The person himself,
who consults the oracle, descends into it.
who consults the oracle, descends into it.
Strabo
Here Hyrieus is fabled
to have lived, and here is the scene of the birth of Orion, which Pindar
mentions in the dithyrambics. It is situated near Aulis. Some persons
say that Hysiæ is called Hyria, which belongs to Parasopia, situated
below Cithæron, near Erythræ, in the inland parts; it is a colony of the
Hyrienses, and was founded by Nycteus, the father of Antiope. There is
also in the Argive territory a village, Hysiæ, the inhabitants of which
are called Hysiatæ. Erythræ in Ionia is a colony of this Erythræ.
Heleon, [CAS. 405] a Tanagrian village, has its name from (Hele) the
marshes there.
13. After Salganeus is Anthedon, a city with a harbour, the last on the
Bœotian coast towards Eubœa, as the poet says,
“Anthedon at the extremity. ”[344]
As we proceed a little farther, there are besides two small towns,
belonging to the Bœotians, Larymna, near which the Cephissus discharges
its waters; and farther above, Halæ, of the same name as the Attic
demus. Opposite to this coast is situated, it is said, Ægæ[345] in
Eubœa, where is the temple of the Ægæan Neptune, of which we have before
spoken. There is a passage across from Anthedon to Ægæ of 120 stadia,
and from the other places much less than this. The temple is situated
upon a lofty hill, where was once a city. Near Ægæ was Orobiæ. [346] In
the Anthedonian territory is the mountain Messapius,[347] which has its
name from Messapus, who when he came into Iapygia called it Messapia.
Here is laid the scene of the fable respecting the Anthedonian Glaucus,
who, it is said, was transformed into a sea-monster. [348]
14. Near Anthedon is a place called Isus, and esteemed sacred, belonging
to Bœotia; it contains remains of a city, and the first syllable of Isus
is short. Some persons are of opinion, that the verse ought to be
written, Ἶσόν τε ζαθέην Ἀνθηδόνα τ’ ἐσχατόωσαν,
“The sacred Isus, and the extreme Anthedon,”
lengthening the first syllable by poetical licence for the sake of the
metre, instead of Νῖσάν τε ζαθέην,
“The sacred Nisa;”
for Nisa is not to be found anywhere in Bœotia, as Apollodorus says in
his observations on the Catalogue of the Ships; so that Nisa could not
stand in this passage, unless by Nisa Homer meant Isus, for there was a
city Nisa, in Megaris, from whence Isus was colonized, situated at the
base of Cithæron, but it exists no longer. [349] Some however write
Κρεῦσάν τε ζαθέην,
“The sacred Creusa,”
meaning the present Creusa, the arsenal of the Thespieans, situated on
the Crisæan Gulf. Others write the passage Φαράς τε ζαθέας,
“The sacred Pharæ,”
Pharæ is one of the four villages, (or Tetracomiæ,) near Tanagra,
namely, Heleon, Harma, Mycalessus, Pharæ. Others again write the passage
thus, Νῦσάν τε ζαθέην,
“The sacred Nysa. ”
Nysa is a village of Helicon.
Such then is the description of the sea-coast opposite Eubœa.
15. The places next in order, in the inland parts, are hollow plains,
surrounded everywhere on the east and west by mountains; on the south by
the mountains of Attica, on the north by those of Phocis: on the west,
Cithæron inclines, obliquely, a little above the Crisæan Sea; it begins
contiguous to the mountains of Megaris and Attica, and then makes a bend
towards the plains, and terminates near the Theban territory.
16. Some of these plains become lakes, by rivers spreading over or
falling into them and then flowing off. Some are dried up, and being
very fertile, are cultivated in every possible way. But as the ground
underneath is full of caverns and fissures, it has frequently happened,
that violent earthquakes have obstructed some passages, and formed
others under-ground, or on the surface, the water being carried off,
either by subterranean channels, or by the formation of lakes and rivers
on the surface. If the deep subterranean passages are stopped up, the
waters of the lakes increase, so as to inundate and cover cities and
whole districts, which become uncovered, if the same or other passages
are again opened. The same regions are thus traversed in boats or on
foot, according [CAS. 405] to circumstances; and the same cities are,
occasionally, on the borders of, or at a distance from, a lake.
17. One of two things took place. The cities either retained their
sites, when the rise of the water was insufficient to overflow the
houses, or they were deserted and rebuilt in some other place, when the
inhabitants, being frequently exposed to danger from their vicinity to
the lake, released themselves from further apprehension, by changing
to a more distant or higher situation. It followed that the cities
thus rebuilt retained the same name. Formerly, they might have had a
name derived from some accidental local circumstance, but now the site
does not correspond with the derivation of the name. For example, it
is probable that Platææ was so called, from πλάτη, or the flat part of
the oar, and Platæans from gaining their livelihood by rowing; but at
present, since they live at a distance from the lake, the name can no
longer, with equal propriety, be derived from this local circumstance.
Helos also, and Heleon, and Heilesium[350] were so called from their
situation close to ἕλη, (Hele,) or marshes; but at present the case is
different with all these places; either they have been rebuilt, or the
lake has been greatly reduced in height by a subsequent efflux of its
waters; for this is possible.
18. This is exemplified particularly in the Cephissus,[351] which fills
the lake Copais. [352] When the increase of the water of that lake was so
great, that Copæ was in danger of being swallowed up, (the city is
mentioned by the poet, and from it the lake had its name,)[353] a
fissure in the ground, which took place not far from the lake, and near
Copæ, opened a subterraneous channel, of about 30 stadia in length, and
received the river, which reappeared on the surface, near Upper Larymna
in Locris; for, as has been mentioned, there is another Larymna, in
Bœotia, on the sea, surnamed the Upper by the Romans. The place where
the river rises again is called Anchoë, as also the lake near it. It is
from this point that the Cephissus begins its course[354] to the sea.
When the overflowing of the water ceased, there was also a cessation of
danger to the inhabitants on the banks, but not before some cities had
been already swallowed up. When the outlets were again obstructed,
Crates the Miner, a man of Chalcis, began to clear away the
obstructions, but desisted in consequence of the Bœotians being in a
state of insurrection; although, as he himself says, in the letter to
Alexander, many places had been already drained; among these, some
writers supposed was the site of the ancient Orchomenus; others, that of
Eleusis, and of Athens on the Triton. These cities are said to have been
founded by Cecrops, when he ruled over Bœotia, then called Ogygia, but
that they were afterwards destroyed by inundations. It is said, that
there was a fissure in the earth near Orchomenus, that admitted the
river Melas,[355] which flows through the territory of Haliartus, and
forms there a marsh, where the reed grows of which the musical pipe is
made. [356] But this river has entirely disappeared, being carried off by
the subterraneous channels of the chasm, or absorbed by the lakes and
marshes about Haliartus; whence the poet calls Haliartus grassy,
“And the grassy Haliartus. ”[357]
19. These rivers descend from the Phocian mountains, and among them the
Cephissus,[358] having its source at Lilæa, a Phocian city, as Homer
describes it;
“And they who occupied Lilæa, at the sources of
Cephissus. ”[359]
It flows through Elateia,[360] the largest of the cities among the
Phocians, through the Parapotamii, and the Phanoteis, which are also
Phocian towns; it then goes onwards to Chæroneia in Bœotia; afterwards,
it traverses the districts of Orchomenus and Coroneia, and discharges
its waters into the lake Copais. The Permessus and the Olmeius[361]
descend from Helicon, and uniting their streams, fall into the lake
Copais near Haliartus. The waters of other streams likewise discharge
themselves into it. It is a large lake with a circuit of 380
stadia;[362] the outlets are nowhere visible, if we [CAS. 407] except
the chasm which receives the Cephissus, and the marshes.
20. Among the neighbouring lakes are Trephea[363] and Cephissis. Homer
mentions it;
“Who dwelt in Hyla, intent upon amassing wealth, close to the
lake Cephissis;”[364]
for he did not mean to specify the lake Copais, as some suppose, but
that called Hylicus,[365] from the neighbouring village, which is called
Hylæ: nor did he mean Hyda, as some write the passage,
“He lived in Hyda,”
for there is a place of this name in Lydia,
“at the foot of the snowy Tmolus, in the fruitful country of
Hyda;”[366]
and another in Bœotia; he therefore adds to
“behind the lake Cephissis,”
these words,
“near dwelt other Bœotians. ”
For the Copais is of great extent, and not situated in the Theban
district, but the other is small, and filled from the former by
subterraneous channels; it is situated between Thebes[367] and Anthedon.
Homer however makes use of the word in the singular number, sometimes
making the first syllable long by poetical licence, as in the Catalogue,
ἠδ’ Ὕλην καὶ Πετεῶνα,[368] and sometimes shortening it, as in this
instance; Ὅς ῥ’ ἐν Ὗλῃ ναίεσκε; and again, Tychius Σκυτοτόμων ὄχ’
ἄριστος Ὕλῃ ἔνι οἰκία ναίων. [369] Nor do some persons correctly write in
this passage, Ὗδῃ ἔνι,
“In Hyda,”
for Ajax was not to send for his shield from Lydia.
21. [370]The lakes themselves would indicate the order in which the
places stand, and thence it would be easy to perceive that the poet,
when naming them, whether they were places of importance or otherwise,
has observed no order. Indeed it would be difficult in the enumeration
of so many places, obscure for the most part, and situated in the
interior, to preserve a regular order. The sea-coast affords more
convenient means of doing this; the places there are better known, and
the sea affords greater facilities for marking their position. We shall
therefore endeavour to take our point of departure from the sea-coast,
and without further discussion, shall follow the poet in his enumeration
of places; at the same time, taking from other sources whatever may
prove useful to us, but which has been omitted by him. He begins from
Hyria and Aulis, of which we have already spoken.
22. Schœnus[371] is a district of the Theban territory on the road to
Anthedon, distant from Thebes about 50 stadia. A river of the name of
Schœnus flows through it.
23. Scolus[372] is a village belonging to the district of Parasopia
situated at the foot of Cithæron; it is a rugged place, and scarcely
habitable, hence the proverbial saying,
“Neither go yourself, nor follow any one going to Scolus. ”
It is said that Pentheus was brought from thence, and torn in pieces.
There was among the cities near Olynthus another of the name of Scolus.
We have said that in the Heracleian Trachinia there was a village of the
name of Parasopii, beside which runs a river Asopus, and that there is
another river Asopus in Sicyonia, and that the country through which it
flows is called Asopia. There are however other rivers of the same name.
24. The name of Eteonus was changed to that of Scarphe, which belongs to
Parasopia. [Parasopia belongs to the Thebais,] for the Asopus and the
Ismenus flow through the plain in front of Thebes. There is the fountain
Dirce, and also Potniæ, where is laid the fable of Glaucus of Potniæ,
who was torn in pieces near the city by Potnian mares. The Cithæron[373]
terminates not far from Thebes. The Asopus flows by it, and washes the
foot of the mountain, and occasions the Parasopii to be distributed
among several settlements, but all of these bodies of people are subject
to the [CAS. 409] Thebans. (Other writers say, that Scolus, Eteonus,
and Erythræ, are in the district of Platææ, for the Asopus flows past
Platææ, and discharges its waters into the sea near Tanagra. ) In the
Theban territory are Therapnæ and Teumessus, which Antimachus has
extolled in a long poem, enumerating excellencies which it had not;
“There is a small hill exposed to the winds,” &c. :
but the lines are well known.
