dans l'Occident, et lea Seres
sonl evidemment les Chinois, quoi qu'en puissent dire
les geographes, qui ne savent employer que le compas
pour chercher l'cmplacenient des nations. " Previous
to the appearance of the work from which the above
extract is made, its author had already published a
conjecture on the name of the Seres in one of the pe-
riodicals of the day. It is to this last that M Abel-
Remusat, another distinguished Orientalist, alludes in
? ? the following remarks (Melanges Asialiqucs, vol. 1,
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? SERES.
SERES.
rot) jetweeti tbe Bat lames and Roxolani, and, conse-
quently, on the two banks of the Borysthenes. The
Armenian historians make mention of them under the
lame of Hounk, and assign them, for their place of
residence, the country to the north of Caucasus, be-
tween the V dlga and the Don. For this same reason
they call the pass of Derbend the rampart of the Huns.
In the geography which is incorrectly ascribed to Mo-
ses of Khorene, the following passage also occurs:
"The Massagetas inhabit as far as the Caspian, where
is the branch of Mount Caucasus which contains the
rampart of Tarpant (Derbend), and a wonderful lower
built in the sea: to the north are the Huns, with their
city of Varhatchan, and others besides. " Moses of
Khorene, in his Armenian history, makes mention of
the wars which King Tiridates the Great, who reigned
from A. D. 259 to A. D. 312, waged against the north-
ern nations who had made an irruption into Armenia.
This monarch attacked them in the plains of tbe Kar-
keriens, in northern Albania, between Derbend and Te-
rek, defeated them, slow their prince, and pursued them
into the country of the Hounk or Huns. It were use-
less, however, to multiply authorities. (Compare
Klaproth, p. 235. ) Sufficient has been said to prove
that, in all probability, the original seats of the Huns
were in the vicinity of the Caspian. That they were
not of tbe Mongol or Calmuck race, is apparent of it-
self, if any reliance is to be placed upon the descrip-
tions that are given of their personal deformity by the
ancient writers. Scarcely a single feature of ihe well-
known Tartar physiognomy enters into these accounts
of them. They were probably Ihe same with the eastern
division of the Fins (Klaproth, p. 246), and hence the
theory which makes them to have dispossessed of their
primitive seals the ancient nations of the Seres, errs
in placing the original settlements of the Huns too far
altogether to the east. --We will now proceed to the
more immediate subject of inquiry, the knowledge
wnich the Greeks and Romans possessed in relation
to tbe silk manufacture of antiquity. The first writer
who gives Bny direct information on this head is Aris-
totle (Hist. Animal. , 5, 19). The surprising accuracy
of his account, considering his imperfect sources of in-
telligence, may well demand our attention. The pas-
sags is as follows: 'E/t it tivoc okM^koc fteyaXov,
<Sf Ixti olov Kipara ko< iiatyipet tuv i. XXuv, yivcrai
6i irpC'Tov /lev, fitrafaO. ovTos row OKuXnuoc, ku/itzv,
faeira po/tiiXwf, ex ie tovtov vexviaXoe. - iv If il
ur/ai nrraZuXhei ravrac rdc yuop^ac iruaaf in ie tov-
rov tov ? wov xai ru HopCvxia avaXvovai tuv ywat-
xuv nrcc uvaKT/vt^ofievat K&Treira vcpaivovat. tlpurtj
il Xtyerai i<j>uvai iv Ku Uaii$i? ,ri Aaruov dvyarr/p.
Athen. TMs refers to this passage in the following terms:
'loropci ['ApiororAjfcj bri koX ix 77c tuv fdeipuv
bxtlaf al xoviier; yewuvrai, xai Jn ix tov okuXvkoc;
fieraoViAXovrof yivtrai xufiirv, i? ' r/f Ho/i6v? . ibf, a<j>' oi
veKvia)j>{ 6vo/ia^6uevoc. -- Dr. Vincent unites these
two passages together, making the one supply what is
defective in the other, and gives the following transla-
tion of them : "There is a worm which issues from [an
egg as small as] the nit of lice: it is of a large size,
and has [protuberances, bearing the resemblance of]
horns, [in which respect] it diners from other worms.
