287); but no
Greek writer gives us any information concerning them
till the time of Herodotus.
Greek writer gives us any information concerning them
till the time of Herodotus.
Charles - 1867 - Classical Dictionary
, 593), that prince
risited Ilium, and, after offering a sacrifice to Minerva
in the citadel, deposited his arms there, and received
ethers, said to have been preserved in the temple from
the time of the siege of Troy. He farther granted
several rights and privileges to the Ilienses, and prom-
ised to erect a more splendid edifice, and to institute
games in honour of Minerva; but his death prevented
the execution of these designs. (Arrian, I. c. --Strab. ,
1. c. ) Lysimachus, however, to whose share Troas
fell on the division of Alexander's empire, undertook
to execute what had been planned by the deceased
monarch. He enclosed the city within a wall, which
was forty stadia in circumference; he also increased
the population by removing thither the inhabitants of
several neighbouring towns. (Strabo, 593. ) At a
subsequent period Ilium farther experienced the favour
and protection of the kings of Pergamus; and the
Romans, on achieving the conquest of Asia Minor,
sought to extend their popularity, by securing the in-
dependence of a city from which they pretended to de-
rive their origin, and added to its territory the towns
of Rhoeteum and Gergitha. (Lhy, 37, 37. --Id. , 38,
29. ) And yet it would appear, that at that time Ilium
was far from being a flourishing city, since Demetrius
of Scepsis, win visited it about the same period, af-
firmed that it was in a ruinous state, many of the
bouses having fallen into decay for want of tiling (an
Strab. , I. c). During the civil wars between aylla
and Cinna, Ilium was besieged and taken by assault
? ? by Fimbria, a partisan of the latter. This general
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? ILLYRICUM
IMA
tc the r. jmcrous tribes which were ancient. ; ,n pos-
session of the countries situated to the west of Mace-
donia, and which extended along the coast of the Adri-
atic from the confines of Italy and Islria to the borders
of Epirus. Still farther north, and more inland, we
rVnl them occupying the great valleys of the Saavc
and Drave, w. vch were only terminated by the junc-
tion of those streams with the Danube. This large
tract of country, under the Roman emperors, constitu-
led the provinces of Illyricum and Pannonia. --Anti-
quity has thrown but little light on the origin of the
Illynans; nor are we acquainted with the language and
customs of the barbarous hordes of which the great body
of the nation was composed. Their warlike habits,
howevcr. and the peculiar practice of puncturing their
bodies, which is mentioned by Strabo as being also in
use among the Thracians, might lead us to connect
them with that widely-extended people. (Strabo, 315 )
It appears evident, that they were a totally different
race from the Celts, as Strabo carefully distinguishes
them from the Gallic tribes which were incorporated
with them. (Strabo, 313. ) Appian, indeed, seems
to ascribe a common origin to the Illyrians and Celts,
for he slates that Illyrius and Cellus were two broth-
ers, sons of Polyphemus and Galatea, who migrated
from Sicily, and became the progenitors of the two na-
tions which bore their names (Hell. Illyr. , 2); but
this account is evidently too fabulous to be relied on.
It is not unlikely that the Illyrians contributed to the
early population of Italy. The Liburni, who were un-
doubtedly a part of this nation, had formed settlements
on the Italian shore of the Adriatic at a very remote
period. The Veneti, moreover, were, according to
the most probable account, Illyrians. But, though so
widely dispersed, this great nation is but little noticed
in history until the Romans made war upon it, in con-
sequence of some acts of piracy committed on their tra-
ders. Previous to that time, we hear occasionally of the
Illyrians as connected with the affairs of Macedonia;
for instance, in the expedition undertaken by Perdiccas,
in conjunction with Brasidas, against the I. yncestse,
which failed principally from the support afforded to
the latter by a powerful body of Illyrian troops. (Thu-
cyrf, 4, 125. ) They were frequently engaged in hos-
tilities with the princes of Macedonia, to whom their
warlike spirit rendered them formidable neighbours.
This was the case more especially while under the
government of Bardylis, who is known to have been a
powerful and renowned chief, though we are not pos-
itively acquainted with the extent of his dominions,
nor over what tribes he presided. Philip at length
gained a decisive victory over this king, who lost his
life in the action, and thus a check was given to the
rising power of the Illyrians. Alexander was likewise
successful in a war he waged against Clytus, the son
of Bardylis, and Glaucias, king of the Taulantii. The
Illyrians, however, still asserted their independence
against the kings of Macedon, and were not subdued
till they were involved in the common fate of nations
by the victorious arms of the Romans. The conquest
of Illyria led the way to the first interference of Rome
in the affairs of Greece; and Polybius, from that cir-
cumstance, has entered at some length into the ac-
count of the events which then took place. He in-
forms us, that about this period, 520 A. U. C. , the Il-
lyrians on the coast had become formidable from their
maritime power and the extent of their depredations.
? ? They were governed by Agron, son of Pleurastus,
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? IN A
INACHUS.
tne Himalaya Mountains on the north of India has
been appreciated. In 1802, Col. Crawford made some
measurements, which gave a much greater altitude to
these mountains than had ever before been suspected;
and Col. Colebrook, from the plains of Rhohilcund,
made a series of observations which gave a height of
22,000 feet. Lieut. Webb, in his journey to the source
of the Ganges, executed measurements on the peak
of Iamunavatari, which gave upward of 25,000 feet.
The same officer, in a subsequent journey, confirmed
his former observations. This conclusion was object-
ed to, on account of a difference of opinion respecting
the allowance . which ought to be made, for the deviation
of the light from a straight direction, on which all con-
clusions drawn from the meaaurement of angles must
depend. In a subsequent journey, however, this same
officer confirmed his conclusions by additional measure-
ments, and by observing the fall of the mercury in the
barometer at those heights which he himself visited. It
was found by these last observations that the line of
oerpetual snow does not begin till at least 17,000 feet
above the level of the sea, and that the banks of the
Sctledge, at an elevation of nearly 15,000 feet, afford-
ed pasturage for cattle, and yielded excellent crops of
mountain-wheat This mild temperature, however, at
so great a height, is confined to the northern side of
the chain. This probably depends on the greater
height of the whole territory on the northern side, in
consequence of which, the heat which the earth re-
ceives from the solar rays, and which warms the air
immediately superincumbent, is not so much expand-
ed by the time the ascendi'. ig air reaches these greater
elevations, as in that which has ascended from a much
lower country. Mr. Frazer, in a later journey, inferred
that the loftiest peaks of the Himalaya range varied
from 18,000 to 23,000 feet; hut he had no instruments
for measuring altitudes, and no barometer, and he
probably did not make the due allowance for the ex-
traordinary height of the snow-line. The point, how-
ertr, is now at last settled. The Himalaya Mount-
ains far exceed the Andes in elevation; Chimborazo,
the highest of the latter, being only 21,470 feet above
the level of the sea, while Ghosa Cole, in the Dhaw-
alaghiri rangs attains to an elevation of 28,000 feet,
and is the highest known land on the surface of the
ImbracT'-iLs, a patronymic given to Asius, as son
of Imbratv*. (Virg. ,jEn. , 10, 123. )
Imbraiiris, a patronymic given to Glii'. c. is and
I,ades, as sons of Imbrasus. (Virg. , . En. , 12, 343. )
Imbros, an island of the ^Egean, 22 miles east of
Lemnos, according to Pliny (4, 12), and now called
Imbro. Like. Lcmnos, it was at an early period the
seat of the Pelasgi, who worshipped the Cabiri and
Mercury by the name of Imbramus. (Slcph. Byz. ,
s. v. 'l/iipoc. ) Imbros is generally mentioned by Ho-
mer in conjunction with Lcmnos. (Hymn, in Apoll. ,
36. --lb. , 13,32. ) It was first conquered by the Per-
sians (Herod. , 5, 27), and afterward by the Athenians,
who derived from thence excellent darters and targct-
eers. (Thucyd. , 4,28. ) There was a town probably
of the same name with the island, the ruins of which
are to bo seen at a place called Castro. (Cramer's
Anc. Greece, vol. I, p. 342. )
Inachid/K, the name of the first eight successors of
Inachus on the throne of Argos.