25. He calls the present place Thespiæ[374] by the name of Thespia, for
there are many names, of which some are used both in the singular and in
the plural number, in the masculine and in the feminine gender, and some
in either one or the other only. It is a city close to Helicon, lying
more to the south. The city itself and Helicon are situated on the
Crisæan Gulf. Thespiæ has an arsenal Creusa, or, as it is also named,
Creusia. In the Thespian territory, in the part lying towards Helicon,
is Ascra,[375] the birth-place of Hesiod. It is on the right of Helicon,
situated upon a lofty and rocky spot, at the distance of about 40 stadia
from Thespiæ. Hesiod has satirized it in verses addressed to his father,
for formerly emigrating (to this place) from Cume in Ætolia, as follows:
“He dwelt near Helicon in a wretched village, Ascra; bad in
winter, in summer intolerable, and worthless at any
season. ”[376]
Helicon is contiguous to Phocis on its northern, and partly on its
western side, as far as the last harbour of Phocis, which is called from
its characteristic situation, Mychus, or the Recess.
Just above this part of the Crisæan Gulf, Helicon, Ascra, Thespiæ, and
its arsenal Creusa, are situated. This is considered as the part of the
Crisæan and of the Corinthian Gulf which recedes most inland. The coast
extends 90 stadia from the recess of the harbour to Creusa, and thence
120 as far as the promontory called Holmiæ. In the most retired part of
the Crisæan Gulf, Pagæ and Œnoa, which I have already mentioned, are
situated.
Helicon, not far distant from Parnassus, rivals it in height[377] and
circumference. Both mountains are covered with snow, and are rocky. They
do not occupy a circuit of ground of great extent. There are, the fane
of the Muses, the Horse-fountain Hippocrene,[378] and the grottoes of
the nymphs, the Leibethrides. Hence it might be conjectured, that
Helicon was consecrated to the Muses, by Thracians, who dedicated also
Pieris, the Leibethrum, and Pimpleia to the same goddesses. The
Thracians were called Pieres, and since their expulsion, the Macedonians
possess these places.
It has been remarked, that the Thracians, (having expelled the Bœotians
by force,) and the Pelasgi, and other barbarous people, settled in this
part of Bœotia.
Thespiæ was formerly celebrated for a statue of Cupid by Praxiteles.
Glycera the courtesan, a native of Thespiæ, received it as a present
from the artist, and dedicated it as a public offering to her
fellow-citizens.
Persons formerly used to repair thither to see the Cupid, where there
was nothing else worth seeing. This city, and Tanagra, alone of the
Bœotian cities exist at present, while of others there remain nothing
but ruins and names.
26. [CAS. 410] After Thespiæ the poet enumerates Graia and Mycalessus,
of which we have before spoken.
He proceeds as before,
“They who lived near Harma, Eilesium, and Erythræ,
And they who occupied Eleon, Hyle, and Peteon. ”[379]
Peteon is a village of the Thebais near the road to Anthedon. Ocalea is
midway between Haliartus,[380] and Alalcomenæ,[381] it is distant from
each 30 stadia. A small river of the same name flows by it. Medeon,
belonging to Phocis, is on the Crisæan Gulf, distant from Bœotia 160
stadia. The Medeon of Bœotia has its name from that in Phocis. It is
near Onchestus, under the mountain Phœnicium,[382] whence it has the
appellation of Phœnicis. This mountain is likewise assigned to the
Theban district, but by others to the territories of Haliartus, as also
Medeon and Ocalea.
27. Homer afterwards names,
“Copæ, and Eutresis, and Thisbe, abounding with doves. ”[383]
We have spoken of Copæ. It lies towards the north on the lake Copais.
The other cities around are, Acræphiæ, Phœnicis, Onchestus, Haliartus,
Ocalea, Alalcomenæ, Tilphusium, Coroneia. Formerly, the lake had no one
general name, but derived its appellation from every settlement on its
banks, as Copaïs from Copæ,[384] Haliartis from Haliartus, and other
names from other places, but latterly the whole has been called Copaïs,
for the lake is remarkable for forming at Copæ the deepest hollow.
Pindar calls it Cephissis, and places near it, not far from Haliartus
and Alalcomenæ, the fountain Tilphossa, which flows at the foot of Mount
Tilphossius. At the fountain is the monument of Teiresias, and in the
same place the temple of the Tilphossian Apollo.
28. After Copæ, the poet mentions Eutresis, a small village of the
Thespians. [385] Here Zethus and Amphion lived before they became kings
of Thebes.
Thisbē is now called Thisbæ. The place is situated a little above the
sea-coast on the confines of the Thespienses, and the territory of
Coroneia; on the south it lies at the foot of Cithæron. It has an
arsenal in a rocky situation abounding with doves, whence the poet terms
it
“Thisbe, with its flights of doves. ”
Thence to Sicyon is a voyage of 160 stadia.
29. He next recites the names of Coroneia, Haliartus, Platææ, and
Glissas.
Coroneia[386] is situated upon an eminence, near Helicon. The Bœotians
took possession of it on their return from the Thessalian Arne, after
the Trojan war, when they also occupied Orchomenus. Having become
masters of Coroneia, they built in the plain before the city the temple
of the Itonian Minerva, of the same name as that in Thessaly, and called
the river [CAS. 411] flowing by it, Cuarius, the name of the Thessalian
river. Alcæus, however, calls it Coralius in these words,
“Minerva, warrior queen, who o’er Coroneia keepest watch
before thy temple, on the banks of Coralius. ”
The festival Pambœotia was here celebrated. Hades is associated with
Minerva, in the dedication of the temple, for some mystical reason. The
inhabitants of the Bœotian Coroneia are called Coronii, those of the
Messenian Coroneia, Coronenses.
30. Haliartus[387] is no longer in existence, it was razed in the war
against Perseus. The territory is occupied by the Athenians, to whom it
was given by the Romans. It was situated in a narrow spot between an
overhanging mountain and the lake Copaïs, near the Permessus, the
Olmeïus, and the marsh that produces the flute-reed.
31. Platææ, which the poet uses in the singular number, lies at the foot
of Cithæron, between this mountain and Thebes, on the road to Athens and
Megara; it is on the borders of Attica and Bœotia, for Eleutheræ is
near, which some say belongs to Attica, others to Bœotia. We have said
that the Asopus flows beside Platææ. There the army of the Greeks
entirely destroyed Mardonius and three hundred thousand Persians. They
dedicated there a temple to Jupiter Eleutherius, and instituted
gymnastic games, called Eleutheria, in which the victor was crowned. The
tombs erected at the public expense, in honour of those who died in the
battle, are to be seen there. In the Sicyonian district is a demus
called Platææ, where the poet Mnasalces was born:
“the monument of Mnasalces of Platææ. ”
Glissas,[388] Homer says, is a village on Mount Hypatus, which is near
Teumessus and Cadmeia, in the Theban territory. * * * * * * * beneath is
what is called the Aonian plain, which extends from Mount Hypatus [to
Cadmeia? ]. [389]
32. By these words of the poet,
“those who occupied under Thebes,”
some understand a small town, called Under-Thebes, others Potniæ, for
Thebes was abandoned after the expedition of the Epigoni, and took no
part in the Trojan war. Others say that they did take part in it, but
that they lived at that time under Cadmeia, in the plain country, after
the incursion of the Epigoni, being unable to rebuild the Cadmeia. As
Thebes was called Cadmeia, the poet says that the Thebans of that time
lived “under Thebes” instead of “under Cadmeia. ”
33. The Amphictyonic council usually assembled at Onchestus, in the
territory of Haliartus, near the lake Copaïs, and the Teneric plain. It
is situated on a height, devoid of trees, where is a temple of Neptune
also without trees. For the poets, for the sake of ornament, called all
sacred places groves, although they were without trees. Such is the
language of Pindar, when speaking of Apollo:
“He traversed in his onward way the earth and sea; he stood
upon the heights of the lofty mountains; he shook the caves in
their deep recesses, and overthrew the foundations of the
sacred groves” or temples.
As Alcæus is mistaken in the altering the name of the river Cuarius, so
he makes a great error in placing Onchestus at the extremities of
Helicon, whereas it is situated very far from this mountain.
34. The Teneric plain has its name from Tenerus. According to mythology,
he was the son of Apollo and Melia, and declared the answers of the
oracle at the mountain Ptoum,[391] which, the same poet says, had three
peaks:
“At one time he occupied the caves of the three-headed Ptoum;”
and he calls Tenerus
“the prophet, dwelling in the temple, and having the same name
as the soil on which it stands. ”
The Ptoum is situated above the Teneric plain, and the lake Copaïs, near
Acræphium.
Both [CAS. 413] the oracle and the mountain belonged to the Thebans.
Acræphium[392] itself is situated upon a height. This, it is said, is
the place called Arnē by the poet, having the same name as the
Thessalian Arnē.
35. Some say that Arnē and Mideia were swallowed up by the lake.
Zenodotus, however, when he writes the verse thus,
“they who occupied Ascra abounding with vines,”[393]
does not seem to have read Hesiod’s description of his native country,
and what has been said by Eudoxus, who relates things much more to the
disparagement of Ascra. For how could any one believe that such a place
could have been described by the poet as
“abounding with vines? ”
Neither are those persons in the right, who substitute in this passage
Tarnē for Arnē, for there is not a place of the name of Tarne to be
found in Bœotia, although there is in Lydia. Homer mentions it,
“Idomeneus then slew Phæstus, the son of Borus, the artificer,
who came from the fruitful soil of Tarnē. ”[394]
Besides Alalcomenæ and Tilphossium, which are near the lake, Chæroneia,
Lebadia, and Leuctra, are worthy of notice.
36. The poet mentions Alalcomenæ,[395] but not in the Catalogue;
“the Argive Juno and Minerva of Alalcomenæ. ”[396]
It has an ancient temple of Minerva, which is held in great veneration.
It is said that this was the place of her birth, as Argos was that of
Juno, and that Homer gave to both these goddesses designations derived
from their native places. Perhaps for this reason he has not mentioned,
in the Catalogue, the inhabitants; for having a sacred character, they
were exempted from military service. Indeed the city has never suffered
devastation by an enemy, although it is inconsiderable in size, and its
position is weak, for it is situated in a plain.
All in reverence to the goddess abstained from every act of violence;
wherefore the Thebans, at the time of the expedition of the Epigoni,
abandoning their own city, are said to have taken refuge here, and on
the strong mountain above it, the Tilphossium. [397] Below Tilphossium is
the fountain Tilphossa, and the monument of Teiresias, who died there on
the retreat.
37. Chæroneia[398] is near Orchomenus,[399] where Philip, the son of
Amyntas, after having overcome, in a great battle,[400] the Athenians,
Bœotians, and Corinthians, became the master of Greece. There are seen
the sepulchres erected at the public charge of the persons who fell in
that battle.
38. At Lebadeia[401] is the oracle of Jupiter Trophonius, having a
descent through an opening, which leads under-ground.
The person himself,
who consults the oracle, descends into it. It is situated between
Helicon and Chæroneia, near Coroneia.
39. Leuctra[402] is the place where Epaminondas overcame the
Lacedæmonians in a great battle, and first weakened their power; for
after that time they were never able to regain the supremacy over the
Greeks, which they before possessed, and particularly after they were
defeated in a second battle at Mantinea. Even after these reverses they
preserved their independence until the establishment of the Roman
dominion, and were always respected by that people on account of the
excellency of their form of government. The field of battle is shown on
the road which leads from Platææ to Thespiæ.
