Locke,
believing
from the bottom of his
soul in the existence of God, established his
conviction, without perceiving it, upon rea-
sonings which are all taken out of the
sphere of experience: he asserts the exist-
ence of an eternal principle, the primary
cause of all other causes; thus he enters into
the region of infinity, and that region lies
beyond all experience: but Locke, at the
game time, was so apprehensive lest the idea
of God should pass for an innate idea in man,
it appeared to him so absurd that the Crea-
tor should have deigned to inscribe his name,
like that of a great painter, upon the tablet
of the soul, that he set himself to discover,
out of all the narratives of travellers, some
?
soul in the existence of God, established his
conviction, without perceiving it, upon rea-
sonings which are all taken out of the
sphere of experience: he asserts the exist-
ence of an eternal principle, the primary
cause of all other causes; thus he enters into
the region of infinity, and that region lies
beyond all experience: but Locke, at the
game time, was so apprehensive lest the idea
of God should pass for an innate idea in man,
it appeared to him so absurd that the Crea-
tor should have deigned to inscribe his name,
like that of a great painter, upon the tablet
of the soul, that he set himself to discover,
out of all the narratives of travellers, some
?
Madame de Stael - Germany
net/2027/hvd.
32044051734390 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www.
hathitrust.
org/access_use#pd-google
? 14 PHf tOStffti* ^Nli MORALS.
liberty of man: nevertheless, we cannot
compare him to the materialists of the last
age; and his successors have pushed the
theory of experience much beyond his in-
tention. He is far, I repeat it, from attri-
buting all our ideas to our sensations^ and
from considering analysis a* the sole instru-
ment of discovery. He frequently follows
& more daring path; and if he adheres to
experimental logic to remove all the preju-
dices which encumber his progress, it is to
the spring of genius alone that he trusts to
forward his advance.
"The human mind," says Luther, "is
"like a drunken peasant on horseback; when
'4 we put it up on one side, it falls down or*
"the other. "--Thus man Has incessantly
fluctuated between his two natures; some-
times his thoughts have disentangled him
from his sensations; sometimes his sensa-
tions have absorbed his thoughts, and he has
wished, successively, to refer every thing
to one or the other: it however appears to
me, that the moment for a fixed doctrine
has arrived* Metaphysics are about to un-
dergo a revolution, like that which Coperni-
cus has produced in the system of the world.
They are about to replace the soul of man in
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? ENGLISH PHILOSOPHY. 1$
the centre, and to make it, in every respect,
like the sun; round which external objects'
trace their circle, and from which they bor-
row their light.
The genealogical tree of the different
branches of human knowledge, in which1
every science is referred to a certain faculty,
is doubtless one of the titles of Bacon to the
admiration of posterity; but that which
constitutes his real glory is this--that he has1
announced his opinion, that there was no
absolute separation of one science from
another; but that general philosophy re-
united them all. He is not the author
of that anatomical method:, which consi-
ders the intellectual powers severally, or
each by itself; and which appears to be
ignorant of the admirable unity in the moral
being. Sensibility, imagination, reason, each
is subservient to the other. Every one
of these faculties would be nothing but
a disease, but weakness, instead of strength,
if it were not modified or completed by
the collective character of our nature.
The exact sciences, at a certain height, stand
in need of the Imagination. She, in her
turn, must support herself upon he accu-
rate knowledge of . Nature. Reason, of all
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? 16 PHILOSOPHY AND MORALS.
our faculties, appears to be that which
would most easily do without the assistance
of the others; and yet, if a person were en-
tirely unprovided with imagination and sen-
sibility, he might by that very want become,
if we may so express it, the fool of Reason;
and, seeing nothing in life but calculations
and material interests, deceive himself as
much concerning the characters and affec-
tions of men, as the enthusiastic being whose
fancy pictures all around him disinterested-
ness and love.
We follow a bad system of education,
when we aim at the exclusive developernent
of this or that quality of mind; for, to de-
vote ourselves to one faculty, is to take up
an intellectual trade. Milton says, with rea-
son, that our education is not good, excepting
when it renders us capable of every employ
in peace or war: all that makes the man
A Man, is the true object of instruction.
Not to know any thing of a science but
that portion of it which individually belongs
to us, is to apply the division of labour
(inculcated by Smith) to the liberal studies,
when it is only adapted to the mechanic
arts. When we arrive at that height where
every science touches upon all the rest in
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? feNGLtSIt PHILOSOPHY; 17
Some particulars, it is then that we approach
the region of universal ideas; and the air
which breathes from that region gives life to
all our thoughts.
The soul is a fire that darts its rays through
all the senses: it is in this fire that existence
consists: all the observations and all the
efforts of philosophers ought to turn towards
this point of individuality--the centre and
the moving power of our sentiments and our
ideas. Doubtless, the imperfection of lan-
guage compels us to make use of erroneous
expressions; we are obliged to repeat, accord-
ing to the customary phrase, such a person
is endowed with the power of reason, of
imagination, or of sensibility, &c. ; but, if
we wish to be understood in a single word,
we ought to say, he has soul--an abundance
of soul*. It is this divine spirit that makes
the whole man.
Love is the instructor who teaches us
more certainly what belongs to the mysteries
of the soul, than the utmost metaphysical
subtilty. We never attach ourselves to this
* M. Ancilloo, of whom I shall have occasion to speak
in the Fourth Part of this work, has made use of this ex-
pression in a book, upon which one cannot grow tired of
meditating.
VOL. III. C
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? 18 PHILOSOPHY AND MORALS.
qr that qualification of the object of our pre-
ference; and every madrigal reveals a great
philosophical truth, when it says--" I love
"I know not why \" for this "I know not
"why," is that collective character, and that
harmony, which we recognise by love, by
admiration, by all the sentiments which re-
veal to us what is most deep and most secret
in the heart of another.
The method of analysis, which can only
examine by division, applies itself like the
dissect ing-knife to dead nature; but it is a
bad instrument to teach us to understand
what is living; and if we feel a difficulty in
verbally defining that animated conception
v{hich represents whole objects to our mind,
it is precisely because that conception clings
more closely to the very essence of things.
To divide, in order to comprehend, is a sign
of weakness in philosophy; as to divide, in
order to rule, is a sign of weakness in
political power.
^acon adhered much more than is believed
to that ideal philosophy, which, from the
days of Plato down to our own, has con-
stantly re-appeared under different forms. --
Nevertheless, the success of his analytical
method in the exact sciences has necessarily
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? ENGLISH PHILOSOPHY. 19
had an influence over his metaphysical sys-
tem. His doctrine of sensations, considered
as the origin of ideas, has been understood
in a much more positive sense than that in
which he maintained it himself. We can
clearly see the influence of this doctrine in
the two schools which it has produced--that
of Hobbes, and that of Locke. Certainly
they differ very much jn their intent; but
their principles are alike in many respects.
Hobbes embraced to the letter that philo-
sophy which derives all our ideas from the
impressions of sense. He feared not the
consequences; and he has boldly said, "that
"the soul is as much subjected to necessity,
"as society to despotism. " He admits the
fatalism of sensation as the controller of
thought, and that of force as the controller
of action. He annihilates moral as well as
civil liberty; thinking, with reason, that
one depends upon the other. He was an
Atheist and a slave, and nothing is more in
the course of things; for if there is in man
but the impress of sensations received from
without, earthly power is every thing, and
our soul and our destiny equally depend
upon it.