Inaohidks, a patronymic of Epaphus, as grandson
<<f Inachus. (Ovid, Met. , 1, 704. )
? ? IkIchis, a patronymic of lo, as daughter of Inachus.
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? INl)
INDIA.
mtdt hy Ephorus (ay. Slrab. , 3S6), and it has led some'
modern geographers and critics, in order to reconcile
these two contradictory accounts, to suppose that there
was a stream which, branching off from the Achelous,
fell into the Ambracian Gulf near Argos. This is
more particularly the hypothesis of D'Anville; but
modern travellers assure us that there is no such river
near the ruins of Argos (Holland's Travels, vol. 2, p.
225); and, in fact, it is impossible that any stream
should there separate from the Achelous, on account
of the Amphilochian Mountains, which divide the val-
ley of that river from the Gulf of Arta. Manncrt con-
siders the small river Kriktli to be the representative
of the Inachus (G<<ogr. , vol. 8, p. 65), but this is a mere
orient, which descends from the mountains above the
gulf, and can have no connexion with Mount Lacmus
or the Achelous. All ancient anthorities agree in de-
riving the Inachus from the chain of Pindus. (Cra-
mer's Anc. Greece, vol. 2, p. 40, seqq. )
InarImf, an island off the coast of Campania, oth-
erwise called /Enaria and Pithecusa. Under an ex-
tinguished volcano, in the middle of this island, Jupiter
was fabled to have confined the giant Typhosus. (Con-
sult remarks under the articles . Enaria and Arima. )
Heyne thinks that some one of the early Latin poets,
j\ translating the Iliad into tin Roman tongue, mis-
understood Homer's civ 'Apifioic, and rendered it by
Inarime or Inarima; and that the fable of Typhosus,
travelling westward, was assigned to . 'Enaria or Pith-
ecusa as a volcanic situation. (Heyne, Exeurs. ad
Virg. , Mn. , 9, 715. )
Inarus, a son of Psammeticus (Thucyd. , 1, 104),
king of that part of Libya which borders upon Egypt.
Sallying forth from Marea, he drew over the greater
part of Egypt to revolt from Artaxerxes, the Persian
emperor, and, becoming himself their ruler, called in
the Athenians to his assistance, who happened to be
engaged in an expedition against Cyprus, with two
hundred ships of their own and their allies. The en-
terprise at first was eminently successful, and the
whole of Egypt fell under the power of the invaders
and their ally. Eventually, however, the Persian
arms triumphed, and Inarus, being taken by treachery,
was crucified. (Thucyd. , 1, 109; 1, 110. ) Herod-
otus and Ctesias say he was crucified, ? m rpial orav-
ooie, which might more properly be termed impale-
ment. Bloomfield (ad Thucyd. , I. c. ) thinks that he
was of the ancient royal family of Egypt, and descend-
ed from the Psammeticus who died B. C. 617. It >>?
not improbable, he adds, that, on Apries being put lo
death by his chief minister Amasis, his son, or some
near relation, established himself among the Libyans
bordering on Egypt, from whom descended this Psam-
meticus.
India, an extensive country of Asia, divided by
Ptolemy and the ancient geographers into India intra
Gangem and India extra Gangem, or India on this
side, and India beyond, the Ganges. The first divis-
ion answers to the modem Hindustan; the latter to
the Birman Empire, and the dominions of Pegu, Siam,
Laos, Cambodia, Cochin China, Tonquin, and Ma-
lacca. --Commerce between India and the western na-
tions of Asia appears to have been carried on from
the earliest historical times. The spicery, which the
company of Ishmaelites mentioned in Genesis (37,25)
were carrying into Egypt, must in all probability have
oeen the produce of India; and in the 30th chapter
? ? of Exodus, where an enumeration is made of various
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? INDIA.
INDIA.
iis rentes respecting the invasion of India by Sesostris ' called Sar. lracoptus by Athenajus (Epit. , I, 33), k
>>nd Semiramis, cannot be estimated as historical facts.
fl\e same remark may perhaps apply to the alliance
which, according to Xenophon, in his Cyroptcdia (6, 2,
1), Cyrus made with a king of Iadia. But, in the
reign of Darius Hystaspis, Herodotus informs us (4,
44), that Scylax of Caryanda wi sent by the Persians
to explore the course of the Indus; that he set out for
the city Caspatyrus, and the Pactyican country [Pa-
ktU? ) in the northern pact of India; that be sailed
down the Indus until be arrived at its mouth, and
thence across the Indian Sea ta the Arabian Gulf, and
that this voyage occupied 30 months. Darius also, it
is said, subdued the Indians and formed them into a
satrapy, the tribute of which amounted to 360 talents
of gold. [Herod. , 3, 94. ) The extent of the Persian
empire in India cannot be ascertained with any degree
of certainty. The Persians appear to have included
under the name of Indians many tribes dwelling to
the west of the Indus; it seems doubtful whether they
ever had any dominion east of the Indus; and it is
nearly certain that their authority did nnt extend be-
yond the Penjab. --The knowledge which the Greeks
possessed respecting India, previous to the time of Al-
exander, was derived from the Persians. We do not
find the name of Indian or Hindu in ancient Sanscrit
works; but the country east of the Indus has been
known under this name by the western nations of
Asia from the earliest times. In the Zend and Pehlvi
languages it is called Hcando, and in the Hebrew
Hoddu (Esther, 1, 1), which is evidently the same as
the Hend of the Persian and Arabic geographers.
The first mention of the Indiana in a Greek author is
in the "Supplices" of . lEschylus (v.
287); but no
Greek writer gives us any information concerning them
till the time of Herodotus. We may collect from the
account of this historian * description of three distinct
tribes of Indians: one dwelling in the north, near the
city Caspotyrus, and the Pactyican country, resem-
bling the bactrians in their customs and mode of life.