The first change which it undergoes is by the conver-
sion of the worm into a caterpillar; it then becomes a
grub or chrysalis, and at length a moth. The whole
of this transformation is completed in six months.
? ? There are women who wind off a thread from this an-
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? SERES
8ERES.
tnerales two distinct races, the eastern and western
/Ethiopians. It is easy to perceive, from his descrip-
tion of the former, and their "long, straight hair,"
that none other are meant than the people of India.
if this deduction be correct, the Seres of Virgil will,
>>f course, be the people of China. As to their comb-
ing fleeces from the leave* of trees, the allusion is
manifestly to silk, which many of the ancients be-
lieved to be a sort of down gathered from the leaves
>>f trees. Thus Piiny (Ptin. , 6, 17), in a subsequent
age, remarks, "I'nmi aunt hominum qui noscantur
Seres, lanicio sylzarum nobilcs, perfusam aqua depec-
tentes frondium camciem. "--The moment silk be-
came known among the western nations, it was ea-
gerly purchased as an article of luxury, and began to
form a conspicuous part of Greek and Roman attire.
At that period of growing corruption, it was no won-
der that such an invention should be hailed with trans-
port, which, while it supplied the person with a cov-
ering, still, like our gauze, exposed every limb to the
eye of the beholder in almost perfect nudity. The
Emperor Hcliogabalus, it is true, in a later age, was
Ihe first who disgraced himself by appearing in a dress
wholly of silk ; yet Seric and Coan vestments are fre-
quently mentioned by the Roman writers either con-
temporary with, or not long subsequent to, the time
of Virgil. (Tibullus, 2, 4, 29 --1,1. , 2, 6. 35-- Pro-
pert. , 1, 4, 22. --Id. , 4, 8, 23-- Ovid, Am. , 1, 4, 16. )
About the period of which we are speaking, it would
appear that Seric vestments found their way to Rome
also from foreign nations. Florus (Florus, 4, 12, 16)
states, that in the reign of Augustus, an embassy
from the Seres came to Rome, with presents of pre-
cious stones, elephants, and other gifts. Among
these last, Seric vestments, or else raw silk, were no
doubt included. If we glance at the Greek writers
who flourished about this period, we shall be surprised
to find Strabo passing over, in almost total silence,
both the nation of the Seres as well as their singular
manufacture, the more especially as his contemporary,
Dionysius Periegetes, makes such full mention of it.
Thus we find Dionysius describing the Seres as a na-
tion of the farthest East, who paid no attention to cat-
tle or sheep, but occupied themselves in combing the
variegated flome'rs produced from their otherwise neg-
lected land, and in making vestments of an ingenious
and costly kind, resembling in hue the meadow-flow-
ers, and with which even spiders' techs could not com-
pare as to the fineness of texture. (Dionysii Perie-
gesis, v. 752, et seqq. ) Eustathius, archbishop of
Thessalonica, who flourished about 1160 A. D. , and
wrote a learned commentary on the work whence this
extract is taken, gives a very curious account of the
Seres, which would tend still more strongly to con-
firm the belief that they were identical with the Chi-
nese. He describes them (Eustath. , in Dionys. Pe-
rieg. , p. 239, ed. Oxon. ) as an unsocial nation, refu-
sing all intercourse with strangers (uirpoopiyeic av-
dfw-oi Kni (ivnui? . rjToi). They marked the price on
the articles which they wished to sell, and, having,
left them in a particular place, retired. The traders
then came, and placed by the side of the goods the
amount demanded, or else so much as they were will-
ing to give. Upon this they withdrew in their turn,
and the Seres coming back, either took what was of-
fered, or carried away the goods again. We have here
the same cautious system of commercial dealing which
? ? characterizes the Chinese of our own days, only in a
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