40. The poet next mentions the Orchomenians in the Catalogue, and
distinguishes them from the Bœotian nation. He gives to Orchomenus the
epithet Minyeian from the nation of the Minyæ. They say that a colony of
the Minyeians went hence to Iolcus,[403] and from this circumstance the
Argonauts were called Minyæ. It appears that, anciently, it was a rich
[CAS. 414] and very powerful city. Homer bears witness to its wealth,
for in his enumeration of places of great opulence, he says,
“Not all that is brought to Orchomenus, or to Ægyptian Thebes. ”[404]
Of its power there is this proof, that the Thebans always paid tribute
to the Orchomenians, and to Erginus their king, who it is said was put
to death by Hercules. Eteocles, one of the kings that reigned at
Orchomenus, first displayed both wealth and power. He built a temple
dedicated to the Graces, who were thus honoured by him, either because
he had been fortunate in receiving or conferring favours, or perhaps for
both these reasons.
[For one who was inclined thus to honour these goddesses, must have been
naturally disposed to be a benefactor, and he must have possessed the
power. But for this purpose wealth is required. For he who has not much
cannot give much, nor can he who does not receive much possess much; but
when giving and receiving unite, then there is a just exchange. For a
vessel which is simultaneously emptied and filled is always full; but he
who gives and does not receive cannot succeed in either giving or
receiving, for the giver must desist from giving from failure of means.
Givers also will desist from giving to him who receives only, and
confers no benefits, so that he must fail in receiving. The same may be
said of power. For independently of the common saying,
“That money is the thing most highly valued,
And has the greatest influence in human affairs,”[405]
we may examine the subject more in detail. We say, for example, that
kings have the greatest power, (μάλιστα δύνασθαι,) whence the name,
dynasty. Their power is exerted by leading the multitude whither they
like, by persuasion or by force. Their power of persuasion chiefly
rests in doing acts of kindness; for persuasion by words is not
princely, but belongs to the orator. By princely persuasion, I mean,
when kings direct and lead men whither they please by acts of kindness.
They persuade by acts of kindness, but compel by means of arms. Both
power and possessions may be purchased by money. For he has the largest
body of forces, who is able to maintain the largest; and he who has the
largest possessions, can confer the greatest benefits. [406]]
The spot which the present lake Copaïs occupies, was formerly, it is
said, dry ground, and was cultivated in various ways by the
Orchomenians, who lived near it; and this is alleged as a proof of
wealth.
41. Some persons use the word Aspledon[407] without the first syllable,
Spledon. The name both of the city and of the territory was changed to
Eudeielos,[408] which expressed perhaps some peculiar advantage the
inhabitants derived from their western position, and especially the mild
winters. The extreme parts of the day are the coldest. Of these the
evening is colder than the morning, for as night approaches the cold is
more intense, and as night retires the cold abates. The severity of the
cold is mitigated by the heat of the sun, and the part which during the
coldest season has received most of the sun’s heat, is mildest in
winter.
It is distant from Orchomenus[409] 20 stadia. The river Melas is between
them.
42. Panopeus, a Phocian city, and Hyampolis[410] are situated above
Orchomenus. Opus, the metropolis of the Locri Epicnemidii, borders upon
these places. It is said, that Orchomenus was formerly situated on a
plain, but, as the waters overflowed, the settlers removed to the
mountain Acontium, which extends 60 stadia in length, as far as
Parapotamii in Phocis. It is said, that those people, who are called
Achæi in Pontus, are colonists from the Orchomenians, who, after the
capture of Troy, wandered thither under the conduct of Ialmenus. There
was also an Orchomenus near Carystus.
The writers on the Catalogue of Ships [in Homer], have furnished us with
these materials, and they have been followed, wherever they introduced
anything adapted to the design of this work.
CHAPTER III.
1. Next to Bœotia and Orchomenus is Phocis, lying along the side of
Bœotia to the north, and, anciently, nearly from sea [CAS. 416] to sea.
For at that time Daphnus belonged to Phocis, dividing Locris into two
parts, and situated midway between the Opuntian Gulf and the sea-coast
of the Epicnemidii. At present, however, the district belongs to the
Locri; but the town is in ruins, so that Phocis no longer extends to the
sea opposite Eubœa; but it is close to the Crisæan Gulf. For Crisa
itself belongs to Phocis, and is situated immediately upon the sea.
Cirrha, Anticyra,[411] and the places above them, in the interior near
Parnassus in continuous succession, namely, Delphi,[412] Cirphis, and
Daulis,[413] belong to Phocis, so also Parnassus itself, which is the
boundary of the western side.
In the same manner as Phocis lies along the side of Bœotia, so are both
the divisions of Locris situated with respect to Phocis, for Locris is
composed of two parts, being divided by Parnassus. The western part lies
along the side of Parnassus, occupies a portion of it, and extends to
the Crisæan Gulf; the eastern part terminates at the sea near Eubœa. The
inhabitants of the former are called Locri Hesperii, or Locri Ozolæ, and
have engraven on their public seal the star Hesperus. The rest are again
divided into two bodies: one, the Opuntii, who have their name from the
chief city, and border upon the Phocæans and Bœotians; the other, the
Epicnemidii, who have their name from the mountain Cnemis;[414] and
adjoin the Œtæi, and the Malienses. In the midst of the Hesperii, and
the other Locri, is Parnassus, lying lengthwise towards the northern
part, and extending from the neighbourhood of Delphi to the junction of
the Œtæan, and the Ætolian mountains, and to the Dorians, who are
situated between them. For as both divisions of Locris extend along the
side of Phocis, so also the region of Œta with Ætolia, and some of the
places situated in the Doric Tetrapolis, extend along the sides of the
two Locri, Parnassus and the Dorians. Immediately above these are
situated the Thessalians, the northern Ætolians, the Acarnanians, and
some of the Epirotic and Macedonian nations, as I observed before, the
above-mentioned tracts of country may be considered as a kind of
parallel bands stretching from the west to the east.
The whole of Parnassus is esteemed sacred, it contains caves, and other
places, which are regarded with honour and reverence. Of these the most
celebrated and the most beautiful is Corycium, a cave of the nymphs,
having the same name as that in Cilicia. Of the sides of Parnassus, the
western is occupied by the Locri Ozolæ, and by some of the Dorians, and
by the Ætoli, situated near Corax, an Ætolian mountain. The eastern side
is occupied by Phocians and by the greater part of the Dorians, who hold
the Tetrapolis, situated as it were round the side of Parnassus, but
spreading out in the largest extent towards the east. The sides of the
above-mentioned tracts and each of the bands are parallel, one side
being northern, and the other southern. The western sides, however, are
not parallel to the eastern, for the sea-coast from the Crisæan Gulf to
Actium[415] is not parallel to the coast opposite Eubœa, and extending
to Thessalonica. It is on these shores the above-mentioned nations
terminate. For the figure of these countries is to be understood from
the notion of lines drawn parallel to the base of a triangle, where the
separate parts lie parallel to one another, and have their sides in
latitude parallel, but not their sides in longitude. This is a rough
sketch of the country which remains to be examined. We shall examine
each separate part in order, beginning with Phocis.
2. The two most celebrated cities of this country are Delphi and
Elateia. Delphi is renowned for the temple of the Pythian Apollo, and
the antiquity of its oracle; since Agamemnon is said by the poet to have
consulted it; for the minstrel is introduced singing of the
“fierce contest of Ulysses, and Achilles, the son of Peleus,
how once they contended together, and Agamemnon king of men
was pleased, for so Phœbus Apollo had foretold by the oracle
in the illustrious Pytho. ”[416]
Delphi then was celebrated on this account. Elateia was famous as being
the largest of the cities in that quarter, and for its very convenient
position upon the straits; for he, who is the master of this city,
commands the entrances into Phocis and Bœotia. First, there are the
Œtæan mountains, next the mountains of the Locri, and the Phocians; they
are not every where passable for invading armies, coming from Thessaly,
but having narrow passes distinct from each other, which the adjacent
cities guard. Those, who take the cities, are masters [CAS. 418] of the
passes also. But since from its celebrity the temple at Delphi possesses
a pre-eminence, this, together with the position of the places, (for
they are the most westerly parts of Phocis,) suggest a natural
commencement of our description, and we shall begin from thence.
3. We have remarked, that Parnassus itself is situated on the western
boundaries of Phocis. The western side of this mountain is occupied by
the Locri Ozolæ; on the southern is Delphi, a rocky spot, resembling in
shape a theatre; on its summit is the oracle, and also the city, which
comprehends a circle of 16 stadia. Above it lies Lycoreia; here the
Delphians were formerly settled above the temple. At present they live
close to it around the Castalian fountain. In front of the city, on the
southern part, is Cirphis, a precipitous hill, leaving in the
intermediate space a wooded ravine, through which the river Pleistus
flows. Below Cirphis near the sea is Cirrha, an ancient city, from which
there is an ascent to Delphi of about 80 stadia. It is situated opposite
to Sicyon. Adjoining to Cirrha is the fertile Crisæan plain. Again, next
in order follows another city Crisa, from which the Crisæan Gulf has its
name; then Anticyra,[417] of the same name as the city, on the Maliac
Gulf, and near Œta. The best hellebore is said to grow in the Maliac
Anticyra,[418] but here it is prepared in a better manner; on this
account many persons resort hither for the purpose of experiencing its
purgative qualities, and of being cured of their maladies. In the
Phocian territory there is found a medicinal plant, resembling Sesamum,
(Sesamoides,) with which the Œtæan hellebore is prepared.
4. Anticyra still remains, but Cirrha and Crisa[419] are in ruins;
Cirrha was destroyed by the Crisæans; and Crisa, afterwards, by
Eurylochus the Thessalian, in the Crisæan war; for the Crisæi enriched
themselves by duties levied on merchandise brought from Sicily and
Italy, and laid grievous imposts on those who resorted to the temple,
contrary to the decrees of the Amphictyons. The same was the case with
the Amphissenses, who belong to the Locri Ozolæ. This people made an
irruption into the country, and took possession of Crisa, and restored
it. The plain, which had been consecrated by the Amphictyons, was
diligently cultivated, but strangers were more harshly treated than by
the Crisæans before them. The Amphictyons punished them and restored the
territory to the god. The temple at Delphi is now much neglected,
although formerly it was held in the greatest veneration. Proofs of the
respect which was paid to it are, the treasuries constructed at the
expense of communities and princes, where was deposited the wealth
dedicated to sacred uses, the works of the most eminent artists, the
Pythian games, and a multitude of celebrated oracles.
5. The place where the oracle is delivered, is said to be a deep hollow
cavern, the entrance to which is not very wide. From it rises up an
exhalation which inspires a divine frenzy: over the mouth is placed a
lofty tripod on which the Pythian priestess ascends to receive the
exhalation, after which she gives the prophetic response in verse or
prose. The prose is adapted to measure by poets who are in the service
of the temple. Phemonoë is said to have been the first Pythian
prophetess, and both the prophetess and the city obtained their
appellation from the word Pythesthai, to inquire, (πυθέσθαι).
The first syllable was lengthened, as in the words ἀθάνατος, ἀκάματος,
διάκονος.