The second tribe or tribes evidently did not live uu-
Jer Brahminical laws; some of them dwelt in the
marshes formed by the Indus, and subsisted by fish-
ing; others, called Padsei, with whom we may proba-
bly class the Calantisa or Calatia? , were wild and bar-
barous tribes, such as exist at prisent in the mountains
of the Deeean. The third class, who are described as
subsisting on the spontaneous produce of the earth,
and never killing any living thing, are more likely to
have been genuine Hindus. (Herod. , 3, 98, scqq. )
Herodotus had heard of some of the natural produc-
tions of Hindustan, such as the cotton-plant and the
bamboo; but his knowledge was very limited. --Cte-
sias, who lived at the court of Artaxerxes Mnemon for
many years, has given us a fuller account than Herod-
otus of the manners and customs of the Indians, and
of the natural productions of the country. He had
heard of 'the war-elephants, and describes the parrot,
the monkey, cochineal, <fcc. --The expedition of Alex-
ander into India, B. C. 326. first gave the Greeks a
correct idea of the western parts of this country. Al-
exander did not advance farther east than the Hypha-
sis; but he followed the course of the Indus to the
ocean, and afterward sent Noarchus to explore the
coast of the Indian Ocean as far as the Persian Gulf.
The Penjab was inhabited, at the time of Alexander's
invasion, by many independent nations, tvho were as
? ? distinguished for their courage as their lescendanls
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? INDIA.
INDIA.
imports. According to this account, the two princi-
pal ports in India were Barygaza on the northwestern,
ind Barace or Nelcynda on the southwestern coast.
To Barygaza (the modern Baroach, on the river Ncr-
ludda) goods were brought from Ozene (Oujein),
Plithana (Pultaneh), and Tsgara (Deoghur). But Ba-
race or Nelcyada seems, from the account of Pliny
and A man, '. } iavo oeen the principal emporium of
the Indian trade. The Roman ships appear to have
seldom sailed beyond this point; and the produce of
countries farther east was brought to Barace by the
native merchants. The knowledge which the Romans
possessed of India beyond Cape Comorin was exceed-
ingly vague and defective. Strabo describes the Gau-
ges as flowing into the sea by one mouth; and though
Pliny gives a long list of Indian nations, which had not
been previously mentioned by any Greek or Roman
writers, we have no satisfactory account of any part
of India, except the description of the western coast
by Arrian. Ptolemy, who lived about 100 years later
than Pliny, appears to have derived his information
from the Alexandrean merchants, who only sailed to
the Malabar coast, and could not, therefore, have any
accurate knowledge of the eastern parts of India, and
still less of the countries beyond the Ganges; still,
however, he is the earliest writer who attempts to de-
scribe the countries to the east of this stream. There
is great difficulty in determining the position of any
of the places enumerated by him, in consequence of
the great error he made in the form of the peninsula,
which he has made to stretch in its length from west
to east instead of from north to south; a mistake
the more extraordinary, since all preceding writers
on India with whom we are acquainted had given
the general shape of the peninsula with tolerable accu-
racy. --The Romans never extended their conquests
is far as India, nor visited the country except for
(be purposes of commerce. But the increase of the
trade between Alexandres and India seems to have
produced in tho Indian princes a desire to obtain
? ome farther information concerning the western na-
tions. We read of embassies to Augustus Caesar, sent
6y Pandion and Forus, and also of an embassy from
the isle of Ceylon to the Emperor Claudius. Bohlen,
in his work on the Indians (vol. 1, p. 70), doubts
whether these embassies were sent; but as they arc
both mentioned by contemporary writers, the former
by Strabo and the latter by Pliny, we can hardly
question the truth of their statements. Wc may form
some idea of the magnitude of the Indian trade under
the emperors by the account of Pliny (6, 23), who in-
forms us, that the Roman world was drained every
year of at least 50 millions of sesterces (upward of
1,900,000 dollars) for the purchase of Indian commodi-
ties. The profit upon this trade must have been im-
mense, if we are to believe the statements of Pliny,
that Indian articles were sold at Rome at 100 per
cent, above their cost price. The articles imported
by the Alexandrean merchants were chiefly precious
stones, spices, perfumes, and silk. It has usually been
considered, that the last article was imported into In-
dia from China; but there are strong reasons for be-
lieving that the silkworm has been reared in India
from very early times. Mr. Colebrooke, in his " Essay
03 Hindu Classes" (Miscellaneous Essays, vol. 2, p.
183), informs us, that the class of silk-twisters and
feeders of silkworms is mentioned in an ancient San-
? ? scrit work; in addition to which, it may be remarked,
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? INDIA.
IND
wLictt llicy rmigrated into the northern part of Hindu-
itan. Heeren and other writers have supposed, that
the Brahmins, and perhaps the Kshatriyas and Vaisyas,
were a race of northern conquerors, who subdued the
Sudras, the original inhabitants of the country. But,
whatever opinion may be entertained respecting the
origin of this people, it is evident that tho Hindus
themselves never regarded the southern part of the
peninsula as forming part of Aryavarta, or " the holy
land," the name of the country inhabited by genuine
Hindus. Aryavarta was bounded on the north by the
Himalaya, and on the south by the Vindhya Mount-
ains [Manu, 6, 21-24); the boundaries on the east
and west cannot be so easily ascertained. In this
country, and especially in the eastern part, there ex-
isted great and powerful empires, at least a thousand
years before the Christian era (the probable date of the
Ramayana. and Mahabharata), which had made great
progress in knowledge, civilization, and the fine arts,
and of which the ancient literature of the Sanscrit lan-
guages is an imperishable memorial. According to
Hindu tradition, two empires only existed in the most
ancient times, of which the capitals were Ayodhya or
Oudc, and Pratishthana or Vitora. The kings of
these cities, who are respectively denominated chil-
dren of the Sun and of the Moon, are supposed to
have been the lineal descendants of Satyavrata, the
seventh Manu, during whose life all living creatures,
with the exception of himself and his family, were de-
stroyed by a general deluge. Another kingdom was
afterward established at Magadha or Bahar, by Jaras-
audha, appointed governor of the province by a sover-
eign of the Lunar race. A list of these kings is giv-
en by Sir William Jones, in his " Essay on the Chro-
nology of the Hindus. " (Asiat. Research. , vol. 2, p.
Ill, seq. , 8vo cd. )--The kings of Ayodhya appear to
have conquered the Deccan, and to have introduced
the Brahminical faith and laws into the southern part
of the peninsula. Such, at least, appears to be the
meaning of the Ramayana, according to which, Rama,
in incarnation of Vishnu, and the son of the king of
Ayodhya, penetrates to the extremity of the peninsula,
and conquers the giants of Lauka (Ceylon). This is
in accordance with all the traditions of the peninsula,
which recognise a period when the inhabitants were
not Hindus. We have no means of ascertaining
whether these conquests by tho monarchs of Ayodhya
wero permanent; but we know that, in the time of Ar-
rian and Pliny, the Brahminical faith prevailed in the
southern part of the peninsula, since all the principal
places mentioned by these writers have Sanscrit names.
We learn from tradition, and from historical records
extant in the Tamul language (Wilson's Descriptive
Catalogue of the Oriental MSS. collected by the late
Lieutenant-col. Mackenzie. --Taylor's Oriental His-
torical MSS. in the Tamul language, 2 vols. 4to,
Madras, 1835), that three kingdoms acquired, in early
times, great political importance in the southern part
? f the Deccan. These were named Pandya, Chola,
and Chera, and are all said to have been founded by
aatlves of Ayodhya, who colonized the Deccan with
Hindus from the north. Pandya was the most pow-
erful of these kingdoms: it was bounded on the north
by 'he river Velar, on the west by the Ghauts, though
in early times it extended as far as the Malabar coast,
and on the south and east by the sea. Its principal
town was Madura. The antiquity of this kingdom
? ? is confirmed by Pliny, Arrian, and Ptolemy, who all
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? INT
10
au. >>, besides its more common appellation of Indue.
