(Compare
Reeherehes
Cu-
rieuses sur FHistoire Ancienne de VAsie, par Cirbied
tt Martin, p.
rieuses sur FHistoire Ancienne de VAsie, par Cirbied
tt Martin, p.
Charles - 1867 - Classical Dictionary
) h, mineral pro-
ductions were likewise very rich, especially copper,
found at Tamasus, and supposed to be alluded to in
the Odyssey. The first inhabitants of this island are
generally supposed to have come from Phoenicia; and
yet, that the Cyprians spoke a language different from
*e Phoenicians and peculiar to themselves, is evident
from the scattered glosses preserved by the lexicog-
raphers ind grammarians. One thing is certain, how-
ever, that the whole of the ceremonies and religious
ntes observed by the Cyprians, with respect to Venus
and Adonis, were without doubt borrowed from Phoe-
nicia. Venus, in fact, was the principal deity of the
island, and, as might be expected, the Cyprians were,
in consequence, a sensual and licentious people. Pros-
titution was sanctioned by the laws (Herod,, 1, 199
--Atktnttus, 12, p. 516), and hired flatterers and pro-
fessed sycophants attended on the luxurious princes of
the land. (ClearcK. ap. Alhen , 6, p. 255. ) Never-
theless, literature and the arts nourished here to a con-
siderable extent, even at an early period, as the name
of the Cypria Carmina, ascribed by some to Homer,
efficiently attests. (Herod, 2, 118--Athcmtus, 15,
p. 682. ) The island of Cyprus is still famed for its
fertility. The most valuable production at preser. t is
cotton. The French also send thither for turpentine,
building timber, oranges, and particularly Cyprus wine.
Hyacinths, anemonies, ranunculuses, and the sirHc
sod double narcissus, grow here without cultivation"
They deck the mountains, and give the country the
appearance of an immense flower-garden. But agri-
? ? culture is neglected, and an unwholesome atmosphere
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? i;yr
cykenk.
country, and pasturage was more attended to. Cap-
tain Beechy, in the course of his travels through thi3
region, noticed a plant about three feet in height, very
much resembling the hemlock or wild carrot. He waa
told, that it was usually fatal to the camels who ate of
it, and that its juice was so acrid as to fester the flesh,
if at all excoriated. He supposes it to be the silphium.
Delia Cells describes, apparently, the same production
as ar. umbelliferous plant, with compound, indented
leaves, fleshy, delicate, and shining, without any invotu-
cri'm; the fruit being somewhat flattened, surmounted
by three ribs, and furnished all round with a membrane
>s glossy as silk (p. 128). Captain Smith succeeded
i! bringing ever a specimen of the plant, which is said
to be now thriving in Devonshire. (Beechy, p. 410,
str/'/ ) M. Pacho says, that the Arabs call it derias;
and he proposes to class the plant as a species of la-
serwort, under the name of laserpitium derias. It
seems to resemble the laserpitium Jerulaceum of J. m-
nasus. --Cyrcnaica was called Pentapolis, from its hav-
ing five cities of note in it, Cyrene, Barce, Ptolemais,
Berenice, and Tauchira. All of these exist at the
present day under the form of towns or villages, and,
what is remarkable, their names are scarcely changed
from what we may suppose the pronunciation to have
been among the Greeks. They are now called Ku-
rin, Barca, Tollamata, hemic, and Tauter*--Some
farther remarks upon the district of Cyrcnaica will be
found under the head of Cyrene, being blended with
the history of that city as its capital. For a full ac-
count of Lhe silphium, see the 36th volume of the
W/mi'-zc. it VAcadem. des Belles Leltres, p. 18, and
lor cmto valuable observations respecting Cyrcnaica,
consult i! ie work of M. Pacho, Relation d'un Voy-
age da. is la Marmariquc, la Cyrtnaique, etc. , I'aris,
1828,4to.
Cvrenaici, a sect of philosophers who followed the
doctrines of Aristippus, and whose name was derived
from trsir founder's having been a native of Cyrene,
and from their school's having been established in this
place. Aristippus made the summumbonum and the
t:? . oc of man to consist in enjoyment, accompanied by
good taste and freedom of mind, to xpareiv Kai /"/
qrrasrOai iiftbvuv upiarov, ov to ftrj xpvot/ai. (Diog.