The cultivation of all pure and elevated
c2
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? 20 PHILOSOPHY AND MORALS.
sentiments is so consolidated in England, by*
political and religious institutions, that the
scepticisms of genius revolve around these
imposing columns without ever shaking them;
Hobbes, accordingly, has gained few parti-
sans in his country; but the influence of
Locke has been more universal. As his cha-
racter was moral and religious, he did not
allow himself to use any of those dangerous
reasonings which are necessarily derived
from his metaphysical system; and the
greater part of his countrymen, in adopting
that system, have shown the same glorious
want of consistency, which he did--have se-
parated results from principles-^until Hume,
and the French philosophers, having ad-
mitted the system, made application of it
in a much more logical manner.
The metaphysical doctrines of Locke have
had no other effect upon the wits of Eng-
land, than to tarnish a little their natural
originality: if they had even dried up the
source of high philosophical reflection, they
would not have destroyed that religious sen-
timent which can so well supply the want
of it: but these doctrines, so generally re-
ceived throughout the rest of Europe (Ger-
many excepted), have been one of the pr'm-
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? ENGLISH PHILOSOPHY. 21
cipal causes of that immorality, the advo-
cates of which have formed it into a theory,
in order to make its practice more certain.
Locke exerted his especial endeavours to
prove that there is nothing innate in the
mind. He was right in his own sense, for
he always blended with the meaning of the
word Idea that of a notion acquired by ex-
perience: ideas thus conceived are the result
of the objects that excite, of the compa-
risons that assemble them, and of the lan-
guage that expedites their union. But this
is not the case with the sentiments, with the
dispositions, and the faculties which consti. .
tute the laws of the human understanding,
in the same manner that attraction and im-
pulse constitute the laws of external nature.
It is truly worth observing what kind of
arguments Locke has been compelled to
adopt, in order to prove that every thing in
the mind came there by means of sensation.
If these arguments led to the truth, doubt-
less we ought to overcome the moral aver-
sion with which they inspire us; but, in ge-
neral, we may trust to this sort of aversion
as an infallible token of what must be
avoided. Locke wished to show that con-
science, or the sense of good and evil, was
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? 22 PHILOSOPHY AND MORALS.
not innate in man; and that we know no-
thing of justice or injustice, except from ex-
perience, as we learn to distinguish red from
blue. To arrive at this conclusion, he has
carefully inquired after all those countries
where the laws and customs pay respect to
crimes; those, for instance, in which it is
thought a duty to kill an enemy; to despise
marriage; to put a father to death, when he
has grown old. He attentively collects every
thing that travellers have related of barbari-
ties which have passed into daily practice.
Of what nature then must that system be,
which excites, in so virtuous a man as
Locke, an eagerness for such narrations?
Let them be melancholy tales, or not, it
may be said, the important thing is to know
if they are true. --Allow them to be true, of
what consequence are they? Do we not
know, by our own experience, that circum-
stances, in other words external objects,
have an influence over the manner in which
we interpret our duties? Amplify these
circumstances, and you will find in them the
causes of national error; but is there any
nation, or any man, that denies the obliga-
tion of all duty? Has it ever been pretended
that the ideas of justice and injustice have
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? no me&ning? Different explanations of them
may prevail in different places j but . the
conviction of the principle is every where
the same; and it is in this cbrtvictioh that
the primitive impression consists, which we
recognise in every being of hutnan birth.
When the savage kills his aged father, he
believes that he renders the old man a ser. t
vice; he does not act for his own interest,
but for that of his parent: the deed he com-
mits is horrible; and yet he is not on that
account devoid of conscience: because he is
ignorant, he is hot therefore vicious. The
sensations, that is to Say, the external objects
with which he is surrounded, blind him;
the inward sentiment, which constitutes the
hatred for vice and the love of virtue, does
not the less exist within him, because he
has been deceived by experience as tt the
manner in which this sentiment ought to be
manifested in his life. To prefer others t6
ourselves, when virtue Commands the prefer-
ence's precisely that. in which the esfsence of
moral beauty consists; and this admirable
instinct of the soul, the opponent of our
physical instinct, is inherent in our nature;
if it could be acquired, it could also be lost;
but it is unchangeable, because it is innate,
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? 24 PHILOSOPHY AND MORALS.
Jt is possible for us to do evil, when we be-
lieve we are doing good; a man may be cul-
pable knowingly and willingly; but he can-
not admit a contradiction for a truth, that
justice is injustice.
There is such a thing as indifference to
good and evil, and it is the ordinary result of
civilization, when its coldness has reached
the point of petrifaction, if the expression
may be allowed; this indifference is a much
greater argument against an innate con-
science than the gross errors of savages:
but the most sceptical of men, if they are
sufferers from oppression in any relation of
life, appeal to justice, as if they had be*
lieved in it all their days; and when they
are seized with any vivid affection, and ty-
rannical power is exerted to control it, they
can invoke the sentiment of equity with as
much force as the most severe of moralists.
When the flame of any passion, whether it
be indignation or love, takes possession of
the soul, the sacred hand-writing of the
eternal law may be seen by that light re-
appearing in our bosoms.
If the accident of birth and education de-
cided the morality of man, how could we
accuse him for his actions? If all that comi
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? ENGLISH PHILOSOPHY. 25
poses our will comes to us from external
objects, every one may appeal to his own
particular relations for the motives of his
whole conduct; and frequently these rela-
tions diner as much between the inhabitants
of the same country, as between an Asiatic
and European. If circumstances then were
to be the deities of mortals, it would be in
order for every man to have his peculiar
morality, or rather a want of morals accord-
ing to his respective practice; and to coun-
teract the evil which sensation might sug-
gest, no efficient reason could be opposed to
it, except the public power of punishment:
now, if that public power commanded us to
be unjust, the question would be resolved;
every sensation might be the parent of every
jdea, which would lead us on to the most
complete depravity.
The proofs of the spirituality of the soul
cannot be discovered in the empire of the
senses. The visible world is abandoned
to their dominion; but the invisible will
not be subjected to it; and if we do not ad-
mit that there are ideas of spontaneous
growth, if thought and sentiment depend
entirely upon sensations, how should the
? oul, that submits to suck a state of servi-
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? 26 PHILOSOPHY AND MORALS.
tude, be an immaterial essence? And if, aft
jiobody denies, the greater part of the know-
ledge transmitted by the senses is liable to
error, what sort of a moral being must that
be, who does not act until aroused by out-
ward objects, and by objects even whose
appearances are often deceitful?
A French philosopher, making use of the
most revolting expression, has said, M that
"thought is nothing but the material pro-
"duct of the brain. " This deplorable defi-
nition is the most natural result of that spe-
cies of metaphysics, which attributes to our
sensations the origin of all our ideas. We are
in the right, if it be so, to laugh at all that is
intellectual, and to make what is impalpable
synonymous with what is incomprehensible.