In . a. 28? 28', the Indus is joined by five rivers, the
anc<int names of which, as given by the Greek writers,
are, the Hydaspes, Acesines, Hydraotes, Hyphasis,
and Xeradrus. These five rivers obtained for the
province which they watered the Greek name of Pen-
upota. Tiia, analogous to which is the modern appella-
tion of Pcndjab, given to the same region, and signi-
fying in Persian "the country of the five rivers. "
(Consul: Lassen, Comment, de Pcntapot. Indica, 4to,
Bonnec, 1827. --Beck, AUgemeines Repertorium, vol.
I, pt. 2, p. 112. ) The Xeradrus, now the Setledge,
is the longest of the five rivers just mentioned, and the
longest stream also within the Himalaya range, be-
tween the Indus and the Burrampootcr. The union
of all the five rivers into one, before they reach the
Indus, was a point in geography maintained by Ptole-
my; but, owing to the obscurity of modern accounts,
promoted by the splittings of the Indus, and the fre-
quent approximation of streams running in parallel
courses, we had been taught to regard this as a speci-
men of that author's deficiency of information, till very
recent and mere nvnute inquiries have re-established
that questioned point, and, along with it, the merited
credit of the ancient geographer. The five rivers form
one great stream, called by the natives in this quarter
the Ckerraub; but in the other countries of India it is
known by the name of Puujund. The united stream
then lows on between 40 and 50 miles, until it joins
the Indus at Miitun Cole. The mouths of the Indus
Ptolemy makes seven in number; Mannert gives them
as follows, commencing on the west: Sagapa, now
the river Pilty; Sinthos, now the Dorravay; Aureum
Ostium, now the Rilchel; Chariphus, now the Felly;
Sapara, Sabala, and Lonibare, of which last three he
professes to know nothing with certainty. According,
however, to other and more recent authorities, the In-
dus enters the sea in one volume, the lateral streams
being absorbed by the sand without reaching the ocean.
It gives off an easterly branch called the Fullalee, but
Ibis returns its waters to the Indus at a lower point,
forming in its circuit the island on which Hyderabad
stands. (Malte-Brun, Geogr. , vol. 3, p. 13, Am. ed. )
Ino, daughter of Cadmus and Harmonia. (Vid.
Attn mas. )
Inopi's. a river of Dclos, watering the plain in which
the town of Oelos stood. (Strab. , tSb. --Callim. , H.
in Del. , 206. )
Inous, a patronymic given to the god Palajmon, as
son of Ino. (Virg. , Mn. , 5, 823. )
Insubrks (in Greek 'loopSpoi), the most numerous
as well as the most powerful tribe of the Cisalpine
Gauls, according to Polybius (2, 17). It would ap-
pear indeed from Ptolemy (p. 64) that their dominion
extended at one time over the Libicii, another power-
ful Gallic tribe in their vicinity; but their territory,
properly speaking, seems to have been defined by the
rivers Ticmus and Addua. The Insubres took a very
active part in the Gallic wars against the Romans, and
zealously co-operated with Hannibal in his invasion of
Italy. (Polyb. , 2, 40. ) They are stated by Livy (5,
34) to have founded their capital Mediolanum (now
Milan) on their first arrival in Italy, and to hare giv-
en it that name from a place so called in the territory
of the JBdui in Gaul. (Plin. , 3, IT. --Plot, p. 63 --
Consult remarks under the article Gallia, page 531,
col. 1. )
? ? Insula Sacra, an island formed at the mouth of
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? 10
ION
Is mignt haie been expected. Hornet never alludes to
It, unless his employment of the term 'Apyet^ovrtjc (Ar-
geiphonlet) is to be regarded as intimating a knowl-
edge of Io. It is also doubtful whether she was one
of the heroines of the Eoese. Her story, however, was
noticed in the JEgimius, where it was said that her fa-
ther's name was Peirtn, that her keeper Argus had
four eyes, and that the island of Eutxva derived its
name from her. (Apollod. , 3, 1, 3. -- Schol. ad Eu-
rip. , Phan. , 1138. -- Steph. Buz. , a. v. 'ktevric. )
Pherecydes said that Juno placed an eye in the back
of Argus's neck, and deprived him of sleep, and then
set him as a guard over Io. (Ap. Schol. ad Eurip. ,
I. c. ) . 'Eschylus introduces Io into his " Prometheus
Bound," and he also relates her story in his " Suppli-
ants. "--When the Greeks first settled in Egypt, and
saw the statues of Isis with cow's horns, they, in their
usual manner, inferred that she was their own Io, with
whose name hers had a slight similarity. At Memphis
they afterward beheld the worahip of the holy bull
Apis, and naturally supposing the bull-god to be the son
of the cow-goddess, they formed from him a son for
their Io, whose name was the occasion of a new legend
relative to the mode by which ahe was restored to her
"Sistine form. (Miller, Proleg. , p. 193, seq. --Keight-
! ey's Mythology, p. 406, eeqq. )--The whole story of
Io is an agricultural legend, and admits of an easy ex-
planation. Io, whether conaidered as the offspring of
lasus (the favourite of Ceres) or of Peiren (the "ex-
perimenter" or "tryer"), ia a type of early agriculture,
progressing gradually by the aid of slow and painful
experience. Jupiter represents the firmament, the ge-
nial source of light and life; Juno, on the other hand,
it the type of the atmosphere, with its stormy and ca-
pricious changes. Early agriculture suffers from these
changes, which impede more or less the fostering in-
fluence of the pure firmament that lies beyond, and
hence man has to watch with incessant and sleepless
care over the labours of primitive husbandry. This
sver-watchful superintendence is typified by Argus
with his countless eyes, save that in the legend he be-
comes an instrument of punishment in the hands of
Juno. If we turn to the version of the fable as given
in the ^Egimius, the meaning of the whole story be-
comes still plainer, for hero the four eyes of Argus
are types of the four seasons, while the name Eubcea
contains a direct reference to success in agriculture.