Lae-i , 2, 75. ) Happiness, said the Cyrenai'cs. con-
sists, not in tranquillity or indolence, but in a pleas-
ing agitation of the mind or in active enjoyment.
Pleasure is the ultimate object of human pursuit; it
is only in subserviency to this that fame, friendship,
and even virtue are to be desired All crimes are
venial, because never committed but through the im-
mediate impulse of passion. Nothing is just or un-
just by nature, but by custom and law. The business
of philosophy is to regulate the senses in that manner
which will render them most productive of pleasure.
Since, then, pleasure is to be derived, not from the past
or the future, but the present, a wise man will take care
to enjoy the present hour, and will be indifferent to life
or death. Such were the tenets of the Oyrenvc school.
The short duration of thia sect was owing, in part, to
the remote distance of Cyrene from Greece, the chief
scat of learning and philosophy; in part to the un-
bounded latitude which these philosophers allowed
themselves in practice as well as opinion; and in part
to the rise of the Epicurean sect, which taught the doc-
trine of pleasure in a more philosophical form (En-
ht'J's History of Philosophy, vol. 1, p. 197. --Tenne-
? ? manii's Manual, p. 101, Johnson's transl)
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? CVR
UtfUILLtiS.
me sophist. Numbers ol Jews, appeaf to have settled
in Cvrenaica, even prior to the Christian era. It was
>> Jew of Cyrcne whom the Roman soldiers compell-
ed to bear one end of our Saviour's cross. (Matt. ,
27,32--Mark, 15, 21. ) Cyrenean Jews were pres-
ent at Jerusalem on the day of the Pentecost; some
of them took part with their Alexandrean brethren in
disputing against the proto-martyr Stephen ; and Chris-
tian Jews of Cyprus and Cyrene, fleeing from the per-
secution of their intolerant brethren, were the first
preachers of Christianity to the Greeks of Antioch.
(Acta, 2,10; 6, 9; 11,20. ) That Cyrene continued
to flourish under the Romans, may be inferred as well
from some Latin inscriptions as from the style of many
of the architectural remains To what circumstance
its desertion is attributable, does not appear; but in
the fifth century it had become a mass of ruin. It is
to described by Syncsius, who lived in the time of
Theodosius the younger. The wealth and honours of
Cyrene were transferred to the episcopal city of Ptol-
emais. The final extirpation of the Greek colonies of
Cyrcnaica dates, however, from the destructive inva-
sion of the Persian Chosroes, who, about 616, overran
Syria and Egypt, and he advanced as far westward as
the neighbourhood of Tripoli. The Saracens comple-
ted the work of destruction, and for seven centuries
this once fertile and populous region has been lost to
civilization, to commerce, and almost to geographical
knowledge. For three parts of the year Cyrene is
untenanted, except by jackals and hyenas, and during
the fourth, wandering Bedouins, too indolent to as-
cend the higher range of hills, pitch their tents chiefly
on lite low grounds to the southward of the summit on
which the city is built. The situation of Cyrene is
described by modern travellers as singularly beautiful.
It is built on the edge of a range of hills, rising about
80t) feet above a fine sweep of high table-land, form-
ing the summit of a lower chain, to which it descends
bv a series of terraces. The elevation of the lower
chain may be estimated at 1000 feet; so that Cyrene
stands about 1800 feet above the level of the sea, of
which it commands an extensive view over the table-
land, which, extending east and west as far as the eye
". an reach, stretches about five miles to the northward,
and then descends abruptly to the coast. The view
from the brow of the height, extending over the rocks,
and woods, and distant ocean, is described by Capt.