[420][The establishment of cities, and the honour paid to common
temples, are due to the same feelings and causes. Men were collected
together into cities and nations, from a natural disposition to society,
and for the purpose of mutual assistance. Hence common temples were
resorted to, festivals celebrated, and meetings held of the general body
of the people. For friendship commences from and is promoted by
attending the same feasts, uniting in the same worship, and dwelling
under the same roof. The advantages derived from these meetings were
naturally estimated from the number of persons who attended them, as
also from the number of places from whence they came. ]
6. Although the highest honour was paid to this temple on account of the
oracle, (for it was the most exempt of any from deception,) yet its
reputation was owing in part to its situation in the centre of all
Greece, both within and without the isthmus. It was also supposed to be
the centre of the habitable [CAS. 420] earth, and was called the Navel
of the earth. A fable, referred to by Pindar, was invented, according to
which two eagles, (or, as others say, two crows,) set free by Jupiter,
one from the east, the other from the west, alighted together at Delphi.
In the temple is seen a sort of navel wrapped in bands, and surmounted
by figures representing the birds of the fable.
7. As the situation of Delphi is convenient, persons easily assembled
there, particularly those from the neighbourhood, of whom the
Amphictyonic body is composed. It is the business of this body to
deliberate on public affairs, and to it is more particularly intrusted
the guardianship of the temple for the common good; for large sums of
money were deposited there, and votive offerings, which required great
vigilance and religious care. The early history of this body is unknown,
but among the names which are recorded, Acrisius appears to have been
the first who regulated its constitution, to have determined what cities
were to have votes in the council, and to have assigned the number of
votes and mode of voting. To some cities he gave a single vote each, or
a vote to two cities, or to several cities conjointly. He also defined
the class of questions which might arise between the different cities,
which were to be submitted to the decision of the Amphictyonic tribunal;
and subsequently many other regulations were made, but this body, like
that of the Achæans, was finally dissolved.
At first twelve cities are said to have assembled, each of which sent a
Pylagoras. The convention was held twice a year, in spring and autumn.
But latterly a greater number of cities assembled. They called both the
vernal and the autumnal convention Pylæan, because it was held at Pylæ,
which has the name also of Thermopylæ. The Pylagoræ sacrificed to Ceres.
In the beginning, the persons in the neighbourhood only assembled, or
consulted the oracle, but afterwards people repaired thither from a
distance for this purpose, sent gifts, and constructed treasuries, as
Crœsus, and his father Alyattes, some of the Italians also, and the
Siceli (Sicilians).
8. But the wealth, being an object of cupidity, was guarded with
difficulty, although dedicated to sacred uses. At present, however,
whatever it might have been, the temple at Delphi is exceedingly poor.
Some of the offerings have been taken away for the sake of the money,
but the greater part remain there. It is true that the temple was once
very opulent, as Homer testifies;
“Nor all the wealth, which the marble threshold of Phœbus
Apollo, the Archer, (Aphetor,)[421] contains in the rocky
Pytho. ”[422]
The treasuries indicate its riches, and the plunder committed by the
Phocians, which gave rise to the Phocic or Sacred war, as it was called.
It is however supposed that a spoliation of the temple must have taken
place at some more remote period, when the wealth mentioned by Homer
disappeared; for no vestige of it whatever was preserved to later times,
when Onomarchus and Phayllus pillaged the temple, as the property [then]
removed was of a more recent date than that referred to by the poet. For
there were once deposited in the treasuries, offerings from spoils,
bearing inscriptions with the names of the donors, as of Gyges, of
Crœsus, of the Sybaritæ, of the Spinetæ on the Adriatic, and of others
also. It would be unbecoming to suppose[423] that modern and ancient
treasures were confounded together: other places pillaged by these
people confirm this view.
Some persons, however, understanding the word Aphetor to signify
treasure, and the threshold of the aphetor the repository of the
treasure under-ground, say, that this wealth was buried beneath the
temple, and that Onomarchus and his companions attempted to dig it up by
night; violent shocks of an earthquake caused them to fly out of the
temple, and desist from their excavation; thus others were impressed
with a dread of making similar attempts.
9. Of the shrines, the winged shrine[424] is to be placed among fabulous
stories. The second is said to have been the workmanship of Trophonius
and Agamedes, but the present shrine[425] was built by the Amphictyons.
A tomb of Neoptolemus is shown in the sacred enclosure. It was built
according [CAS. 421] to the injunction of an oracle. Neoptolemus was
killed by Machæreus, a Delphian, when, as the fable goes, he was seeking
redress from the god for the murder of his father, but, probably, he was
preparing to pillage the temple. Branchus, who presided over the temple
at Didyma, is said to have been a descendant of Machæreus.
10. There was anciently a contest held at Delphi, of players on the
cithara, who executed a pæan in honour of the god. It was instituted by
Delphians. But after the Crisæan war the Amphictyons, in the time of
Eurylochus, established contests for horses, and gymnastic sports, in
which the victor was crowned. These were called Pythian games. The
players[426] on the cithara were accompanied by players on the flute,
and by citharists,[427] who performed without singing. They performed a
strain (Melos),[428] called the Pythian mood (Nomos). [429] It consisted
of five parts; the anacrusis, the ampeira, cataceleusmus, iambics and
dactyls, and pipes. [430] Timosthenes, the commander of the fleet of the
Second Ptolemy, and who was the author of a work in ten books on
Harbours, composed a melos. His object was to celebrate in this melos
the contest of Apollo with the serpent Python. The anacrusis was
intended to express the prelude; the ampeira, the first onset of the
contest; the cataceleusmus, the contest itself; the iambics and dactyls
denoted the triumphal strain on obtaining the victory, together with
musical measures, of which the dactyl is peculiarly appropriated to
praise, and the use of the iambic to insult and reproach; the syringes
or pipes described the death, the players imitating the hissings of the
expiring monster. [431]
11. Ephorus, whom we generally follow, on account of his exactness in
these matters, (as Polybius, a writer of repute, testifies,) seems to
proceed contrary to his proposed plan, and to the promise which he made
at the beginning of his work. For after having censured those writers
who are fond of intermixing fable with history, and after having spoken
in praise of truth, he introduces, with reference to this oracle, a
grave declaration, that he considers truth preferable at all times, but
especially in treating subjects of this kind. For it is absurd, he says,
if, in other things, we constantly follow this practice, but that when
we come to speak of the oracle, which of all others is the most exempt
from deception, we should introduce tales so incredible and false. Yet
immediately afterwards he says, that it is the received opinion that
Apollo, by the aid of Themis, established this oracle with a view to
benefit the human race. He then explains these benefits, by saying, that
men were invited to pursue a more civilized mode of life, and were
taught maxims of wisdom by oracles; by injunctions to perform or to
abstain, or by positive refusal to attend to the prayers of petitioners.
Some, he says, suppose, that the god himself in a bodily form directs
these things; others, that he communicates an intimation of his will to
men [by words].
12. And lower down, when speaking of the Delphians and their origin, he
says, that certain persons, called Parnassii, an indigenous tribe,
anciently inhabited Parnassus, about which time Apollo, traversing the
country, reclaimed men from their savage state, by inducing them to
adopt a more civilized mode of life and subsistence; that, setting out
from Athens on his way to Delphi, he took the same road along which the
Athenians at present conduct the procession of the Pythias; that when he
arrived at the Panopeis, he put to death Tityus, who was master of the
district, a violent and lawless man; that the Parnassii having joined
him informed him of Python, another desperate man, surnamed the Dragon.
Whilst he was despatching this man with his arrows, they shouted, Hie
Paian;[432] whence has been transmitted the custom of singing the Pæan
before the onset of a battle; that after the death of the Python the
Delphians burnt even his tent, as they still continue to burn a tent in
memorial of these events. Now what can be more fabulous than Apollo
discharging his arrows, chastising Tityi and Pythons, his journey from
Athens to Delphi, and his travels over the whole country? If he did not
consider these as fables, why did he call the fabulous Themis a woman,
and the fabulous dragon a man, unless he intended to confound the
provinces of history and fable. His account of the Ætolians is similar
to this. After having [CAS. 423] asserted that their country was never
ravaged at any period, he says, that at one time it was inhabited by
Ætolians, who had expelled the Barbarians; that at another time, Ætolus,
together with the Epeii from Elis, inhabited it; [that Ætolus was
overthrown by the Epeii,] and these again by Alcmæon and Diomedes.
I now return to the Phocians.
13. Immediately on the sea-coast, next after Anticyra,[433] and
behind[434] it, is the small city Marathus; then a promontory,
Pharygium, which has a shelter for vessels; then the harbour at the
farthest end, called Mychus,[435] from the accident of its situation
between Helicon[436] and Ascra.
Nor is Abæ,[437] the seat of an oracle, far from these places, nor
Ambrysus,[438] nor Medeon, of the same name as a city in Bœotia.
In the inland parts, next after Delphi, towards the east is Daulis,[439]
a small town, where, it is said, Tereus, the Thracian, was prince; and
there they say is the scene of the fable of Philomela and Procne;
Thucydides lays it there; but other writers refer it to Megara. The name
of the place is derived from the thickets there, for they call thickets
Dauli. Homer calls it Daulis, but subsequent writers Daulia, and the
words
“they who occupied Cyparissus,”[440]
are understood in a double sense; some persons supposing it to have its
name from the tree of the country, but others from a village situated
below the Lycoreian territory.
14. Panopeus, the present Phanoteus, the country of Epeius, is on the
confines of the district of Lebadeia. Here the fable places the abode of
Tityus. But Homer says, that the Phæacians conducted Rhadamanthus to
Eubœa,
“in order to see Tityus, son of the earth;”[441]
they show also in the island a cave called Elarium, from Elara the
mother of Tityus, and an Heroum of Tityus, and some kind of honours are
spoken of, which are paid to him.
Near Lebadeia is Trachin, having the same name as that in Œtæa; it is a
small Phocian town. The inhabitants are called Trachinii.
15. Anemoreia[442] has its name from a physical accident, to which it is
liable. It is exposed to violent gusts of wind from a place called
Catopterius,[443] a precipitous mountain, extending from Parnassus. It
was a boundary between Delphi and the Phocians, when the Lacedæmonians
made the Delphians separate themselves from the common body of the
Phocians,[444] and permitted them to form an independent state.
Some call the place Anemoleia; it was afterwards called by others
Hyampolis,[445] (and also Hya,) whither we said the Hyantes were
banished from Bœotia. It is situated quite in the interior, near
Parapotamii, and is a different place from Hyampea on Parnassus.
Elateia[446] is the largest of the Phocian cities, but Homer was not
acquainted with it, for it is later than his times. It is conveniently
situated to repel incursions on the side of Thessaly. Demosthenes[447]
points out the advantage of its position, in speaking of the confusion
which suddenly arose, when a messenger arrived to inform the Prytaneis
of the capture of Elateia.
16. Parapotamii is a settlement on the Cephissus, in the neighbourhood
of Phanoteus, Chæroneia, and Elateia. This place, according to
Theopompus, is distant from Chæroneia about 40 stadia, and is the
boundary between the Ambryseis, Panopeis, and Daulieis. It is situated
at the entrance from Bœotia to the Phocians, upon an eminence of
moderate height, between Parnassus and the mountain [Hadylium, where
there is an open space] of 5 stadia in extent, through which runs the
Cephissus, affording on each side a narrow pass. This river has its
source at Lilæa, a Phocian city, as Homer testifies;[CAS. 424]
“they who occupied Lilæa, near the source of the Cephissus;”[448]
and empties itself into the lake Copais.
to have lived, and here is the scene of the birth of Orion, which Pindar
mentions in the dithyrambics. It is situated near Aulis. Some persons
say that Hysiæ is called Hyria, which belongs to Parasopia, situated
below Cithæron, near Erythræ, in the inland parts; it is a colony of the
Hyrienses, and was founded by Nycteus, the father of Antiope. There is
also in the Argive territory a village, Hysiæ, the inhabitants of which
are called Hysiatæ. Erythræ in Ionia is a colony of this Erythræ.