Argus, continues the legend, was slain by Mercury,
and Io was then left free to wander over the whole
earth. Now, as Mercury was the god of language
and the inventor of letters, what is this but saying, that
when rules and precepts of agriculture were intro-
duced, first orally and then in writing, mankind were
released from that ever-watching care which early hus-
bandry had required from them, and agriculture, now
reduced to a regular system, went forth in freedom
and spread itself among the nations I--Again, in Egypt
Io finds at last a resting-place; here she assumes her
original form, and here brings forth Epaphus as the off-
spring of Jove. What is this but saying that agricul-
ture was carried to perfection in the fertile land of the
Nile, and that here it was touched (km and a^uu) by the
true generative influence from on high, and brought
forth in the richest abundance \--Still farthor, the eyes
>f Argus, we are told, were transferred by Juno to the
plumage of her favourite bird; and the peacock, it is
well known, givea sure indications, by its cry, of
? ? changes about to take place in the atmosphere, and is
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risited Ilium, and, after offering a sacrifice to Minerva
in the citadel, deposited his arms there, and received
ethers, said to have been preserved in the temple from
the time of the siege of Troy. He farther granted
several rights and privileges to the Ilienses, and prom-
ised to erect a more splendid edifice, and to institute
games in honour of Minerva; but his death prevented
the execution of these designs. (Arrian, I. c. --Strab. ,
1. c. ) Lysimachus, however, to whose share Troas
fell on the division of Alexander's empire, undertook
to execute what had been planned by the deceased
monarch. He enclosed the city within a wall, which
was forty stadia in circumference; he also increased
the population by removing thither the inhabitants of
several neighbouring towns. (Strabo, 593. ) At a
subsequent period Ilium farther experienced the favour
and protection of the kings of Pergamus; and the
Romans, on achieving the conquest of Asia Minor,
sought to extend their popularity, by securing the in-
dependence of a city from which they pretended to de-
rive their origin, and added to its territory the towns
of Rhoeteum and Gergitha. (Lhy, 37, 37. --Id. , 38,
29. ) And yet it would appear, that at that time Ilium
was far from being a flourishing city, since Demetrius
of Scepsis, win visited it about the same period, af-
firmed that it was in a ruinous state, many of the
bouses having fallen into decay for want of tiling (an
Strab. , I. c). During the civil wars between aylla
and Cinna, Ilium was besieged and taken by assault
? ? by Fimbria, a partisan of the latter. This general
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? ILLYRICUM
IMA
tc the r. jmcrous tribes which were ancient. ; ,n pos-
session of the countries situated to the west of Mace-
donia, and which extended along the coast of the Adri-
atic from the confines of Italy and Islria to the borders
of Epirus. Still farther north, and more inland, we
rVnl them occupying the great valleys of the Saavc
and Drave, w. vch were only terminated by the junc-
tion of those streams with the Danube. This large
tract of country, under the Roman emperors, constitu-
led the provinces of Illyricum and Pannonia. --Anti-
quity has thrown but little light on the origin of the
Illynans; nor are we acquainted with the language and
customs of the barbarous hordes of which the great body
of the nation was composed. Their warlike habits,
howevcr. and the peculiar practice of puncturing their
bodies, which is mentioned by Strabo as being also in
use among the Thracians, might lead us to connect
them with that widely-extended people. (Strabo, 315 )
It appears evident, that they were a totally different
race from the Celts, as Strabo carefully distinguishes
them from the Gallic tribes which were incorporated
with them. (Strabo, 313. ) Appian, indeed, seems
to ascribe a common origin to the Illyrians and Celts,
for he slates that Illyrius and Cellus were two broth-
ers, sons of Polyphemus and Galatea, who migrated
from Sicily, and became the progenitors of the two na-
tions which bore their names (Hell. Illyr. , 2); but
this account is evidently too fabulous to be relied on.
It is not unlikely that the Illyrians contributed to the
early population of Italy. The Liburni, who were un-
doubtedly a part of this nation, had formed settlements
on the Italian shore of the Adriatic at a very remote
period. The Veneti, moreover, were, according to
the most probable account, Illyrians. But, though so
widely dispersed, this great nation is but little noticed
in history until the Romans made war upon it, in con-
sequence of some acts of piracy committed on their tra-
ders. Previous to that time, we hear occasionally of the
Illyrians as connected with the affairs of Macedonia;
for instance, in the expedition undertaken by Perdiccas,
in conjunction with Brasidas, against the I. yncestse,
which failed principally from the support afforded to
the latter by a powerful body of Illyrian troops. (Thu-
cyrf, 4, 125. ) They were frequently engaged in hos-
tilities with the princes of Macedonia, to whom their
warlike spirit rendered them formidable neighbours.
This was the case more especially while under the
government of Bardylis, who is known to have been a
powerful and renowned chief, though we are not pos-
itively acquainted with the extent of his dominions,
nor over what tribes he presided. Philip at length
gained a decisive victory over this king, who lost his
life in the action, and thus a check was given to the
rising power of the Illyrians. Alexander was likewise
successful in a war he waged against Clytus, the son
of Bardylis, and Glaucias, king of the Taulantii. The
Illyrians, however, still asserted their independence
against the kings of Macedon, and were not subdued
till they were involved in the common fate of nations
by the victorious arms of the Romans. The conquest
of Illyria led the way to the first interference of Rome
in the affairs of Greece; and Polybius, from that cir-
cumstance, has entered at some length into the ac-
count of the events which then took place. He in-
forms us, that about this period, 520 A. U. C. , the Il-
lyrians on the coast had become formidable from their
maritime power and the extent of their depredations.
? ? They were governed by Agron, son of Pleurastus,
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? IN A
INACHUS.
tne Himalaya Mountains on the north of India has
been appreciated. In 1802, Col. Crawford made some
measurements, which gave a much greater altitude to
these mountains than had ever before been suspected;
and Col. Colebrook, from the plains of Rhohilcund,
made a series of observations which gave a height of
22,000 feet. Lieut. Webb, in his journey to the source
of the Ganges, executed measurements on the peak
of Iamunavatari, which gave upward of 25,000 feet.
The same officer, in a subsequent journey, confirmed
his former observations. This conclusion was object-
ed to, on account of a difference of opinion respecting
the allowance . which ought to be made, for the deviation
of the light from a straight direction, on which all con-
clusions drawn from the meaaurement of angles must
depend. In a subsequent journey, however, this same
officer confirmed his conclusions by additional measure-
ments, and by observing the fall of the mercury in the
barometer at those heights which he himself visited. It
was found by these last observations that the line of
oerpetual snow does not begin till at least 17,000 feet
above the level of the sea, and that the banks of the
Sctledge, at an elevation of nearly 15,000 feet, afford-
ed pasturage for cattle, and yielded excellent crops of
mountain-wheat This mild temperature, however, at
so great a height, is confined to the northern side of
the chain. This probably depends on the greater
height of the whole territory on the northern side, in
consequence of which, the heat which the earth re-
ceives from the solar rays, and which warms the air
immediately superincumbent, is not so much expand-
ed by the time the ascendi'. ig air reaches these greater
elevations, as in that which has ascended from a much
lower country. Mr. Frazer, in a later journey, inferred
that the loftiest peaks of the Himalaya range varied
from 18,000 to 23,000 feet; hut he had no instruments
for measuring altitudes, and no barometer, and he
probably did not make the due allowance for the ex-
traordinary height of the snow-line. The point, how-
ertr, is now at last settled. The Himalaya Mount-
ains far exceed the Andes in elevation; Chimborazo,
the highest of the latter, being only 21,470 feet above
the level of the sea, while Ghosa Cole, in the Dhaw-
alaghiri rangs attains to an elevation of 28,000 feet,
and is the highest known land on the surface of the
ImbracT'-iLs, a patronymic given to Asius, as son
of Imbratv*. (Virg. ,jEn. , 10, 123. )
Imbraiiris, a patronymic given to Glii'. c. is and
I,ades, as sons of Imbrasus. (Virg. , . En. , 12, 343. )
Imbros, an island of the ^Egean, 22 miles east of
Lemnos, according to Pliny (4, 12), and now called
Imbro. Like. Lcmnos, it was at an early period the
seat of the Pelasgi, who worshipped the Cabiri and
Mercury by the name of Imbramus. (Slcph. Byz. ,
s. v. 'l/iipoc. ) Imbros is generally mentioned by Ho-
mer in conjunction with Lcmnos. (Hymn, in Apoll. ,
36. --lb. , 13,32. ) It was first conquered by the Per-
sians (Herod. , 5, 27), and afterward by the Athenians,
who derived from thence excellent darters and targct-
eers. (Thucyd. , 4,28. ) There was a town probably
of the same name with the island, the ruins of which
are to bo seen at a place called Castro. (Cramer's
Anc. Greece, vol. I, p. 342. )
Inachid/K, the name of the first eight successors of
Inachus on the throne of Argos.