If the human mind is but a subtle matter,
put in motion by other elements, more or
less gross, in comparison with which even it
has the disadvantage of being passive; if our
impressions and our recollections are nothing
but the prolonged vibrations of an instrument,
which chance has played upon; then there
are only fibres in the brain, there is nothing
but physical force in the world, and every
thing can be explained according to the laws
by which that force is governed. Still there
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? ENGLISH PHILOSOPHY. 27
remain some little difficulties concerning the
origin of things, and the end of our exist-
ence; but the question has been much sim-
plified--and reason now counsels us to sup-
press within our souls all the desires and all
the hopes that genius, love, and religion call
to life; for, according to this system, man
would only be another machine in the
great mechanism of the universe; his facul-
ties would be all wheel-work, his morality
a matter of calculation, and his divinity
success.
Locke, believing from the bottom of his
soul in the existence of God, established his
conviction, without perceiving it, upon rea-
sonings which are all taken out of the
sphere of experience: he asserts the exist-
ence of an eternal principle, the primary
cause of all other causes; thus he enters into
the region of infinity, and that region lies
beyond all experience: but Locke, at the
game time, was so apprehensive lest the idea
of God should pass for an innate idea in man,
it appeared to him so absurd that the Crea-
tor should have deigned to inscribe his name,
like that of a great painter, upon the tablet
of the soul, that he set himself to discover,
out of all the narratives of travellers, some
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? 28 PHILOSOPHY AND MORALS.
nations who were destitute of any religious
belief. We may, I think, boldly affirm, that
such nations do not exist. The impulse that
exalts us towards the Supreme Being disco-
vers itself in the genius of Newton, as it
does in the soul of the poor savage, who
worships the stone upon which he finds rest.
No man clings exclusively to this world,
such as it is at present; and all have felt in
their hearts, at some period of their lives,
an undefinable inclination towards the su-
pernatural: but, how can it happen, that a
being, so religious as Locke, should try to
change the primitive characters of belief
into an accidental knowledge, which chance
may confer or take away? I repeat it--the
tendency of any doctrine ought always to be
deemed of great account in the judgment
which we form upon the truth of that doc. ^
trine; for, in theory, the good and the true
are inseparable.
All that is visible talks to man of a begin*
ning and an end, of decline and destruction.
A divine spark is the only indication of our
immortality. From what sensation does this
arise? All our sensations fight against it,
and yet it triumphs over them all. What!
it will be said, do not final causes, do not
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? ENGLISH PHILOSOPHY. 29
the wonders of the universe, the splendour
of heaven that strikes our eyes, all declare
the magnificence and the goodness of our
Creator? The book of nature is contradic-
tory; we see there the emblems of good
and evil almost in equal proportion; and
things are thus constituted, in order that
man may be able to exercise his liberty be-
tween opposite probabilities; between fears
and hopes almost of equal power. The
starry heaven appears to us like the threshold
of the Divinity; but all the evils and all the
vices of human nature obscure these celestial
fires. A solitary voice, without speech, but
not without harmony; without force, but
irresistible; proclaims a God at the bot-
tom of the human heart: all that is truly
beautiful in man springs from what he ex-
periences within himself, and spontane-
ously; every heroic action is inspired by
moral liberty:--the act of devoting ourselves
to the divine will, that act which every sen-
sation opposes, and which enthusiasm alone
inspires, is so noble and so pure, that the
angels themselves, virtuous as they are by
nature, and without impediment, might
envy it to man.
That species of metaphysics which dis-
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? 30 PHILOSOPHY AND MORALS.
places the centre of life, by supposing its
impulse to come from without, despoils man
of his liberty, and destroys itself; for a
spiritual nature no longer exists, when we
unite it in such a manner to a corporeal
nature, that it is only by consideration for
religious opinion we consent to distinguish
them: such a system shrinks from its own
consequences, excepting when it derives from
them, as it has done in France, materialism
built upon sensation, and morality built
upon interest. The abstract theory of this
system was born in England; but none of
its consequences have been admitted there.
In France they have not had the honour of
the discovery, but in a great degree that of
the application. In Germany, since the time
of Leibnitz, they have opposed the system
and its consequences: and, assuredly, it is
worthy of enlightened and religious men of
all countries, to inquire if those principles,
whose results are so fatal, ought to be con-
sidered as incontestable truths.
Shaftesbury, Hutcheson, Smith, Reid,
Dugald Stewart, &c. have studied the ope-
rations of the human mind with a rare saga-
city: the works of Dugald Stewart, in par-
ticular, contain so perfect a theory of the
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? ENGLISH PHILOSOPHY. 31
intellectual faculties, that we may consider
them, to use the expression, as the natural
history of the moral being. Every indivi-
dual must recognise in them some portion of
himself. Whatever opinion we may have
adopted as to the origin of ideas, we must
acknowledge the utility of a labour which
has for its object the examination of their
progress and direction:--but it is not enough
to observe the developement of our faculties,
we must ascend to their source, in order to
give an account of the nature, and of the
independence, of the will of man.
We cannot consider that question as an
idle one, which endeavours to learn whether
the soul has an independent faculty of feel-
ing and of thinking. It is the question of
Hamlet--" To be, or not to be? "
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? 32 PHItOSOPHY AND MORAlS,
CHAPTER III.
Of French Philosophy.
Descartes, for a long period, was at the
head of French philosophers; and if his
physics had not been confessedly erroneous,
perhaps his metaphysics would have pre-
served a more lasting ascendant. Bossuet,
Fenelon, Pascal, all the great men of the
age of Louis XIV. had adopted the Idealism
of Descartes: and this system agreed much
better with the Catholic religion than that
philosophy which is purely experimental;
for it appeared singularly difficult to com-
bine a faith in the most mysterious doctrines
with the sovereign empire of sensation over
the soul.
Among the French metaphysicians who
have professed the doctrine of Locke, we
must reckon, in the first class, Condillac,
whose priestly office obliged him to use
some caution in regard to religion; and
Bonnet, who, being naturally religious, lived
at Geneva; in a country where learning and
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? FRENCH PHILOSOPHY. S3
piety are inseparable. These two philoso-
phers, Bonnet especially, have established
exceptions in favour of revelation; but it
appears to me, that one of the causes of the
diminution of respect for Religion, is this
custom of setting her apart from all the
sciences; as if philosophy, reasoning, every
thing, in short, which is esteemed in earthly
affairs, could not be applied to Religion: an
ironical veneration removes her to a distance
from all the interests of life; it is, if we may
so express ourselves, to bow her out of the
circle of the human mind. In every coun-
try, where a religious belief is predominant,
it is the centre of ideas; and philosophy
consists in the rational interpretation of di-
vine truths.
When Descartes wrote, Bacon's philoso-
phy had not yet penetrated into France;
and that country was then in the same state
of scholastic ignorance and superstition as at
the epoch when the great English master of
the art of thinking published his' works.
There are two methods of correcting the pre-
judices of men--the recourse to experience,
and the appeal to reflection. Baconadopted
the first means; Descartes the second. The
one has rendered immense service to the
vol. in. d
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? 34 PHILOSOPHY AND MORALS.
sciences; the other to thought itself, which
is the source of all the sciences.
Bacon was a man of much greater genius,
and of still ampler learning, than Descartes.