Heleon, [CAS. 405] a Tanagrian village, has its name from (Hele) the
marshes there.
13. After Salganeus is Anthedon, a city with a harbour, the last on the
Bœotian coast towards Eubœa, as the poet says,
“Anthedon at the extremity. ”[344]
As we proceed a little farther, there are besides two small towns,
belonging to the Bœotians, Larymna, near which the Cephissus discharges
its waters; and farther above, Halæ, of the same name as the Attic
demus. Opposite to this coast is situated, it is said, Ægæ[345] in
Eubœa, where is the temple of the Ægæan Neptune, of which we have before
spoken. There is a passage across from Anthedon to Ægæ of 120 stadia,
and from the other places much less than this. The temple is situated
upon a lofty hill, where was once a city. Near Ægæ was Orobiæ. [346] In
the Anthedonian territory is the mountain Messapius,[347] which has its
name from Messapus, who when he came into Iapygia called it Messapia.
Here is laid the scene of the fable respecting the Anthedonian Glaucus,
who, it is said, was transformed into a sea-monster. [348]
14. Near Anthedon is a place called Isus, and esteemed sacred, belonging
to Bœotia; it contains remains of a city, and the first syllable of Isus
is short. Some persons are of opinion, that the verse ought to be
written, Ἶσόν τε ζαθέην Ἀνθηδόνα τ’ ἐσχατόωσαν,
“The sacred Isus, and the extreme Anthedon,”
lengthening the first syllable by poetical licence for the sake of the
metre, instead of Νῖσάν τε ζαθέην,
“The sacred Nisa;”
for Nisa is not to be found anywhere in Bœotia, as Apollodorus says in
his observations on the Catalogue of the Ships; so that Nisa could not
stand in this passage, unless by Nisa Homer meant Isus, for there was a
city Nisa, in Megaris, from whence Isus was colonized, situated at the
base of Cithæron, but it exists no longer. [349] Some however write
Κρεῦσάν τε ζαθέην,
“The sacred Creusa,”
meaning the present Creusa, the arsenal of the Thespieans, situated on
the Crisæan Gulf. Others write the passage Φαράς τε ζαθέας,
“The sacred Pharæ,”
Pharæ is one of the four villages, (or Tetracomiæ,) near Tanagra,
namely, Heleon, Harma, Mycalessus, Pharæ. Others again write the passage
thus, Νῦσάν τε ζαθέην,
“The sacred Nysa. ”
Nysa is a village of Helicon.
Such then is the description of the sea-coast opposite Eubœa.
15. The places next in order, in the inland parts, are hollow plains,
surrounded everywhere on the east and west by mountains; on the south by
the mountains of Attica, on the north by those of Phocis: on the west,
Cithæron inclines, obliquely, a little above the Crisæan Sea; it begins
contiguous to the mountains of Megaris and Attica, and then makes a bend
towards the plains, and terminates near the Theban territory.
16. Some of these plains become lakes, by rivers spreading over or
falling into them and then flowing off. Some are dried up, and being
very fertile, are cultivated in every possible way. But as the ground
underneath is full of caverns and fissures, it has frequently happened,
that violent earthquakes have obstructed some passages, and formed
others under-ground, or on the surface, the water being carried off,
either by subterranean channels, or by the formation of lakes and rivers
on the surface. If the deep subterranean passages are stopped up, the
waters of the lakes increase, so as to inundate and cover cities and
whole districts, which become uncovered, if the same or other passages
are again opened. The same regions are thus traversed in boats or on
foot, according [CAS. 405] to circumstances; and the same cities are,
occasionally, on the borders of, or at a distance from, a lake.
17. One of two things took place. The cities either retained their
sites, when the rise of the water was insufficient to overflow the
houses, or they were deserted and rebuilt in some other place, when the
inhabitants, being frequently exposed to danger from their vicinity to
the lake, released themselves from further apprehension, by changing
to a more distant or higher situation. It followed that the cities
thus rebuilt retained the same name. Formerly, they might have had a
name derived from some accidental local circumstance, but now the site
does not correspond with the derivation of the name. For example, it
is probable that Platææ was so called, from πλάτη, or the flat part of
the oar, and Platæans from gaining their livelihood by rowing; but at
present, since they live at a distance from the lake, the name can no
longer, with equal propriety, be derived from this local circumstance.
Helos also, and Heleon, and Heilesium[350] were so called from their
situation close to ἕλη, (Hele,) or marshes; but at present the case is
different with all these places; either they have been rebuilt, or the
lake has been greatly reduced in height by a subsequent efflux of its
waters; for this is possible.
18. This is exemplified particularly in the Cephissus,[351] which fills
the lake Copais. [352] When the increase of the water of that lake was so
great, that Copæ was in danger of being swallowed up, (the city is
mentioned by the poet, and from it the lake had its name,)[353] a
fissure in the ground, which took place not far from the lake, and near
Copæ, opened a subterraneous channel, of about 30 stadia in length, and
received the river, which reappeared on the surface, near Upper Larymna
in Locris; for, as has been mentioned, there is another Larymna, in
Bœotia, on the sea, surnamed the Upper by the Romans. The place where
the river rises again is called Anchoë, as also the lake near it. It is
from this point that the Cephissus begins its course[354] to the sea.
When the overflowing of the water ceased, there was also a cessation of
danger to the inhabitants on the banks, but not before some cities had
been already swallowed up. When the outlets were again obstructed,
Crates the Miner, a man of Chalcis, began to clear away the
obstructions, but desisted in consequence of the Bœotians being in a
state of insurrection; although, as he himself says, in the letter to
Alexander, many places had been already drained; among these, some
writers supposed was the site of the ancient Orchomenus; others, that of
Eleusis, and of Athens on the Triton. These cities are said to have been
founded by Cecrops, when he ruled over Bœotia, then called Ogygia, but
that they were afterwards destroyed by inundations. It is said, that
there was a fissure in the earth near Orchomenus, that admitted the
river Melas,[355] which flows through the territory of Haliartus, and
forms there a marsh, where the reed grows of which the musical pipe is
made. [356] But this river has entirely disappeared, being carried off by
the subterraneous channels of the chasm, or absorbed by the lakes and
marshes about Haliartus; whence the poet calls Haliartus grassy,
“And the grassy Haliartus. ”[357]
19. These rivers descend from the Phocian mountains, and among them the
Cephissus,[358] having its source at Lilæa, a Phocian city, as Homer
describes it;
“And they who occupied Lilæa, at the sources of
Cephissus. ”[359]
It flows through Elateia,[360] the largest of the cities among the
Phocians, through the Parapotamii, and the Phanoteis, which are also
Phocian towns; it then goes onwards to Chæroneia in Bœotia; afterwards,
it traverses the districts of Orchomenus and Coroneia, and discharges
its waters into the lake Copais. The Permessus and the Olmeius[361]
descend from Helicon, and uniting their streams, fall into the lake
Copais near Haliartus. The waters of other streams likewise discharge
themselves into it. It is a large lake with a circuit of 380
stadia;[362] the outlets are nowhere visible, if we [CAS. 407] except
the chasm which receives the Cephissus, and the marshes.
20. Among the neighbouring lakes are Trephea[363] and Cephissis. Homer
mentions it;
“Who dwelt in Hyla, intent upon amassing wealth, close to the
lake Cephissis;”[364]
for he did not mean to specify the lake Copais, as some suppose, but
that called Hylicus,[365] from the neighbouring village, which is called
Hylæ: nor did he mean Hyda, as some write the passage,
“He lived in Hyda,”
for there is a place of this name in Lydia,
“at the foot of the snowy Tmolus, in the fruitful country of
Hyda;”[366]
and another in Bœotia; he therefore adds to
“behind the lake Cephissis,”
these words,
“near dwelt other Bœotians. ”
For the Copais is of great extent, and not situated in the Theban
district, but the other is small, and filled from the former by
subterraneous channels; it is situated between Thebes[367] and Anthedon.
Homer however makes use of the word in the singular number, sometimes
making the first syllable long by poetical licence, as in the Catalogue,
ἠδ’ Ὕλην καὶ Πετεῶνα,[368] and sometimes shortening it, as in this
instance; Ὅς ῥ’ ἐν Ὗλῃ ναίεσκε; and again, Tychius Σκυτοτόμων ὄχ’
ἄριστος Ὕλῃ ἔνι οἰκία ναίων. [369] Nor do some persons correctly write in
this passage, Ὗδῃ ἔνι,
“In Hyda,”
for Ajax was not to send for his shield from Lydia.
21. [370]The lakes themselves would indicate the order in which the
places stand, and thence it would be easy to perceive that the poet,
when naming them, whether they were places of importance or otherwise,
has observed no order. Indeed it would be difficult in the enumeration
of so many places, obscure for the most part, and situated in the
interior, to preserve a regular order. The sea-coast affords more
convenient means of doing this; the places there are better known, and
the sea affords greater facilities for marking their position. We shall
therefore endeavour to take our point of departure from the sea-coast,
and without further discussion, shall follow the poet in his enumeration
of places; at the same time, taking from other sources whatever may
prove useful to us, but which has been omitted by him. He begins from
Hyria and Aulis, of which we have already spoken.
22. Schœnus[371] is a district of the Theban territory on the road to
Anthedon, distant from Thebes about 50 stadia. A river of the name of
Schœnus flows through it.
23. Scolus[372] is a village belonging to the district of Parasopia
situated at the foot of Cithæron; it is a rugged place, and scarcely
habitable, hence the proverbial saying,
“Neither go yourself, nor follow any one going to Scolus. ”
It is said that Pentheus was brought from thence, and torn in pieces.
There was among the cities near Olynthus another of the name of Scolus.
We have said that in the Heracleian Trachinia there was a village of the
name of Parasopii, beside which runs a river Asopus, and that there is
another river Asopus in Sicyonia, and that the country through which it
flows is called Asopia. There are however other rivers of the same name.
24. The name of Eteonus was changed to that of Scarphe, which belongs to
Parasopia. [Parasopia belongs to the Thebais,] for the Asopus and the
Ismenus flow through the plain in front of Thebes. There is the fountain
Dirce, and also Potniæ, where is laid the fable of Glaucus of Potniæ,
who was torn in pieces near the city by Potnian mares. The Cithæron[373]
terminates not far from Thebes. The Asopus flows by it, and washes the
foot of the mountain, and occasions the Parasopii to be distributed
among several settlements, but all of these bodies of people are subject
to the [CAS. 409] Thebans. (Other writers say, that Scolus, Eteonus,
and Erythræ, are in the district of Platææ, for the Asopus flows past
Platææ, and discharges its waters into the sea near Tanagra. ) In the
Theban territory are Therapnæ and Teumessus, which Antimachus has
extolled in a long poem, enumerating excellencies which it had not;
“There is a small hill exposed to the winds,” &c. :
but the lines are well known.