Inaohidks, a patronymic of Epaphus, as grandson
<<f Inachus. (Ovid, Met. , 1, 704. )
? ? IkIchis, a patronymic of lo, as daughter of Inachus.
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? INl)
INDIA.
mtdt hy Ephorus (ay. Slrab. , 3S6), and it has led some'
modern geographers and critics, in order to reconcile
these two contradictory accounts, to suppose that there
was a stream which, branching off from the Achelous,
fell into the Ambracian Gulf near Argos. This is
more particularly the hypothesis of D'Anville; but
modern travellers assure us that there is no such river
near the ruins of Argos (Holland's Travels, vol. 2, p.
225); and, in fact, it is impossible that any stream
should there separate from the Achelous, on account
of the Amphilochian Mountains, which divide the val-
ley of that river from the Gulf of Arta. Manncrt con-
siders the small river Kriktli to be the representative
of the Inachus (G<<ogr. , vol. 8, p. 65), but this is a mere
orient, which descends from the mountains above the
gulf, and can have no connexion with Mount Lacmus
or the Achelous. All ancient anthorities agree in de-
riving the Inachus from the chain of Pindus. (Cra-
mer's Anc. Greece, vol. 2, p. 40, seqq. )
InarImf, an island off the coast of Campania, oth-
erwise called /Enaria and Pithecusa. Under an ex-
tinguished volcano, in the middle of this island, Jupiter
was fabled to have confined the giant Typhosus. (Con-
sult remarks under the articles . Enaria and Arima. )
Heyne thinks that some one of the early Latin poets,
j\ translating the Iliad into tin Roman tongue, mis-
understood Homer's civ 'Apifioic, and rendered it by
Inarime or Inarima; and that the fable of Typhosus,
travelling westward, was assigned to . 'Enaria or Pith-
ecusa as a volcanic situation. (Heyne, Exeurs. ad
Virg. , Mn. , 9, 715. )
Inarus, a son of Psammeticus (Thucyd. , 1, 104),
king of that part of Libya which borders upon Egypt.
Sallying forth from Marea, he drew over the greater
part of Egypt to revolt from Artaxerxes, the Persian
emperor, and, becoming himself their ruler, called in
the Athenians to his assistance, who happened to be
engaged in an expedition against Cyprus, with two
hundred ships of their own and their allies. The en-
terprise at first was eminently successful, and the
whole of Egypt fell under the power of the invaders
and their ally. Eventually, however, the Persian
arms triumphed, and Inarus, being taken by treachery,
was crucified. (Thucyd. , 1, 109; 1, 110. ) Herod-
otus and Ctesias say he was crucified, ? m rpial orav-
ooie, which might more properly be termed impale-
ment. Bloomfield (ad Thucyd. , I. c. ) thinks that he
was of the ancient royal family of Egypt, and descend-
ed from the Psammeticus who died B. C. 617. It >>?
not improbable, he adds, that, on Apries being put lo
death by his chief minister Amasis, his son, or some
near relation, established himself among the Libyans
bordering on Egypt, from whom descended this Psam-
meticus.
India, an extensive country of Asia, divided by
Ptolemy and the ancient geographers into India intra
Gangem and India extra Gangem, or India on this
side, and India beyond, the Ganges. The first divis-
ion answers to the modem Hindustan; the latter to
the Birman Empire, and the dominions of Pegu, Siam,
Laos, Cambodia, Cochin China, Tonquin, and Ma-
lacca. --Commerce between India and the western na-
tions of Asia appears to have been carried on from
the earliest historical times. The spicery, which the
company of Ishmaelites mentioned in Genesis (37,25)
were carrying into Egypt, must in all probability have
oeen the produce of India; and in the 30th chapter
? ? of Exodus, where an enumeration is made of various
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? INDIA.
INDIA.
iis rentes respecting the invasion of India by Sesostris ' called Sar. lracoptus by Athenajus (Epit. , I, 33), k
>>nd Semiramis, cannot be estimated as historical facts.
fl\e same remark may perhaps apply to the alliance
which, according to Xenophon, in his Cyroptcdia (6, 2,
1), Cyrus made with a king of Iadia. But, in the
reign of Darius Hystaspis, Herodotus informs us (4,
44), that Scylax of Caryanda wi sent by the Persians
to explore the course of the Indus; that he set out for
the city Caspatyrus, and the Pactyican country [Pa-
ktU? ) in the northern pact of India; that be sailed
down the Indus until be arrived at its mouth, and
thence across the Indian Sea ta the Arabian Gulf, and
that this voyage occupied 30 months. Darius also, it
is said, subdued the Indians and formed them into a
satrapy, the tribute of which amounted to 360 talents
of gold. [Herod. , 3, 94. ) The extent of the Persian
empire in India cannot be ascertained with any degree
of certainty. The Persians appear to have included
under the name of Indians many tribes dwelling to
the west of the Indus; it seems doubtful whether they
ever had any dominion east of the Indus; and it is
nearly certain that their authority did nnt extend be-
yond the Penjab. --The knowledge which the Greeks
possessed respecting India, previous to the time of Al-
exander, was derived from the Persians. We do not
find the name of Indian or Hindu in ancient Sanscrit
works; but the country east of the Indus has been
known under this name by the western nations of
Asia from the earliest times. In the Zend and Pehlvi
languages it is called Hcando, and in the Hebrew
Hoddu (Esther, 1, 1), which is evidently the same as
the Hend of the Persian and Arabic geographers.
The first mention of the Indiana in a Greek author is
in the "Supplices" of . lEschylus (v.
287); but no
Greek writer gives us any information concerning them
till the time of Herodotus. We may collect from the
account of this historian * description of three distinct
tribes of Indians: one dwelling in the north, near the
city Caspotyrus, and the Pactyican country, resem-
bling the bactrians in their customs and mode of life.