He has known how to establish his philoso-
phy in the material world : that of Descartes
was brought into discredit by the learned,
who attacked with success his opinions upon
the system of the world: he could reason
justly in the examination of the mind, and
deceived himself in relation to the physical
laws of the universe: but the opinions of men
resting almost entirely upon a blind and pre-
cipitate confidence in analogy, they believed
that he who had observed so ill what passed
without him, was no better instructed as to
the world within. In his manner of writing,
Descartes shows a simplicity and overflow-
ing goodness of nature, which inspires his
readers with confidence; and the energy of
his genius will not be contested. Never-
theless, when we compare him, either to the
German philosophers or to Plato, we can
neither find in his works the theory of ideal-
ism in all its abstraction, nor the poetical
imagination, which constitutes its beauty.
Yet a ray of light had passed over the mind
of Descartes, and his is the glory of having
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? 'FRENCH PHILOSOPHY. 35
directed the philosophy of his day towards
the interior clevelopement of the soul. He
produced a great effect by referring all re-
ceived truths to the test of reflection: these
axioms were admired--" I think, therefore I
44 exist; therefore I have a Creator, the per-
"feet source of my imperfect faculties : every
"thing without us may be called in question:
"truth is only in the mind, and the mind is
44 the supreme judge of truth. "
Universal doubt is the A B C of philoso-
phy: every man begins to reason again by
the aid of his own native light, when he at-
tempts to ascend to the principles of things;
but the authority of Aristotle had so com-
pletely. introduced the dogmatic method into
Europe, that the age was astonished at the
boldness of Descartes, who submitted all
opinions to natural judgment.
The Port Royal writers were formed in
his school; so that France produced men of
a severer turn of thought in the seventeenth
than in the eighteenth century. At the side
of their graceful and engaging genius ap-
peared a certain gravity, which betrayed the
natural influence of a system of philosophy
that attributed all our ideas to the power of
reflection.
d2
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? 36 PHILOSOPHY AND MORALS.
Mallebranche, the principal disciple of
Descartes, was a man gifted with the ener-
gies of mind in an eminent degree. They
have been pleased to consider him as a
dreamer in the eighteenth century; and in
Franoe it is all over with that writer who
has the character of a dreamer; for it im-
plies the idea of total inutility as to the pur-
poses of life, and this is peculiarly offensive
to all reasonable persons, as they are en-
titled ;--but this word Utility--is it quite no-
ble enough to be applied to all the cravings
of the soul?
The French writers of the eighteenth cen-
O
tury excelled most in the study of political
liberty ; those of the seventeenth in the study
of moral liberty. The philosophers of the
one period were combatants; of the other
anchorets. Under an absolute government,
like that of Louis the XlVth, independence
finds no asylum but in meditation: in the
disorderly reigns of the last century, the men
of letters were animated with the desire of
winning over the government of their coun-
try to the liberal principles and ideas of
which England displayed so fair an example.
The writers who have not gone beyond this
point, are very deserving of the esteem of
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? FRENCH PHILOSOPHY. ' 37
their countrymen ; but it is not the less true,
that the works composed in the seventeenth
century are more philosophical, in many re-
spects, than those which have since been
published; for philosophy especially consists
in the study and the knowledge of our intel-
lectual existence.
The philosophers of the eighteenth cen-
tury have busied themselves rather with so-
cial politics than with the primitive nature of
man; those of the seventeenth century, solely
and precisely from their being religious men,
had a more thorough knowledge of the
human heart. During the decline of the
French monarchy, the philosophers turned
the direction of thought, which they used
as a weapon, to what was passing without
them: under the empire of Louis the XlVth,
they were more attached to the ideal meta-
physics, because the exercise of recollection
was more habitual to them, and they had
more occasion for it. In order to raise the
French genius to its highest degree of per-
fection, it would be requisite to learn, from
the writers of the eighteenth century, how
to use our faculties to advantage; and from
those of the seventeenth, how to study their
source-
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? 38 PHILOSOPHY AND MORALS.
Descartes, Pascal, and Mallebranche, had
much more resemblance to the German phi-
losophers than the French writers of the
eighteenth century; but Mallebranche and
the Germans differ in this, that the one lays
down as an article of faith what the others
reduce into a scientific theory:--the one
aims at clothing the forms inspired by his
imagination in a dogmatic dress, because he
is afraid of being accused of enthusiasm;
while the others, writing at the end of an
sera when analysis has been extended to
every object of study, know that they are
enthusiasts, and are solely anxious to prove
that reason and enthusiasm are of one ac-
cord.
If the French had followed the metaphy-
sical bias of their great men of the seven-
teenth century, they would now have enter-
tained the same opinions as the Germans;
for in the progress of philosophy Leibnitz is
the natural successor of Descartes and Malle-
branche, and Kant of Leibnitz.
England had great influence over the
writers of the eighteenth century; the admi-
ration which they felt for that country in-
spired them with the wish of introducing into
France her liberty and her philosophy. Eng-
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? FRENCH PHILOSOPHY. 39
Jish philosophy was then only void of danger
when united with the religious sentiments of
that people, with their liberty, and with
their obedience to the laws. In the bosom
of a nation where Newton and Clarke never
pronounced the name of God without bow-
ing their heads, let the metaphysical sys-
tems have been ever so erroneous, they could
not be fatal. That which is every way
wanting in France, is the feeling and habit
of veneration; and the transition is there
very quick from the examination which may
enlighten, to the irony which reduces every
thing to dust.
It seems to me that we may observe two
perfectly distinct epochs in the eighteenth
century; that in which Jhe influence of Eng-
land was first acknowledged, and that in
which the men of genius hurried themselves
into destruction: light was then changed to
conflagration; and Philosophy, like an en-
raged enchantress, set fire to the palace
where she had displayed her wonders.
In politics, Montesquieu belongs to the
. first epoch, Raynal to the second: in reli-
gion, the writings of Voltaire, which had the
defence of toleration for their object, breathed
the spirit of the first half of the century; but
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? 40 PHILOSOPHY A ND MORALS.
his pitiable and ostentatious irreligion has*
been the disgrace of the second. Finalty,
in metaphysics, Condillac and Helvetius, al-
though they were contemporaries, both carry
about them the impression of these very dif-
ferent eras; for, although the entire system
of the philosophy of sensation was wrong
in its principle, yet the consequences which
Helvetius has drawn from it ought not to be
imputed to Condillac; he was far from as-
senting to them.
Condillac has rendered experimental me-
taphysics more clear and more striking than
they are in Locke: he has truly levelled them
to the comprehension of all the world: he
says, with Locke, that the soul can have no
idea which does not come in from sensation;
he attributes to our wants the origin of
knowledge and of language; to words, that
of reflection: and thus, making us receive
the entire developement of our moral being
from external objects, he explains human
nature as he would a positive science, in
a clear, rapid, and, in some respects, con-
vincing manner; for if we neither felt in.
our hearts the native impulses of belief, nor
a conscience independent of experience, nor
a creating spirit, in all the force of the term,
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? FRENCH PHILOSOPHY. 41
we might be well enough contented with
this mechanical definition of the human soul.
It is natural to be seduced by the easy solu-
tion of the greatest of problems; but this
apparent simplicity exists only in the mode
of inquiry; the object to which it is pretend-
ingly applied does not the less continue of
an unknown immensity; and the enigma of
ourselves swallows up, like the sphinx, thou-
sands of systems which pretend to the glory
of having guessed its meaning.