25. He calls the present place Thespiæ[374] by the name of Thespia, for
there are many names, of which some are used both in the singular and in
the plural number, in the masculine and in the feminine gender, and some
in either one or the other only. It is a city close to Helicon, lying
more to the south. The city itself and Helicon are situated on the
Crisæan Gulf. Thespiæ has an arsenal Creusa, or, as it is also named,
Creusia. In the Thespian territory, in the part lying towards Helicon,
is Ascra,[375] the birth-place of Hesiod. It is on the right of Helicon,
situated upon a lofty and rocky spot, at the distance of about 40 stadia
from Thespiæ. Hesiod has satirized it in verses addressed to his father,
for formerly emigrating (to this place) from Cume in Ætolia, as follows:
“He dwelt near Helicon in a wretched village, Ascra; bad in
winter, in summer intolerable, and worthless at any
season. ”[376]
Helicon is contiguous to Phocis on its northern, and partly on its
western side, as far as the last harbour of Phocis, which is called from
its characteristic situation, Mychus, or the Recess.
Just above this part of the Crisæan Gulf, Helicon, Ascra, Thespiæ, and
its arsenal Creusa, are situated. This is considered as the part of the
Crisæan and of the Corinthian Gulf which recedes most inland. The coast
extends 90 stadia from the recess of the harbour to Creusa, and thence
120 as far as the promontory called Holmiæ. In the most retired part of
the Crisæan Gulf, Pagæ and Œnoa, which I have already mentioned, are
situated.
Helicon, not far distant from Parnassus, rivals it in height[377] and
circumference. Both mountains are covered with snow, and are rocky. They
do not occupy a circuit of ground of great extent. There are, the fane
of the Muses, the Horse-fountain Hippocrene,[378] and the grottoes of
the nymphs, the Leibethrides. Hence it might be conjectured, that
Helicon was consecrated to the Muses, by Thracians, who dedicated also
Pieris, the Leibethrum, and Pimpleia to the same goddesses. The
Thracians were called Pieres, and since their expulsion, the Macedonians
possess these places.
It has been remarked, that the Thracians, (having expelled the Bœotians
by force,) and the Pelasgi, and other barbarous people, settled in this
part of Bœotia.
Thespiæ was formerly celebrated for a statue of Cupid by Praxiteles.
Glycera the courtesan, a native of Thespiæ, received it as a present
from the artist, and dedicated it as a public offering to her
fellow-citizens.
Persons formerly used to repair thither to see the Cupid, where there
was nothing else worth seeing. This city, and Tanagra, alone of the
Bœotian cities exist at present, while of others there remain nothing
but ruins and names.
26. [CAS. 410] After Thespiæ the poet enumerates Graia and Mycalessus,
of which we have before spoken.
He proceeds as before,
“They who lived near Harma, Eilesium, and Erythræ,
And they who occupied Eleon, Hyle, and Peteon. ”[379]
Peteon is a village of the Thebais near the road to Anthedon. Ocalea is
midway between Haliartus,[380] and Alalcomenæ,[381] it is distant from
each 30 stadia. A small river of the same name flows by it. Medeon,
belonging to Phocis, is on the Crisæan Gulf, distant from Bœotia 160
stadia. The Medeon of Bœotia has its name from that in Phocis. It is
near Onchestus, under the mountain Phœnicium,[382] whence it has the
appellation of Phœnicis. This mountain is likewise assigned to the
Theban district, but by others to the territories of Haliartus, as also
Medeon and Ocalea.
27. Homer afterwards names,
“Copæ, and Eutresis, and Thisbe, abounding with doves. ”[383]
We have spoken of Copæ. It lies towards the north on the lake Copais.
The other cities around are, Acræphiæ, Phœnicis, Onchestus, Haliartus,
Ocalea, Alalcomenæ, Tilphusium, Coroneia. Formerly, the lake had no one
general name, but derived its appellation from every settlement on its
banks, as Copaïs from Copæ,[384] Haliartis from Haliartus, and other
names from other places, but latterly the whole has been called Copaïs,
for the lake is remarkable for forming at Copæ the deepest hollow.
Pindar calls it Cephissis, and places near it, not far from Haliartus
and Alalcomenæ, the fountain Tilphossa, which flows at the foot of Mount
Tilphossius. At the fountain is the monument of Teiresias, and in the
same place the temple of the Tilphossian Apollo.
28. After Copæ, the poet mentions Eutresis, a small village of the
Thespians. [385] Here Zethus and Amphion lived before they became kings
of Thebes.
Thisbē is now called Thisbæ. The place is situated a little above the
sea-coast on the confines of the Thespienses, and the territory of
Coroneia; on the south it lies at the foot of Cithæron. It has an
arsenal in a rocky situation abounding with doves, whence the poet terms
it
“Thisbe, with its flights of doves. ”
Thence to Sicyon is a voyage of 160 stadia.
29. He next recites the names of Coroneia, Haliartus, Platææ, and
Glissas.
Coroneia[386] is situated upon an eminence, near Helicon. The Bœotians
took possession of it on their return from the Thessalian Arne, after
the Trojan war, when they also occupied Orchomenus. Having become
masters of Coroneia, they built in the plain before the city the temple
of the Itonian Minerva, of the same name as that in Thessaly, and called
the river [CAS. 411] flowing by it, Cuarius, the name of the Thessalian
river. Alcæus, however, calls it Coralius in these words,
“Minerva, warrior queen, who o’er Coroneia keepest watch
before thy temple, on the banks of Coralius. ”
The festival Pambœotia was here celebrated. Hades is associated with
Minerva, in the dedication of the temple, for some mystical reason. The
inhabitants of the Bœotian Coroneia are called Coronii, those of the
Messenian Coroneia, Coronenses.
30. Haliartus[387] is no longer in existence, it was razed in the war
against Perseus. The territory is occupied by the Athenians, to whom it
was given by the Romans. It was situated in a narrow spot between an
overhanging mountain and the lake Copaïs, near the Permessus, the
Olmeïus, and the marsh that produces the flute-reed.
31. Platææ, which the poet uses in the singular number, lies at the foot
of Cithæron, between this mountain and Thebes, on the road to Athens and
Megara; it is on the borders of Attica and Bœotia, for Eleutheræ is
near, which some say belongs to Attica, others to Bœotia. We have said
that the Asopus flows beside Platææ. There the army of the Greeks
entirely destroyed Mardonius and three hundred thousand Persians. They
dedicated there a temple to Jupiter Eleutherius, and instituted
gymnastic games, called Eleutheria, in which the victor was crowned. The
tombs erected at the public expense, in honour of those who died in the
battle, are to be seen there. In the Sicyonian district is a demus
called Platææ, where the poet Mnasalces was born:
“the monument of Mnasalces of Platææ. ”
Glissas,[388] Homer says, is a village on Mount Hypatus, which is near
Teumessus and Cadmeia, in the Theban territory. * * * * * * * beneath is
what is called the Aonian plain, which extends from Mount Hypatus [to
Cadmeia? ]. [389]
32. By these words of the poet,
“those who occupied under Thebes,”
some understand a small town, called Under-Thebes, others Potniæ, for
Thebes was abandoned after the expedition of the Epigoni, and took no
part in the Trojan war. Others say that they did take part in it, but
that they lived at that time under Cadmeia, in the plain country, after
the incursion of the Epigoni, being unable to rebuild the Cadmeia. As
Thebes was called Cadmeia, the poet says that the Thebans of that time
lived “under Thebes” instead of “under Cadmeia. ”
33. The Amphictyonic council usually assembled at Onchestus, in the
territory of Haliartus, near the lake Copaïs, and the Teneric plain. It
is situated on a height, devoid of trees, where is a temple of Neptune
also without trees. For the poets, for the sake of ornament, called all
sacred places groves, although they were without trees. Such is the
language of Pindar, when speaking of Apollo:
“He traversed in his onward way the earth and sea; he stood
upon the heights of the lofty mountains; he shook the caves in
their deep recesses, and overthrew the foundations of the
sacred groves” or temples.
As Alcæus is mistaken in the altering the name of the river Cuarius, so
he makes a great error in placing Onchestus at the extremities of
Helicon, whereas it is situated very far from this mountain.
34. The Teneric plain has its name from Tenerus. According to mythology,
he was the son of Apollo and Melia, and declared the answers of the
oracle at the mountain Ptoum,[391] which, the same poet says, had three
peaks:
“At one time he occupied the caves of the three-headed Ptoum;”
and he calls Tenerus
“the prophet, dwelling in the temple, and having the same name
as the soil on which it stands. ”
The Ptoum is situated above the Teneric plain, and the lake Copaïs, near
Acræphium.
Both [CAS. 413] the oracle and the mountain belonged to the Thebans.
Acræphium[392] itself is situated upon a height. This, it is said, is
the place called Arnē by the poet, having the same name as the
Thessalian Arnē.
35. Some say that Arnē and Mideia were swallowed up by the lake.
Zenodotus, however, when he writes the verse thus,
“they who occupied Ascra abounding with vines,”[393]
does not seem to have read Hesiod’s description of his native country,
and what has been said by Eudoxus, who relates things much more to the
disparagement of Ascra. For how could any one believe that such a place
could have been described by the poet as
“abounding with vines? ”
Neither are those persons in the right, who substitute in this passage
Tarnē for Arnē, for there is not a place of the name of Tarne to be
found in Bœotia, although there is in Lydia. Homer mentions it,
“Idomeneus then slew Phæstus, the son of Borus, the artificer,
who came from the fruitful soil of Tarnē. ”[394]
Besides Alalcomenæ and Tilphossium, which are near the lake, Chæroneia,
Lebadia, and Leuctra, are worthy of notice.
36. The poet mentions Alalcomenæ,[395] but not in the Catalogue;
“the Argive Juno and Minerva of Alalcomenæ. ”[396]
It has an ancient temple of Minerva, which is held in great veneration.
It is said that this was the place of her birth, as Argos was that of
Juno, and that Homer gave to both these goddesses designations derived
from their native places. Perhaps for this reason he has not mentioned,
in the Catalogue, the inhabitants; for having a sacred character, they
were exempted from military service. Indeed the city has never suffered
devastation by an enemy, although it is inconsiderable in size, and its
position is weak, for it is situated in a plain.
All in reverence to the goddess abstained from every act of violence;
wherefore the Thebans, at the time of the expedition of the Epigoni,
abandoning their own city, are said to have taken refuge here, and on
the strong mountain above it, the Tilphossium. [397] Below Tilphossium is
the fountain Tilphossa, and the monument of Teiresias, who died there on
the retreat.
37. Chæroneia[398] is near Orchomenus,[399] where Philip, the son of
Amyntas, after having overcome, in a great battle,[400] the Athenians,
Bœotians, and Corinthians, became the master of Greece. There are seen
the sepulchres erected at the public charge of the persons who fell in
that battle.
38. At Lebadeia[401] is the oracle of Jupiter Trophonius, having a
descent through an opening, which leads under-ground.
The person himself,
who consults the oracle, descends into it. It is situated between
Helicon and Chæroneia, near Coroneia.
39. Leuctra[402] is the place where Epaminondas overcame the
Lacedæmonians in a great battle, and first weakened their power; for
after that time they were never able to regain the supremacy over the
Greeks, which they before possessed, and particularly after they were
defeated in a second battle at Mantinea. Even after these reverses they
preserved their independence until the establishment of the Roman
dominion, and were always respected by that people on account of the
excellency of their form of government. The field of battle is shown on
the road which leads from Platææ to Thespiæ.