The second tribe or tribes evidently did not live uu-
Jer Brahminical laws; some of them dwelt in the
marshes formed by the Indus, and subsisted by fish-
ing; others, called Padsei, with whom we may proba-
bly class the Calantisa or Calatia? , were wild and bar-
barous tribes, such as exist at prisent in the mountains
of the Deeean. The third class, who are described as
subsisting on the spontaneous produce of the earth,
and never killing any living thing, are more likely to
have been genuine Hindus. (Herod. , 3, 98, scqq. )
Herodotus had heard of some of the natural produc-
tions of Hindustan, such as the cotton-plant and the
bamboo; but his knowledge was very limited. --Cte-
sias, who lived at the court of Artaxerxes Mnemon for
many years, has given us a fuller account than Herod-
otus of the manners and customs of the Indians, and
of the natural productions of the country. He had
heard of 'the war-elephants, and describes the parrot,
the monkey, cochineal, <fcc. --The expedition of Alex-
ander into India, B. C. 326. first gave the Greeks a
correct idea of the western parts of this country. Al-
exander did not advance farther east than the Hypha-
sis; but he followed the course of the Indus to the
ocean, and afterward sent Noarchus to explore the
coast of the Indian Ocean as far as the Persian Gulf.
The Penjab was inhabited, at the time of Alexander's
invasion, by many independent nations, tvho were as
? ? distinguished for their courage as their lescendanls
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? INDIA.
INDIA.
imports. According to this account, the two princi-
pal ports in India were Barygaza on the northwestern,
ind Barace or Nelcynda on the southwestern coast.
To Barygaza (the modern Baroach, on the river Ncr-
ludda) goods were brought from Ozene (Oujein),
Plithana (Pultaneh), and Tsgara (Deoghur). But Ba-
race or Nelcyada seems, from the account of Pliny
and A man, '. } iavo oeen the principal emporium of
the Indian trade. The Roman ships appear to have
seldom sailed beyond this point; and the produce of
countries farther east was brought to Barace by the
native merchants. The knowledge which the Romans
possessed of India beyond Cape Comorin was exceed-
ingly vague and defective. Strabo describes the Gau-
ges as flowing into the sea by one mouth; and though
Pliny gives a long list of Indian nations, which had not
been previously mentioned by any Greek or Roman
writers, we have no satisfactory account of any part
of India, except the description of the western coast
by Arrian. Ptolemy, who lived about 100 years later
than Pliny, appears to have derived his information
from the Alexandrean merchants, who only sailed to
the Malabar coast, and could not, therefore, have any
accurate knowledge of the eastern parts of India, and
still less of the countries beyond the Ganges; still,
however, he is the earliest writer who attempts to de-
scribe the countries to the east of this stream. There
is great difficulty in determining the position of any
of the places enumerated by him, in consequence of
the great error he made in the form of the peninsula,
which he has made to stretch in its length from west
to east instead of from north to south; a mistake
the more extraordinary, since all preceding writers
on India with whom we are acquainted had given
the general shape of the peninsula with tolerable accu-
racy. --The Romans never extended their conquests
is far as India, nor visited the country except for
(be purposes of commerce. But the increase of the
trade between Alexandres and India seems to have
produced in tho Indian princes a desire to obtain
? ome farther information concerning the western na-
tions. We read of embassies to Augustus Caesar, sent
6y Pandion and Forus, and also of an embassy from
the isle of Ceylon to the Emperor Claudius. Bohlen,
in his work on the Indians (vol. 1, p. 70), doubts
whether these embassies were sent; but as they arc
both mentioned by contemporary writers, the former
by Strabo and the latter by Pliny, we can hardly
question the truth of their statements. Wc may form
some idea of the magnitude of the Indian trade under
the emperors by the account of Pliny (6, 23), who in-
forms us, that the Roman world was drained every
year of at least 50 millions of sesterces (upward of
1,900,000 dollars) for the purchase of Indian commodi-
ties. The profit upon this trade must have been im-
mense, if we are to believe the statements of Pliny,
that Indian articles were sold at Rome at 100 per
cent, above their cost price. The articles imported
by the Alexandrean merchants were chiefly precious
stones, spices, perfumes, and silk. It has usually been
considered, that the last article was imported into In-
dia from China; but there are strong reasons for be-
lieving that the silkworm has been reared in India
from very early times. Mr. Colebrooke, in his " Essay
03 Hindu Classes" (Miscellaneous Essays, vol. 2, p.
183), informs us, that the class of silk-twisters and
feeders of silkworms is mentioned in an ancient San-
? ? scrit work; in addition to which, it may be remarked,
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? INDIA.
IND
wLictt llicy rmigrated into the northern part of Hindu-
itan. Heeren and other writers have supposed, that
the Brahmins, and perhaps the Kshatriyas and Vaisyas,
were a race of northern conquerors, who subdued the
Sudras, the original inhabitants of the country. But,
whatever opinion may be entertained respecting the
origin of this people, it is evident that tho Hindus
themselves never regarded the southern part of the
peninsula as forming part of Aryavarta, or " the holy
land," the name of the country inhabited by genuine
Hindus. Aryavarta was bounded on the north by the
Himalaya, and on the south by the Vindhya Mount-
ains [Manu, 6, 21-24); the boundaries on the east
and west cannot be so easily ascertained. In this
country, and especially in the eastern part, there ex-
isted great and powerful empires, at least a thousand
years before the Christian era (the probable date of the
Ramayana. and Mahabharata), which had made great
progress in knowledge, civilization, and the fine arts,
and of which the ancient literature of the Sanscrit lan-
guages is an imperishable memorial. According to
Hindu tradition, two empires only existed in the most
ancient times, of which the capitals were Ayodhya or
Oudc, and Pratishthana or Vitora. The kings of
these cities, who are respectively denominated chil-
dren of the Sun and of the Moon, are supposed to
have been the lineal descendants of Satyavrata, the
seventh Manu, during whose life all living creatures,
with the exception of himself and his family, were de-
stroyed by a general deluge. Another kingdom was
afterward established at Magadha or Bahar, by Jaras-
audha, appointed governor of the province by a sover-
eign of the Lunar race. A list of these kings is giv-
en by Sir William Jones, in his " Essay on the Chro-
nology of the Hindus. " (Asiat. Research. , vol. 2, p.
Ill, seq. , 8vo cd. )--The kings of Ayodhya appear to
have conquered the Deccan, and to have introduced
the Brahminical faith and laws into the southern part
of the peninsula. Such, at least, appears to be the
meaning of the Ramayana, according to which, Rama,
in incarnation of Vishnu, and the son of the king of
Ayodhya, penetrates to the extremity of the peninsula,
and conquers the giants of Lauka (Ceylon). This is
in accordance with all the traditions of the peninsula,
which recognise a period when the inhabitants were
not Hindus. We have no means of ascertaining
whether these conquests by tho monarchs of Ayodhya
wero permanent; but we know that, in the time of Ar-
rian and Pliny, the Brahminical faith prevailed in the
southern part of the peninsula, since all the principal
places mentioned by these writers have Sanscrit names.
We learn from tradition, and from historical records
extant in the Tamul language (Wilson's Descriptive
Catalogue of the Oriental MSS. collected by the late
Lieutenant-col. Mackenzie. --Taylor's Oriental His-
torical MSS. in the Tamul language, 2 vols. 4to,
Madras, 1835), that three kingdoms acquired, in early
times, great political importance in the southern part
? f the Deccan. These were named Pandya, Chola,
and Chera, and are all said to have been founded by
aatlves of Ayodhya, who colonized the Deccan with
Hindus from the north. Pandya was the most pow-
erful of these kingdoms: it was bounded on the north
by 'he river Velar, on the west by the Ghauts, though
in early times it extended as far as the Malabar coast,
and on the south and east by the sea. Its principal
town was Madura. The antiquity of this kingdom
? ? is confirmed by Pliny, Arrian, and Ptolemy, who all
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? INT
10
au. >>, besides its more common appellation of Indue.