The work of Condillac ought only to be
considered as another book on an inexhausti-
ble subject, if the influence of this book
had not been fatal. Helvetius, who deduces
from the philosophy of sensations all the
direct consequences which it can admit,
asserts, that if the hands of man had been
made like the hoofs of the horse, he would
only have possessed the intelligence of this
animal. Assuredly, if the case was so, it
would be very unjust to attribute to ourselves
any thing blameable or meritorious in our
actions; for the difference which may exist
between the several organizations of indi-
viduals, would authorize and be the proper
cause of the difference in their characters.
To the opinions of Helvetius succeeded
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? 14 PHf tOStffti* ^Nli MORALS.
liberty of man: nevertheless, we cannot
compare him to the materialists of the last
age; and his successors have pushed the
theory of experience much beyond his in-
tention. He is far, I repeat it, from attri-
buting all our ideas to our sensations^ and
from considering analysis a* the sole instru-
ment of discovery. He frequently follows
& more daring path; and if he adheres to
experimental logic to remove all the preju-
dices which encumber his progress, it is to
the spring of genius alone that he trusts to
forward his advance.
"The human mind," says Luther, "is
"like a drunken peasant on horseback; when
'4 we put it up on one side, it falls down or*
"the other. "--Thus man Has incessantly
fluctuated between his two natures; some-
times his thoughts have disentangled him
from his sensations; sometimes his sensa-
tions have absorbed his thoughts, and he has
wished, successively, to refer every thing
to one or the other: it however appears to
me, that the moment for a fixed doctrine
has arrived* Metaphysics are about to un-
dergo a revolution, like that which Coperni-
cus has produced in the system of the world.
They are about to replace the soul of man in
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? ENGLISH PHILOSOPHY. 1$
the centre, and to make it, in every respect,
like the sun; round which external objects'
trace their circle, and from which they bor-
row their light.
The genealogical tree of the different
branches of human knowledge, in which1
every science is referred to a certain faculty,
is doubtless one of the titles of Bacon to the
admiration of posterity; but that which
constitutes his real glory is this--that he has1
announced his opinion, that there was no
absolute separation of one science from
another; but that general philosophy re-
united them all. He is not the author
of that anatomical method:, which consi-
ders the intellectual powers severally, or
each by itself; and which appears to be
ignorant of the admirable unity in the moral
being. Sensibility, imagination, reason, each
is subservient to the other. Every one
of these faculties would be nothing but
a disease, but weakness, instead of strength,
if it were not modified or completed by
the collective character of our nature.
The exact sciences, at a certain height, stand
in need of the Imagination. She, in her
turn, must support herself upon he accu-
rate knowledge of . Nature. Reason, of all
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? 16 PHILOSOPHY AND MORALS.
our faculties, appears to be that which
would most easily do without the assistance
of the others; and yet, if a person were en-
tirely unprovided with imagination and sen-
sibility, he might by that very want become,
if we may so express it, the fool of Reason;
and, seeing nothing in life but calculations
and material interests, deceive himself as
much concerning the characters and affec-
tions of men, as the enthusiastic being whose
fancy pictures all around him disinterested-
ness and love.
We follow a bad system of education,
when we aim at the exclusive developernent
of this or that quality of mind; for, to de-
vote ourselves to one faculty, is to take up
an intellectual trade. Milton says, with rea-
son, that our education is not good, excepting
when it renders us capable of every employ
in peace or war: all that makes the man
A Man, is the true object of instruction.
Not to know any thing of a science but
that portion of it which individually belongs
to us, is to apply the division of labour
(inculcated by Smith) to the liberal studies,
when it is only adapted to the mechanic
arts. When we arrive at that height where
every science touches upon all the rest in
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? feNGLtSIt PHILOSOPHY; 17
Some particulars, it is then that we approach
the region of universal ideas; and the air
which breathes from that region gives life to
all our thoughts.
The soul is a fire that darts its rays through
all the senses: it is in this fire that existence
consists: all the observations and all the
efforts of philosophers ought to turn towards
this point of individuality--the centre and
the moving power of our sentiments and our
ideas. Doubtless, the imperfection of lan-
guage compels us to make use of erroneous
expressions; we are obliged to repeat, accord-
ing to the customary phrase, such a person
is endowed with the power of reason, of
imagination, or of sensibility, &c. ; but, if
we wish to be understood in a single word,
we ought to say, he has soul--an abundance
of soul*. It is this divine spirit that makes
the whole man.
Love is the instructor who teaches us
more certainly what belongs to the mysteries
of the soul, than the utmost metaphysical
subtilty. We never attach ourselves to this
* M. Ancilloo, of whom I shall have occasion to speak
in the Fourth Part of this work, has made use of this ex-
pression in a book, upon which one cannot grow tired of
meditating.
VOL. III. C
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? 18 PHILOSOPHY AND MORALS.
qr that qualification of the object of our pre-
ference; and every madrigal reveals a great
philosophical truth, when it says--" I love
"I know not why \" for this "I know not
"why," is that collective character, and that
harmony, which we recognise by love, by
admiration, by all the sentiments which re-
veal to us what is most deep and most secret
in the heart of another.
The method of analysis, which can only
examine by division, applies itself like the
dissect ing-knife to dead nature; but it is a
bad instrument to teach us to understand
what is living; and if we feel a difficulty in
verbally defining that animated conception
v{hich represents whole objects to our mind,
it is precisely because that conception clings
more closely to the very essence of things.
To divide, in order to comprehend, is a sign
of weakness in philosophy; as to divide, in
order to rule, is a sign of weakness in
political power.
^acon adhered much more than is believed
to that ideal philosophy, which, from the
days of Plato down to our own, has con-
stantly re-appeared under different forms. --
Nevertheless, the success of his analytical
method in the exact sciences has necessarily
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? ENGLISH PHILOSOPHY. 19
had an influence over his metaphysical sys-
tem. His doctrine of sensations, considered
as the origin of ideas, has been understood
in a much more positive sense than that in
which he maintained it himself. We can
clearly see the influence of this doctrine in
the two schools which it has produced--that
of Hobbes, and that of Locke. Certainly
they differ very much jn their intent; but
their principles are alike in many respects.
Hobbes embraced to the letter that philo-
sophy which derives all our ideas from the
impressions of sense. He feared not the
consequences; and he has boldly said, "that
"the soul is as much subjected to necessity,
"as society to despotism. " He admits the
fatalism of sensation as the controller of
thought, and that of force as the controller
of action. He annihilates moral as well as
civil liberty; thinking, with reason, that
one depends upon the other. He was an
Atheist and a slave, and nothing is more in
the course of things; for if there is in man
but the impress of sensations received from
without, earthly power is every thing, and
our soul and our destiny equally depend
upon it.
The cultivation of all pure and elevated
c2
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? 20 PHILOSOPHY AND MORALS.
sentiments is so consolidated in England, by*
political and religious institutions, that the
scepticisms of genius revolve around these
imposing columns without ever shaking them;
Hobbes, accordingly, has gained few parti-
sans in his country; but the influence of
Locke has been more universal. As his cha-
racter was moral and religious, he did not
allow himself to use any of those dangerous
reasonings which are necessarily derived
from his metaphysical system; and the
greater part of his countrymen, in adopting
that system, have shown the same glorious
want of consistency, which he did--have se-
parated results from principles-^until Hume,
and the French philosophers, having ad-
mitted the system, made application of it
in a much more logical manner.