40. The poet next mentions the Orchomenians in the Catalogue, and
distinguishes them from the Bœotian nation. He gives to Orchomenus the
epithet Minyeian from the nation of the Minyæ. They say that a colony of
the Minyeians went hence to Iolcus,[403] and from this circumstance the
Argonauts were called Minyæ. It appears that, anciently, it was a rich
[CAS. 414] and very powerful city. Homer bears witness to its wealth,
for in his enumeration of places of great opulence, he says,
“Not all that is brought to Orchomenus, or to Ægyptian Thebes. ”[404]
Of its power there is this proof, that the Thebans always paid tribute
to the Orchomenians, and to Erginus their king, who it is said was put
to death by Hercules. Eteocles, one of the kings that reigned at
Orchomenus, first displayed both wealth and power. He built a temple
dedicated to the Graces, who were thus honoured by him, either because
he had been fortunate in receiving or conferring favours, or perhaps for
both these reasons.
[For one who was inclined thus to honour these goddesses, must have been
naturally disposed to be a benefactor, and he must have possessed the
power. But for this purpose wealth is required. For he who has not much
cannot give much, nor can he who does not receive much possess much; but
when giving and receiving unite, then there is a just exchange. For a
vessel which is simultaneously emptied and filled is always full; but he
who gives and does not receive cannot succeed in either giving or
receiving, for the giver must desist from giving from failure of means.
Givers also will desist from giving to him who receives only, and
confers no benefits, so that he must fail in receiving. The same may be
said of power. For independently of the common saying,
“That money is the thing most highly valued,
And has the greatest influence in human affairs,”[405]
we may examine the subject more in detail. We say, for example, that
kings have the greatest power, (μάλιστα δύνασθαι,) whence the name,
dynasty. Their power is exerted by leading the multitude whither they
like, by persuasion or by force. Their power of persuasion chiefly
rests in doing acts of kindness; for persuasion by words is not
princely, but belongs to the orator. By princely persuasion, I mean,
when kings direct and lead men whither they please by acts of kindness.
They persuade by acts of kindness, but compel by means of arms. Both
power and possessions may be purchased by money. For he has the largest
body of forces, who is able to maintain the largest; and he who has the
largest possessions, can confer the greatest benefits. [406]]
The spot which the present lake Copaïs occupies, was formerly, it is
said, dry ground, and was cultivated in various ways by the
Orchomenians, who lived near it; and this is alleged as a proof of
wealth.
41. Some persons use the word Aspledon[407] without the first syllable,
Spledon. The name both of the city and of the territory was changed to
Eudeielos,[408] which expressed perhaps some peculiar advantage the
inhabitants derived from their western position, and especially the mild
winters. The extreme parts of the day are the coldest. Of these the
evening is colder than the morning, for as night approaches the cold is
more intense, and as night retires the cold abates. The severity of the
cold is mitigated by the heat of the sun, and the part which during the
coldest season has received most of the sun’s heat, is mildest in
winter.
It is distant from Orchomenus[409] 20 stadia. The river Melas is between
them.
42. Panopeus, a Phocian city, and Hyampolis[410] are situated above
Orchomenus. Opus, the metropolis of the Locri Epicnemidii, borders upon
these places. It is said, that Orchomenus was formerly situated on a
plain, but, as the waters overflowed, the settlers removed to the
mountain Acontium, which extends 60 stadia in length, as far as
Parapotamii in Phocis. It is said, that those people, who are called
Achæi in Pontus, are colonists from the Orchomenians, who, after the
capture of Troy, wandered thither under the conduct of Ialmenus. There
was also an Orchomenus near Carystus.
The writers on the Catalogue of Ships [in Homer], have furnished us with
these materials, and they have been followed, wherever they introduced
anything adapted to the design of this work.
CHAPTER III.
1. Next to Bœotia and Orchomenus is Phocis, lying along the side of
Bœotia to the north, and, anciently, nearly from sea [CAS. 416] to sea.
For at that time Daphnus belonged to Phocis, dividing Locris into two
parts, and situated midway between the Opuntian Gulf and the sea-coast
of the Epicnemidii. At present, however, the district belongs to the
Locri; but the town is in ruins, so that Phocis no longer extends to the
sea opposite Eubœa; but it is close to the Crisæan Gulf. For Crisa
itself belongs to Phocis, and is situated immediately upon the sea.
Cirrha, Anticyra,[411] and the places above them, in the interior near
Parnassus in continuous succession, namely, Delphi,[412] Cirphis, and
Daulis,[413] belong to Phocis, so also Parnassus itself, which is the
boundary of the western side.
In the same manner as Phocis lies along the side of Bœotia, so are both
the divisions of Locris situated with respect to Phocis, for Locris is
composed of two parts, being divided by Parnassus. The western part lies
along the side of Parnassus, occupies a portion of it, and extends to
the Crisæan Gulf; the eastern part terminates at the sea near Eubœa. The
inhabitants of the former are called Locri Hesperii, or Locri Ozolæ, and
have engraven on their public seal the star Hesperus. The rest are again
divided into two bodies: one, the Opuntii, who have their name from the
chief city, and border upon the Phocæans and Bœotians; the other, the
Epicnemidii, who have their name from the mountain Cnemis;[414] and
adjoin the Œtæi, and the Malienses. In the midst of the Hesperii, and
the other Locri, is Parnassus, lying lengthwise towards the northern
part, and extending from the neighbourhood of Delphi to the junction of
the Œtæan, and the Ætolian mountains, and to the Dorians, who are
situated between them. For as both divisions of Locris extend along the
side of Phocis, so also the region of Œta with Ætolia, and some of the
places situated in the Doric Tetrapolis, extend along the sides of the
two Locri, Parnassus and the Dorians. Immediately above these are
situated the Thessalians, the northern Ætolians, the Acarnanians, and
some of the Epirotic and Macedonian nations, as I observed before, the
above-mentioned tracts of country may be considered as a kind of
parallel bands stretching from the west to the east.
The whole of Parnassus is esteemed sacred, it contains caves, and other
places, which are regarded with honour and reverence. Of these the most
celebrated and the most beautiful is Corycium, a cave of the nymphs,
having the same name as that in Cilicia. Of the sides of Parnassus, the
western is occupied by the Locri Ozolæ, and by some of the Dorians, and
by the Ætoli, situated near Corax, an Ætolian mountain. The eastern side
is occupied by Phocians and by the greater part of the Dorians, who hold
the Tetrapolis, situated as it were round the side of Parnassus, but
spreading out in the largest extent towards the east. The sides of the
above-mentioned tracts and each of the bands are parallel, one side
being northern, and the other southern. The western sides, however, are
not parallel to the eastern, for the sea-coast from the Crisæan Gulf to
Actium[415] is not parallel to the coast opposite Eubœa, and extending
to Thessalonica. It is on these shores the above-mentioned nations
terminate. For the figure of these countries is to be understood from
the notion of lines drawn parallel to the base of a triangle, where the
separate parts lie parallel to one another, and have their sides in
latitude parallel, but not their sides in longitude. This is a rough
sketch of the country which remains to be examined. We shall examine
each separate part in order, beginning with Phocis.
2. The two most celebrated cities of this country are Delphi and
Elateia. Delphi is renowned for the temple of the Pythian Apollo, and
the antiquity of its oracle; since Agamemnon is said by the poet to have
consulted it; for the minstrel is introduced singing of the
“fierce contest of Ulysses, and Achilles, the son of Peleus,
how once they contended together, and Agamemnon king of men
was pleased, for so Phœbus Apollo had foretold by the oracle
in the illustrious Pytho. ”[416]
Delphi then was celebrated on this account. Elateia was famous as being
the largest of the cities in that quarter, and for its very convenient
position upon the straits; for he, who is the master of this city,
commands the entrances into Phocis and Bœotia. First, there are the
Œtæan mountains, next the mountains of the Locri, and the Phocians; they
are not every where passable for invading armies, coming from Thessaly,
but having narrow passes distinct from each other, which the adjacent
cities guard. Those, who take the cities, are masters [CAS. 418] of the
passes also. But since from its celebrity the temple at Delphi possesses
a pre-eminence, this, together with the position of the places, (for
they are the most westerly parts of Phocis,) suggest a natural
commencement of our description, and we shall begin from thence.
3. We have remarked, that Parnassus itself is situated on the western
boundaries of Phocis. The western side of this mountain is occupied by
the Locri Ozolæ; on the southern is Delphi, a rocky spot, resembling in
shape a theatre; on its summit is the oracle, and also the city, which
comprehends a circle of 16 stadia. Above it lies Lycoreia; here the
Delphians were formerly settled above the temple. At present they live
close to it around the Castalian fountain. In front of the city, on the
southern part, is Cirphis, a precipitous hill, leaving in the
intermediate space a wooded ravine, through which the river Pleistus
flows. Below Cirphis near the sea is Cirrha, an ancient city, from which
there is an ascent to Delphi of about 80 stadia. It is situated opposite
to Sicyon. Adjoining to Cirrha is the fertile Crisæan plain. Again, next
in order follows another city Crisa, from which the Crisæan Gulf has its
name; then Anticyra,[417] of the same name as the city, on the Maliac
Gulf, and near Œta. The best hellebore is said to grow in the Maliac
Anticyra,[418] but here it is prepared in a better manner; on this
account many persons resort hither for the purpose of experiencing its
purgative qualities, and of being cured of their maladies. In the
Phocian territory there is found a medicinal plant, resembling Sesamum,
(Sesamoides,) with which the Œtæan hellebore is prepared.
4. Anticyra still remains, but Cirrha and Crisa[419] are in ruins;
Cirrha was destroyed by the Crisæans; and Crisa, afterwards, by
Eurylochus the Thessalian, in the Crisæan war; for the Crisæi enriched
themselves by duties levied on merchandise brought from Sicily and
Italy, and laid grievous imposts on those who resorted to the temple,
contrary to the decrees of the Amphictyons. The same was the case with
the Amphissenses, who belong to the Locri Ozolæ. This people made an
irruption into the country, and took possession of Crisa, and restored
it. The plain, which had been consecrated by the Amphictyons, was
diligently cultivated, but strangers were more harshly treated than by
the Crisæans before them. The Amphictyons punished them and restored the
territory to the god. The temple at Delphi is now much neglected,
although formerly it was held in the greatest veneration. Proofs of the
respect which was paid to it are, the treasuries constructed at the
expense of communities and princes, where was deposited the wealth
dedicated to sacred uses, the works of the most eminent artists, the
Pythian games, and a multitude of celebrated oracles.
5. The place where the oracle is delivered, is said to be a deep hollow
cavern, the entrance to which is not very wide. From it rises up an
exhalation which inspires a divine frenzy: over the mouth is placed a
lofty tripod on which the Pythian priestess ascends to receive the
exhalation, after which she gives the prophetic response in verse or
prose. The prose is adapted to measure by poets who are in the service
of the temple. Phemonoë is said to have been the first Pythian
prophetess, and both the prophetess and the city obtained their
appellation from the word Pythesthai, to inquire, (πυθέσθαι).
The first syllable was lengthened, as in the words ἀθάνατος, ἀκάματος,
διάκονος.