In . a. 28? 28', the Indus is joined by five rivers, the
anc<int names of which, as given by the Greek writers,
are, the Hydaspes, Acesines, Hydraotes, Hyphasis,
and Xeradrus. These five rivers obtained for the
province which they watered the Greek name of Pen-
upota. Tiia, analogous to which is the modern appella-
tion of Pcndjab, given to the same region, and signi-
fying in Persian "the country of the five rivers. "
(Consul: Lassen, Comment, de Pcntapot. Indica, 4to,
Bonnec, 1827. --Beck, AUgemeines Repertorium, vol.
I, pt. 2, p. 112. ) The Xeradrus, now the Setledge,
is the longest of the five rivers just mentioned, and the
longest stream also within the Himalaya range, be-
tween the Indus and the Burrampootcr. The union
of all the five rivers into one, before they reach the
Indus, was a point in geography maintained by Ptole-
my; but, owing to the obscurity of modern accounts,
promoted by the splittings of the Indus, and the fre-
quent approximation of streams running in parallel
courses, we had been taught to regard this as a speci-
men of that author's deficiency of information, till very
recent and mere nvnute inquiries have re-established
that questioned point, and, along with it, the merited
credit of the ancient geographer. The five rivers form
one great stream, called by the natives in this quarter
the Ckerraub; but in the other countries of India it is
known by the name of Puujund. The united stream
then lows on between 40 and 50 miles, until it joins
the Indus at Miitun Cole. The mouths of the Indus
Ptolemy makes seven in number; Mannert gives them
as follows, commencing on the west: Sagapa, now
the river Pilty; Sinthos, now the Dorravay; Aureum
Ostium, now the Rilchel; Chariphus, now the Felly;
Sapara, Sabala, and Lonibare, of which last three he
professes to know nothing with certainty. According,
however, to other and more recent authorities, the In-
dus enters the sea in one volume, the lateral streams
being absorbed by the sand without reaching the ocean.
It gives off an easterly branch called the Fullalee, but
Ibis returns its waters to the Indus at a lower point,
forming in its circuit the island on which Hyderabad
stands. (Malte-Brun, Geogr. , vol. 3, p. 13, Am. ed. )
Ino, daughter of Cadmus and Harmonia. (Vid.
Attn mas. )
Inopi's. a river of Dclos, watering the plain in which
the town of Oelos stood. (Strab. , tSb. --Callim. , H.
in Del. , 206. )
Inous, a patronymic given to the god Palajmon, as
son of Ino. (Virg. , Mn. , 5, 823. )
Insubrks (in Greek 'loopSpoi), the most numerous
as well as the most powerful tribe of the Cisalpine
Gauls, according to Polybius (2, 17). It would ap-
pear indeed from Ptolemy (p. 64) that their dominion
extended at one time over the Libicii, another power-
ful Gallic tribe in their vicinity; but their territory,
properly speaking, seems to have been defined by the
rivers Ticmus and Addua. The Insubres took a very
active part in the Gallic wars against the Romans, and
zealously co-operated with Hannibal in his invasion of
Italy. (Polyb. , 2, 40. ) They are stated by Livy (5,
34) to have founded their capital Mediolanum (now
Milan) on their first arrival in Italy, and to hare giv-
en it that name from a place so called in the territory
of the JBdui in Gaul. (Plin. , 3, IT. --Plot, p. 63 --
Consult remarks under the article Gallia, page 531,
col. 1. )
? ? Insula Sacra, an island formed at the mouth of
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? 10
ION
Is mignt haie been expected. Hornet never alludes to
It, unless his employment of the term 'Apyet^ovrtjc (Ar-
geiphonlet) is to be regarded as intimating a knowl-
edge of Io. It is also doubtful whether she was one
of the heroines of the Eoese. Her story, however, was
noticed in the JEgimius, where it was said that her fa-
ther's name was Peirtn, that her keeper Argus had
four eyes, and that the island of Eutxva derived its
name from her. (Apollod. , 3, 1, 3. -- Schol. ad Eu-
rip. , Phan. , 1138. -- Steph. Buz. , a. v. 'ktevric. )
Pherecydes said that Juno placed an eye in the back
of Argus's neck, and deprived him of sleep, and then
set him as a guard over Io. (Ap. Schol. ad Eurip. ,
I. c. ) . 'Eschylus introduces Io into his " Prometheus
Bound," and he also relates her story in his " Suppli-
ants. "--When the Greeks first settled in Egypt, and
saw the statues of Isis with cow's horns, they, in their
usual manner, inferred that she was their own Io, with
whose name hers had a slight similarity. At Memphis
they afterward beheld the worahip of the holy bull
Apis, and naturally supposing the bull-god to be the son
of the cow-goddess, they formed from him a son for
their Io, whose name was the occasion of a new legend
relative to the mode by which ahe was restored to her
"Sistine form. (Miller, Proleg. , p. 193, seq. --Keight-
! ey's Mythology, p. 406, eeqq. )--The whole story of
Io is an agricultural legend, and admits of an easy ex-
planation. Io, whether conaidered as the offspring of
lasus (the favourite of Ceres) or of Peiren (the "ex-
perimenter" or "tryer"), ia a type of early agriculture,
progressing gradually by the aid of slow and painful
experience. Jupiter represents the firmament, the ge-
nial source of light and life; Juno, on the other hand,
it the type of the atmosphere, with its stormy and ca-
pricious changes. Early agriculture suffers from these
changes, which impede more or less the fostering in-
fluence of the pure firmament that lies beyond, and
hence man has to watch with incessant and sleepless
care over the labours of primitive husbandry. This
sver-watchful superintendence is typified by Argus
with his countless eyes, save that in the legend he be-
comes an instrument of punishment in the hands of
Juno. If we turn to the version of the fable as given
in the ^Egimius, the meaning of the whole story be-
comes still plainer, for hero the four eyes of Argus
are types of the four seasons, while the name Eubcea
contains a direct reference to success in agriculture.
Argus, continues the legend, was slain by Mercury,
and Io was then left free to wander over the whole
earth. Now, as Mercury was the god of language
and the inventor of letters, what is this but saying, that
when rules and precepts of agriculture were intro-
duced, first orally and then in writing, mankind were
released from that ever-watching care which early hus-
bandry had required from them, and agriculture, now
reduced to a regular system, went forth in freedom
and spread itself among the nations I--Again, in Egypt
Io finds at last a resting-place; here she assumes her
original form, and here brings forth Epaphus as the off-
spring of Jove. What is this but saying that agricul-
ture was carried to perfection in the fertile land of the
Nile, and that here it was touched (km and a^uu) by the
true generative influence from on high, and brought
forth in the richest abundance \--Still farthor, the eyes
>f Argus, we are told, were transferred by Juno to the
plumage of her favourite bird; and the peacock, it is
well known, givea sure indications, by its cry, of
? ? changes about to take place in the atmosphere, and is
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