The metaphysical doctrines of Locke have
had no other effect upon the wits of Eng-
land, than to tarnish a little their natural
originality: if they had even dried up the
source of high philosophical reflection, they
would not have destroyed that religious sen-
timent which can so well supply the want
of it: but these doctrines, so generally re-
ceived throughout the rest of Europe (Ger-
many excepted), have been one of the pr'm-
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? ENGLISH PHILOSOPHY. 21
cipal causes of that immorality, the advo-
cates of which have formed it into a theory,
in order to make its practice more certain.
Locke exerted his especial endeavours to
prove that there is nothing innate in the
mind. He was right in his own sense, for
he always blended with the meaning of the
word Idea that of a notion acquired by ex-
perience: ideas thus conceived are the result
of the objects that excite, of the compa-
risons that assemble them, and of the lan-
guage that expedites their union. But this
is not the case with the sentiments, with the
dispositions, and the faculties which consti. .
tute the laws of the human understanding,
in the same manner that attraction and im-
pulse constitute the laws of external nature.
It is truly worth observing what kind of
arguments Locke has been compelled to
adopt, in order to prove that every thing in
the mind came there by means of sensation.
If these arguments led to the truth, doubt-
less we ought to overcome the moral aver-
sion with which they inspire us; but, in ge-
neral, we may trust to this sort of aversion
as an infallible token of what must be
avoided. Locke wished to show that con-
science, or the sense of good and evil, was
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? 22 PHILOSOPHY AND MORALS.
not innate in man; and that we know no-
thing of justice or injustice, except from ex-
perience, as we learn to distinguish red from
blue. To arrive at this conclusion, he has
carefully inquired after all those countries
where the laws and customs pay respect to
crimes; those, for instance, in which it is
thought a duty to kill an enemy; to despise
marriage; to put a father to death, when he
has grown old. He attentively collects every
thing that travellers have related of barbari-
ties which have passed into daily practice.
Of what nature then must that system be,
which excites, in so virtuous a man as
Locke, an eagerness for such narrations?
Let them be melancholy tales, or not, it
may be said, the important thing is to know
if they are true. --Allow them to be true, of
what consequence are they? Do we not
know, by our own experience, that circum-
stances, in other words external objects,
have an influence over the manner in which
we interpret our duties? Amplify these
circumstances, and you will find in them the
causes of national error; but is there any
nation, or any man, that denies the obliga-
tion of all duty? Has it ever been pretended
that the ideas of justice and injustice have
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? no me&ning? Different explanations of them
may prevail in different places j but . the
conviction of the principle is every where
the same; and it is in this cbrtvictioh that
the primitive impression consists, which we
recognise in every being of hutnan birth.
When the savage kills his aged father, he
believes that he renders the old man a ser. t
vice; he does not act for his own interest,
but for that of his parent: the deed he com-
mits is horrible; and yet he is not on that
account devoid of conscience: because he is
ignorant, he is hot therefore vicious. The
sensations, that is to Say, the external objects
with which he is surrounded, blind him;
the inward sentiment, which constitutes the
hatred for vice and the love of virtue, does
not the less exist within him, because he
has been deceived by experience as tt the
manner in which this sentiment ought to be
manifested in his life. To prefer others t6
ourselves, when virtue Commands the prefer-
ence's precisely that. in which the esfsence of
moral beauty consists; and this admirable
instinct of the soul, the opponent of our
physical instinct, is inherent in our nature;
if it could be acquired, it could also be lost;
but it is unchangeable, because it is innate,
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? 24 PHILOSOPHY AND MORALS.
Jt is possible for us to do evil, when we be-
lieve we are doing good; a man may be cul-
pable knowingly and willingly; but he can-
not admit a contradiction for a truth, that
justice is injustice.
There is such a thing as indifference to
good and evil, and it is the ordinary result of
civilization, when its coldness has reached
the point of petrifaction, if the expression
may be allowed; this indifference is a much
greater argument against an innate con-
science than the gross errors of savages:
but the most sceptical of men, if they are
sufferers from oppression in any relation of
life, appeal to justice, as if they had be*
lieved in it all their days; and when they
are seized with any vivid affection, and ty-
rannical power is exerted to control it, they
can invoke the sentiment of equity with as
much force as the most severe of moralists.
When the flame of any passion, whether it
be indignation or love, takes possession of
the soul, the sacred hand-writing of the
eternal law may be seen by that light re-
appearing in our bosoms.
If the accident of birth and education de-
cided the morality of man, how could we
accuse him for his actions? If all that comi
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? ENGLISH PHILOSOPHY. 25
poses our will comes to us from external
objects, every one may appeal to his own
particular relations for the motives of his
whole conduct; and frequently these rela-
tions diner as much between the inhabitants
of the same country, as between an Asiatic
and European. If circumstances then were
to be the deities of mortals, it would be in
order for every man to have his peculiar
morality, or rather a want of morals accord-
ing to his respective practice; and to coun-
teract the evil which sensation might sug-
gest, no efficient reason could be opposed to
it, except the public power of punishment:
now, if that public power commanded us to
be unjust, the question would be resolved;
every sensation might be the parent of every
jdea, which would lead us on to the most
complete depravity.
The proofs of the spirituality of the soul
cannot be discovered in the empire of the
senses. The visible world is abandoned
to their dominion; but the invisible will
not be subjected to it; and if we do not ad-
mit that there are ideas of spontaneous
growth, if thought and sentiment depend
entirely upon sensations, how should the
? oul, that submits to suck a state of servi-
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? 26 PHILOSOPHY AND MORALS.
tude, be an immaterial essence? And if, aft
jiobody denies, the greater part of the know-
ledge transmitted by the senses is liable to
error, what sort of a moral being must that
be, who does not act until aroused by out-
ward objects, and by objects even whose
appearances are often deceitful?
A French philosopher, making use of the
most revolting expression, has said, M that
"thought is nothing but the material pro-
"duct of the brain. " This deplorable defi-
nition is the most natural result of that spe-
cies of metaphysics, which attributes to our
sensations the origin of all our ideas. We are
in the right, if it be so, to laugh at all that is
intellectual, and to make what is impalpable
synonymous with what is incomprehensible.
If the human mind is but a subtle matter,
put in motion by other elements, more or
less gross, in comparison with which even it
has the disadvantage of being passive; if our
impressions and our recollections are nothing
but the prolonged vibrations of an instrument,
which chance has played upon; then there
are only fibres in the brain, there is nothing
but physical force in the world, and every
thing can be explained according to the laws
by which that force is governed. Still there
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? ENGLISH PHILOSOPHY. 27
remain some little difficulties concerning the
origin of things, and the end of our exist-
ence; but the question has been much sim-
plified--and reason now counsels us to sup-
press within our souls all the desires and all
the hopes that genius, love, and religion call
to life; for, according to this system, man
would only be another machine in the
great mechanism of the universe; his facul-
ties would be all wheel-work, his morality
a matter of calculation, and his divinity
success.