[420][The establishment of cities, and the honour paid to common
temples, are due to the same feelings and causes. Men were collected
together into cities and nations, from a natural disposition to society,
and for the purpose of mutual assistance. Hence common temples were
resorted to, festivals celebrated, and meetings held of the general body
of the people. For friendship commences from and is promoted by
attending the same feasts, uniting in the same worship, and dwelling
under the same roof. The advantages derived from these meetings were
naturally estimated from the number of persons who attended them, as
also from the number of places from whence they came. ]
6. Although the highest honour was paid to this temple on account of the
oracle, (for it was the most exempt of any from deception,) yet its
reputation was owing in part to its situation in the centre of all
Greece, both within and without the isthmus. It was also supposed to be
the centre of the habitable [CAS. 420] earth, and was called the Navel
of the earth. A fable, referred to by Pindar, was invented, according to
which two eagles, (or, as others say, two crows,) set free by Jupiter,
one from the east, the other from the west, alighted together at Delphi.
In the temple is seen a sort of navel wrapped in bands, and surmounted
by figures representing the birds of the fable.
7. As the situation of Delphi is convenient, persons easily assembled
there, particularly those from the neighbourhood, of whom the
Amphictyonic body is composed. It is the business of this body to
deliberate on public affairs, and to it is more particularly intrusted
the guardianship of the temple for the common good; for large sums of
money were deposited there, and votive offerings, which required great
vigilance and religious care. The early history of this body is unknown,
but among the names which are recorded, Acrisius appears to have been
the first who regulated its constitution, to have determined what cities
were to have votes in the council, and to have assigned the number of
votes and mode of voting. To some cities he gave a single vote each, or
a vote to two cities, or to several cities conjointly. He also defined
the class of questions which might arise between the different cities,
which were to be submitted to the decision of the Amphictyonic tribunal;
and subsequently many other regulations were made, but this body, like
that of the Achæans, was finally dissolved.
At first twelve cities are said to have assembled, each of which sent a
Pylagoras. The convention was held twice a year, in spring and autumn.
But latterly a greater number of cities assembled. They called both the
vernal and the autumnal convention Pylæan, because it was held at Pylæ,
which has the name also of Thermopylæ. The Pylagoræ sacrificed to Ceres.
In the beginning, the persons in the neighbourhood only assembled, or
consulted the oracle, but afterwards people repaired thither from a
distance for this purpose, sent gifts, and constructed treasuries, as
Crœsus, and his father Alyattes, some of the Italians also, and the
Siceli (Sicilians).
8. But the wealth, being an object of cupidity, was guarded with
difficulty, although dedicated to sacred uses. At present, however,
whatever it might have been, the temple at Delphi is exceedingly poor.
Some of the offerings have been taken away for the sake of the money,
but the greater part remain there. It is true that the temple was once
very opulent, as Homer testifies;
“Nor all the wealth, which the marble threshold of Phœbus
Apollo, the Archer, (Aphetor,)[421] contains in the rocky
Pytho. ”[422]
The treasuries indicate its riches, and the plunder committed by the
Phocians, which gave rise to the Phocic or Sacred war, as it was called.
It is however supposed that a spoliation of the temple must have taken
place at some more remote period, when the wealth mentioned by Homer
disappeared; for no vestige of it whatever was preserved to later times,
when Onomarchus and Phayllus pillaged the temple, as the property [then]
removed was of a more recent date than that referred to by the poet. For
there were once deposited in the treasuries, offerings from spoils,
bearing inscriptions with the names of the donors, as of Gyges, of
Crœsus, of the Sybaritæ, of the Spinetæ on the Adriatic, and of others
also. It would be unbecoming to suppose[423] that modern and ancient
treasures were confounded together: other places pillaged by these
people confirm this view.
Some persons, however, understanding the word Aphetor to signify
treasure, and the threshold of the aphetor the repository of the
treasure under-ground, say, that this wealth was buried beneath the
temple, and that Onomarchus and his companions attempted to dig it up by
night; violent shocks of an earthquake caused them to fly out of the
temple, and desist from their excavation; thus others were impressed
with a dread of making similar attempts.
9. Of the shrines, the winged shrine[424] is to be placed among fabulous
stories. The second is said to have been the workmanship of Trophonius
and Agamedes, but the present shrine[425] was built by the Amphictyons.
A tomb of Neoptolemus is shown in the sacred enclosure. It was built
according [CAS. 421] to the injunction of an oracle. Neoptolemus was
killed by Machæreus, a Delphian, when, as the fable goes, he was seeking
redress from the god for the murder of his father, but, probably, he was
preparing to pillage the temple. Branchus, who presided over the temple
at Didyma, is said to have been a descendant of Machæreus.
10. There was anciently a contest held at Delphi, of players on the
cithara, who executed a pæan in honour of the god. It was instituted by
Delphians. But after the Crisæan war the Amphictyons, in the time of
Eurylochus, established contests for horses, and gymnastic sports, in
which the victor was crowned. These were called Pythian games. The
players[426] on the cithara were accompanied by players on the flute,
and by citharists,[427] who performed without singing. They performed a
strain (Melos),[428] called the Pythian mood (Nomos). [429] It consisted
of five parts; the anacrusis, the ampeira, cataceleusmus, iambics and
dactyls, and pipes. [430] Timosthenes, the commander of the fleet of the
Second Ptolemy, and who was the author of a work in ten books on
Harbours, composed a melos. His object was to celebrate in this melos
the contest of Apollo with the serpent Python. The anacrusis was
intended to express the prelude; the ampeira, the first onset of the
contest; the cataceleusmus, the contest itself; the iambics and dactyls
denoted the triumphal strain on obtaining the victory, together with
musical measures, of which the dactyl is peculiarly appropriated to
praise, and the use of the iambic to insult and reproach; the syringes
or pipes described the death, the players imitating the hissings of the
expiring monster. [431]
11. Ephorus, whom we generally follow, on account of his exactness in
these matters, (as Polybius, a writer of repute, testifies,) seems to
proceed contrary to his proposed plan, and to the promise which he made
at the beginning of his work. For after having censured those writers
who are fond of intermixing fable with history, and after having spoken
in praise of truth, he introduces, with reference to this oracle, a
grave declaration, that he considers truth preferable at all times, but
especially in treating subjects of this kind. For it is absurd, he says,
if, in other things, we constantly follow this practice, but that when
we come to speak of the oracle, which of all others is the most exempt
from deception, we should introduce tales so incredible and false. Yet
immediately afterwards he says, that it is the received opinion that
Apollo, by the aid of Themis, established this oracle with a view to
benefit the human race. He then explains these benefits, by saying, that
men were invited to pursue a more civilized mode of life, and were
taught maxims of wisdom by oracles; by injunctions to perform or to
abstain, or by positive refusal to attend to the prayers of petitioners.
Some, he says, suppose, that the god himself in a bodily form directs
these things; others, that he communicates an intimation of his will to
men [by words].
12. And lower down, when speaking of the Delphians and their origin, he
says, that certain persons, called Parnassii, an indigenous tribe,
anciently inhabited Parnassus, about which time Apollo, traversing the
country, reclaimed men from their savage state, by inducing them to
adopt a more civilized mode of life and subsistence; that, setting out
from Athens on his way to Delphi, he took the same road along which the
Athenians at present conduct the procession of the Pythias; that when he
arrived at the Panopeis, he put to death Tityus, who was master of the
district, a violent and lawless man; that the Parnassii having joined
him informed him of Python, another desperate man, surnamed the Dragon.
Whilst he was despatching this man with his arrows, they shouted, Hie
Paian;[432] whence has been transmitted the custom of singing the Pæan
before the onset of a battle; that after the death of the Python the
Delphians burnt even his tent, as they still continue to burn a tent in
memorial of these events. Now what can be more fabulous than Apollo
discharging his arrows, chastising Tityi and Pythons, his journey from
Athens to Delphi, and his travels over the whole country? If he did not
consider these as fables, why did he call the fabulous Themis a woman,
and the fabulous dragon a man, unless he intended to confound the
provinces of history and fable. His account of the Ætolians is similar
to this. After having [CAS. 423] asserted that their country was never
ravaged at any period, he says, that at one time it was inhabited by
Ætolians, who had expelled the Barbarians; that at another time, Ætolus,
together with the Epeii from Elis, inhabited it; [that Ætolus was
overthrown by the Epeii,] and these again by Alcmæon and Diomedes.
I now return to the Phocians.
13. Immediately on the sea-coast, next after Anticyra,[433] and
behind[434] it, is the small city Marathus; then a promontory,
Pharygium, which has a shelter for vessels; then the harbour at the
farthest end, called Mychus,[435] from the accident of its situation
between Helicon[436] and Ascra.
Nor is Abæ,[437] the seat of an oracle, far from these places, nor
Ambrysus,[438] nor Medeon, of the same name as a city in Bœotia.
In the inland parts, next after Delphi, towards the east is Daulis,[439]
a small town, where, it is said, Tereus, the Thracian, was prince; and
there they say is the scene of the fable of Philomela and Procne;
Thucydides lays it there; but other writers refer it to Megara. The name
of the place is derived from the thickets there, for they call thickets
Dauli. Homer calls it Daulis, but subsequent writers Daulia, and the
words
“they who occupied Cyparissus,”[440]
are understood in a double sense; some persons supposing it to have its
name from the tree of the country, but others from a village situated
below the Lycoreian territory.
14. Panopeus, the present Phanoteus, the country of Epeius, is on the
confines of the district of Lebadeia. Here the fable places the abode of
Tityus. But Homer says, that the Phæacians conducted Rhadamanthus to
Eubœa,
“in order to see Tityus, son of the earth;”[441]
they show also in the island a cave called Elarium, from Elara the
mother of Tityus, and an Heroum of Tityus, and some kind of honours are
spoken of, which are paid to him.
Near Lebadeia is Trachin, having the same name as that in Œtæa; it is a
small Phocian town. The inhabitants are called Trachinii.
15. Anemoreia[442] has its name from a physical accident, to which it is
liable. It is exposed to violent gusts of wind from a place called
Catopterius,[443] a precipitous mountain, extending from Parnassus. It
was a boundary between Delphi and the Phocians, when the Lacedæmonians
made the Delphians separate themselves from the common body of the
Phocians,[444] and permitted them to form an independent state.
Some call the place Anemoleia; it was afterwards called by others
Hyampolis,[445] (and also Hya,) whither we said the Hyantes were
banished from Bœotia. It is situated quite in the interior, near
Parapotamii, and is a different place from Hyampea on Parnassus.
Elateia[446] is the largest of the Phocian cities, but Homer was not
acquainted with it, for it is later than his times. It is conveniently
situated to repel incursions on the side of Thessaly. Demosthenes[447]
points out the advantage of its position, in speaking of the confusion
which suddenly arose, when a messenger arrived to inform the Prytaneis
of the capture of Elateia.
16. Parapotamii is a settlement on the Cephissus, in the neighbourhood
of Phanoteus, Chæroneia, and Elateia. This place, according to
Theopompus, is distant from Chæroneia about 40 stadia, and is the
boundary between the Ambryseis, Panopeis, and Daulieis. It is situated
at the entrance from Bœotia to the Phocians, upon an eminence of
moderate height, between Parnassus and the mountain [Hadylium, where
there is an open space] of 5 stadia in extent, through which runs the
Cephissus, affording on each side a narrow pass. This river has its
source at Lilæa, a Phocian city, as Homer testifies;[CAS. 424]
“they who occupied Lilæa, near the source of the Cephissus;”[448]
and empties itself into the lake Copais.