Locke, believing from the bottom of his
soul in the existence of God, established his
conviction, without perceiving it, upon rea-
sonings which are all taken out of the
sphere of experience: he asserts the exist-
ence of an eternal principle, the primary
cause of all other causes; thus he enters into
the region of infinity, and that region lies
beyond all experience: but Locke, at the
game time, was so apprehensive lest the idea
of God should pass for an innate idea in man,
it appeared to him so absurd that the Crea-
tor should have deigned to inscribe his name,
like that of a great painter, upon the tablet
of the soul, that he set himself to discover,
out of all the narratives of travellers, some
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? 28 PHILOSOPHY AND MORALS.
nations who were destitute of any religious
belief. We may, I think, boldly affirm, that
such nations do not exist. The impulse that
exalts us towards the Supreme Being disco-
vers itself in the genius of Newton, as it
does in the soul of the poor savage, who
worships the stone upon which he finds rest.
No man clings exclusively to this world,
such as it is at present; and all have felt in
their hearts, at some period of their lives,
an undefinable inclination towards the su-
pernatural: but, how can it happen, that a
being, so religious as Locke, should try to
change the primitive characters of belief
into an accidental knowledge, which chance
may confer or take away? I repeat it--the
tendency of any doctrine ought always to be
deemed of great account in the judgment
which we form upon the truth of that doc. ^
trine; for, in theory, the good and the true
are inseparable.
All that is visible talks to man of a begin*
ning and an end, of decline and destruction.
A divine spark is the only indication of our
immortality. From what sensation does this
arise? All our sensations fight against it,
and yet it triumphs over them all. What!
it will be said, do not final causes, do not
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? ENGLISH PHILOSOPHY. 29
the wonders of the universe, the splendour
of heaven that strikes our eyes, all declare
the magnificence and the goodness of our
Creator? The book of nature is contradic-
tory; we see there the emblems of good
and evil almost in equal proportion; and
things are thus constituted, in order that
man may be able to exercise his liberty be-
tween opposite probabilities; between fears
and hopes almost of equal power. The
starry heaven appears to us like the threshold
of the Divinity; but all the evils and all the
vices of human nature obscure these celestial
fires. A solitary voice, without speech, but
not without harmony; without force, but
irresistible; proclaims a God at the bot-
tom of the human heart: all that is truly
beautiful in man springs from what he ex-
periences within himself, and spontane-
ously; every heroic action is inspired by
moral liberty:--the act of devoting ourselves
to the divine will, that act which every sen-
sation opposes, and which enthusiasm alone
inspires, is so noble and so pure, that the
angels themselves, virtuous as they are by
nature, and without impediment, might
envy it to man.
That species of metaphysics which dis-
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? 30 PHILOSOPHY AND MORALS.
places the centre of life, by supposing its
impulse to come from without, despoils man
of his liberty, and destroys itself; for a
spiritual nature no longer exists, when we
unite it in such a manner to a corporeal
nature, that it is only by consideration for
religious opinion we consent to distinguish
them: such a system shrinks from its own
consequences, excepting when it derives from
them, as it has done in France, materialism
built upon sensation, and morality built
upon interest. The abstract theory of this
system was born in England; but none of
its consequences have been admitted there.
In France they have not had the honour of
the discovery, but in a great degree that of
the application. In Germany, since the time
of Leibnitz, they have opposed the system
and its consequences: and, assuredly, it is
worthy of enlightened and religious men of
all countries, to inquire if those principles,
whose results are so fatal, ought to be con-
sidered as incontestable truths.
Shaftesbury, Hutcheson, Smith, Reid,
Dugald Stewart, &c. have studied the ope-
rations of the human mind with a rare saga-
city: the works of Dugald Stewart, in par-
ticular, contain so perfect a theory of the
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? ENGLISH PHILOSOPHY. 31
intellectual faculties, that we may consider
them, to use the expression, as the natural
history of the moral being. Every indivi-
dual must recognise in them some portion of
himself. Whatever opinion we may have
adopted as to the origin of ideas, we must
acknowledge the utility of a labour which
has for its object the examination of their
progress and direction:--but it is not enough
to observe the developement of our faculties,
we must ascend to their source, in order to
give an account of the nature, and of the
independence, of the will of man.
We cannot consider that question as an
idle one, which endeavours to learn whether
the soul has an independent faculty of feel-
ing and of thinking. It is the question of
Hamlet--" To be, or not to be? "
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? 32 PHItOSOPHY AND MORAlS,
CHAPTER III.
Of French Philosophy.
Descartes, for a long period, was at the
head of French philosophers; and if his
physics had not been confessedly erroneous,
perhaps his metaphysics would have pre-
served a more lasting ascendant. Bossuet,
Fenelon, Pascal, all the great men of the
age of Louis XIV. had adopted the Idealism
of Descartes: and this system agreed much
better with the Catholic religion than that
philosophy which is purely experimental;
for it appeared singularly difficult to com-
bine a faith in the most mysterious doctrines
with the sovereign empire of sensation over
the soul.
Among the French metaphysicians who
have professed the doctrine of Locke, we
must reckon, in the first class, Condillac,
whose priestly office obliged him to use
some caution in regard to religion; and
Bonnet, who, being naturally religious, lived
at Geneva; in a country where learning and
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? FRENCH PHILOSOPHY. S3
piety are inseparable. These two philoso-
phers, Bonnet especially, have established
exceptions in favour of revelation; but it
appears to me, that one of the causes of the
diminution of respect for Religion, is this
custom of setting her apart from all the
sciences; as if philosophy, reasoning, every
thing, in short, which is esteemed in earthly
affairs, could not be applied to Religion: an
ironical veneration removes her to a distance
from all the interests of life; it is, if we may
so express ourselves, to bow her out of the
circle of the human mind. In every coun-
try, where a religious belief is predominant,
it is the centre of ideas; and philosophy
consists in the rational interpretation of di-
vine truths.
When Descartes wrote, Bacon's philoso-
phy had not yet penetrated into France;
and that country was then in the same state
of scholastic ignorance and superstition as at
the epoch when the great English master of
the art of thinking published his' works.
There are two methods of correcting the pre-
judices of men--the recourse to experience,
and the appeal to reflection. Baconadopted
the first means; Descartes the second. The
one has rendered immense service to the
vol. in. d
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? 34 PHILOSOPHY AND MORALS.
sciences; the other to thought itself, which
is the source of all the sciences.
Bacon was a man of much greater genius,
and of still ampler learning, than Descartes.
He has known how to establish his philoso-
phy in the material world : that of Descartes
was brought into discredit by the learned,
who attacked with success his opinions upon
the system of the world: he could reason
justly in the examination of the mind, and
deceived himself in relation to the physical
laws of the universe: but the opinions of men
resting almost entirely upon a blind and pre-
cipitate confidence in analogy, they believed
that he who had observed so ill what passed
without him, was no better instructed as to
the world within. In his manner of writing,
Descartes shows a simplicity and overflow-
ing goodness of nature, which inspires his
readers with confidence; and the energy of
his genius will not be contested. Never-
theless, when we compare him, either to the
German philosophers or to Plato, we can
neither find in his works the theory of ideal-
ism in all its abstraction, nor the poetical
imagination, which constitutes its beauty.
Yet a ray of light had passed over the mind
of Descartes, and his is the glory of having
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? 'FRENCH PHILOSOPHY. 35
directed the philosophy of his day towards
the interior clevelopement of the soul. He
produced a great effect by referring all re-
ceived truths to the test of reflection: these
axioms were admired--" I think, therefore I
44 exist; therefore I have a Creator, the per-
"feet source of my imperfect faculties : every
"thing without us may be called in question:
"truth is only in the mind, and the mind is
44 the supreme judge of truth. "
Universal doubt is the A B C of philoso-
phy: every man begins to reason again by
the aid of his own native light, when he at-
tempts to ascend to the principles of things;
but the authority of Aristotle had so com-
pletely. introduced the dogmatic method into
Europe, that the age was astonished at the
boldness of Descartes, who submitted all
opinions to natural judgment.
The Port Royal writers were formed in
his school; so that France produced men of
a severer turn of thought in the seventeenth
than in the eighteenth century. At the side
of their graceful and engaging genius ap-
peared a certain gravity, which betrayed the
natural influence of a system of philosophy
that attributed all our ideas to the power of
reflection.
d2
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? 36 PHILOSOPHY AND MORALS.
Mallebranche, the principal disciple of
Descartes, was a man gifted with the ener-
gies of mind in an eminent degree. They
have been pleased to consider him as a
dreamer in the eighteenth century; and in
Franoe it is all over with that writer who
has the character of a dreamer; for it im-
plies the idea of total inutility as to the pur-
poses of life, and this is peculiarly offensive
to all reasonable persons, as they are en-
titled ;--but this word Utility--is it quite no-
ble enough to be applied to all the cravings
of the soul?
The French writers of the eighteenth cen-
O
tury excelled most in the study of political
liberty ; those of the seventeenth in the study
of moral liberty. The philosophers of the
one period were combatants; of the other
anchorets. Under an absolute government,
like that of Louis the XlVth, independence
finds no asylum but in meditation: in the
disorderly reigns of the last century, the men
of letters were animated with the desire of
winning over the government of their coun-
try to the liberal principles and ideas of
which England displayed so fair an example.
The writers who have not gone beyond this
point, are very deserving of the esteem of
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? FRENCH PHILOSOPHY. ' 37
their countrymen ; but it is not the less true,
that the works composed in the seventeenth
century are more philosophical, in many re-
spects, than those which have since been
published; for philosophy especially consists
in the study and the knowledge of our intel-
lectual existence.
The philosophers of the eighteenth cen-
tury have busied themselves rather with so-
cial politics than with the primitive nature of
man; those of the seventeenth century, solely
and precisely from their being religious men,
had a more thorough knowledge of the
human heart. During the decline of the
French monarchy, the philosophers turned
the direction of thought, which they used
as a weapon, to what was passing without
them: under the empire of Louis the XlVth,
they were more attached to the ideal meta-
physics, because the exercise of recollection
was more habitual to them, and they had
more occasion for it. In order to raise the
French genius to its highest degree of per-
fection, it would be requisite to learn, from
the writers of the eighteenth century, how
to use our faculties to advantage; and from
those of the seventeenth, how to study their
source-
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? 38 PHILOSOPHY AND MORALS.
Descartes, Pascal, and Mallebranche, had
much more resemblance to the German phi-
losophers than the French writers of the
eighteenth century; but Mallebranche and
the Germans differ in this, that the one lays
down as an article of faith what the others
reduce into a scientific theory:--the one
aims at clothing the forms inspired by his
imagination in a dogmatic dress, because he
is afraid of being accused of enthusiasm;
while the others, writing at the end of an
sera when analysis has been extended to
every object of study, know that they are
enthusiasts, and are solely anxious to prove
that reason and enthusiasm are of one ac-
cord.
If the French had followed the metaphy-
sical bias of their great men of the seven-
teenth century, they would now have enter-
tained the same opinions as the Germans;
for in the progress of philosophy Leibnitz is
the natural successor of Descartes and Malle-
branche, and Kant of Leibnitz.
England had great influence over the
writers of the eighteenth century; the admi-
ration which they felt for that country in-
spired them with the wish of introducing into
France her liberty and her philosophy. Eng-
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? FRENCH PHILOSOPHY. 39
Jish philosophy was then only void of danger
when united with the religious sentiments of
that people, with their liberty, and with
their obedience to the laws. In the bosom
of a nation where Newton and Clarke never
pronounced the name of God without bow-
ing their heads, let the metaphysical sys-
tems have been ever so erroneous, they could
not be fatal. That which is every way
wanting in France, is the feeling and habit
of veneration; and the transition is there
very quick from the examination which may
enlighten, to the irony which reduces every
thing to dust.
It seems to me that we may observe two
perfectly distinct epochs in the eighteenth
century; that in which Jhe influence of Eng-
land was first acknowledged, and that in
which the men of genius hurried themselves
into destruction: light was then changed to
conflagration; and Philosophy, like an en-
raged enchantress, set fire to the palace
where she had displayed her wonders.
In politics, Montesquieu belongs to the
. first epoch, Raynal to the second: in reli-
gion, the writings of Voltaire, which had the
defence of toleration for their object, breathed
the spirit of the first half of the century; but
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? 40 PHILOSOPHY A ND MORALS.
his pitiable and ostentatious irreligion has*
been the disgrace of the second. Finalty,
in metaphysics, Condillac and Helvetius, al-
though they were contemporaries, both carry
about them the impression of these very dif-
ferent eras; for, although the entire system
of the philosophy of sensation was wrong
in its principle, yet the consequences which
Helvetius has drawn from it ought not to be
imputed to Condillac; he was far from as-
senting to them.
Condillac has rendered experimental me-
taphysics more clear and more striking than
they are in Locke: he has truly levelled them
to the comprehension of all the world: he
says, with Locke, that the soul can have no
idea which does not come in from sensation;
he attributes to our wants the origin of
knowledge and of language; to words, that
of reflection: and thus, making us receive
the entire developement of our moral being
from external objects, he explains human
nature as he would a positive science, in
a clear, rapid, and, in some respects, con-
vincing manner; for if we neither felt in.
our hearts the native impulses of belief, nor
a conscience independent of experience, nor
a creating spirit, in all the force of the term,
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? FRENCH PHILOSOPHY. 41
we might be well enough contented with
this mechanical definition of the human soul.
It is natural to be seduced by the easy solu-
tion of the greatest of problems; but this
apparent simplicity exists only in the mode
of inquiry; the object to which it is pretend-
ingly applied does not the less continue of
an unknown immensity; and the enigma of
ourselves swallows up, like the sphinx, thou-
sands of systems which pretend to the glory
of having guessed its meaning.
The work of Condillac ought only to be
considered as another book on an inexhausti-
ble subject, if the influence of this book
had not been fatal. Helvetius, who deduces
from the philosophy of sensations all the
direct consequences which it can admit,
asserts, that if the hands of man had been
made like the hoofs of the horse, he would
only have possessed the intelligence of this
animal. Assuredly, if the case was so, it
would be very unjust to attribute to ourselves
any thing blameable or meritorious in our
actions; for the difference which may exist
between the several organizations of indi-
viduals, would authorize and be the proper
cause of the difference in their characters.
To the opinions of Helvetius succeeded
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