Becchy as almost unrivalled in magnificence. Ad-
vantage has been taken of the natural terraces of the
declivity, to shape the ledges into practicable roads,
leading along the face of the mountain, and communi-
cating, in some instances, by narrow flights of steps
cut in the rock. These roads, which may be supposed
to have been the favourite drives of the citizens of Cy-
rene, are very plainly indented with the marks of char-
iot-wheels, deeply furrowing the smooth, stony sur-
face. The rock, in most instances rising perpendicu-
larly from these galleries, has been excavated into in-
numerable tombs, formed with great labour and taste,
and generally adorned with architectural facades. In
several of the excavated tombs were discovered re-
mains of paintings, representing historical, allegorical,
ind pastoral subjects, executed in the manner of those
of Herculaneum and Pompeii: some of them by no
means inferior to the best that have been found in
those cities. (For some remarks on these paintings,
consult Beeehy, p. 451, ttqq. )
? ? Cvxeschata. Vid. Cyropolis.
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? CYR
CYR
or ot A. axandrea, who feared that the bishop's author-
ity, if rot checked, might infringe upon that of the
magisUkte. Parties were formed to support the rival
claunr, and battles were fought in the streets of Alex-
andre* ^ and Orestes himself was one day suddenly
surrounded by 500 monks, by whom he would have
r>een murdered had not the people interfered. One of
these assailants, being seized, was put to the torture
so severely that he died under the operation, on which
Cyrill had him immediately canonized, and on every
occasion commended his constancy and zeal. There
alio lived in Alexandrea a learned pagan lady, named
Hypatia, with whom Orestes was intimate, and who
was supposed to have encouraged his resistance to the
claims of the bishop. This accomplished female was
one day seized by a band of zealots, who dragged her
through the streets, and concluded by tearing her limb
from limb, a piece of atrocity attributed to the instiga-
tion of Cyrill, and from which his memory has never
been absolved. He next engaged in a furious contro-
versy with Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople, who
maintained that the Virgin Mary ought not to be called
the Mother of God, but the mother of our Lord or of
Christ, since the Deity can neither be born nor die.
These homilies, falling into the hands of the Egyptian
monks, caused a great commotion among them, and
Cyrill wrote a pastoral letter to them, in which he
maintained that the Virgin Mary ought to be called
the Mother of God, and denounced bitter censures
against all who supported an opposite opinion. A con-
troversial correspondence between the two bishops en-
sued, which ended in an open war of excommunica-
tions and anathemas. To put an end to this contro-
versy, in 431 a council was held at Ephcsus by the
Emperor Theodosius; and Cyrill, by his precipitation
and violence, and not waiting for a number cf Eastern
bishops, obtained the condemnation of Nestorius with-
out his being heard in his own defence, and that prelate
was deprived of his bishopric and banished to the
Egyptian deserts. When John, bishop of Antioch,
and the other Eastern bishops, however, appeared, they
avenged Nestorius, and, deposing Cyrill, put him in
prison. In a subsequent meeting of the council, he
was liberated and absolved from the sentence of de-
position, but had the mortification cf seeing the doc-
trine which he had condemned spreading rapidly through
the Roman empire, Assyria, and Persia. He died at
Alexandrea in the year 444. Cyrill was undoubtedly
a man of learning, but overbearing, ambitious, cruel,
and intolerant in the highest degree. He is much ex-
tolled by Catholic writers for his great zeal and piety,
of which the particulars thus specified are proofs. He
was the author of a number of works, treatises, &c,
the best edition of which was published at Paris in
1630, in 7 vols, fol. , under the care of Jean Aubert,
canon of Laon. (Biogr. Univ. , vol. 10, p. 406. )
CvKHOs(Kvpvor), the Greek name of Corsica. (Vid.
Corsica. )
Cvropolis, a large city of Asia, on the banks of
the Iaxartes, founded by Cyrus. (CcUarius, Geogr.
Ant. , vol. 2. p. 715. --Salnuu. , in Sol in. , p. 480. ) It
was also called Cyreschata. Both of these names,
however, are Greek translations of the true Persian
terms. The termination of tho laat is the Greek to-
Xarn, expressing, as did the Persian one, the remote
situation of the place. Alexander destroyed it, and
built in its stead a city, called by the Roman geogra-
? ? phers Alexandrea Ultima, by the Greeks, however, 'AX-
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? CYRUS.
CYRUS.
Hi one of his vassals. Amorges, king of the Sacav vho
earns a decisive victory over the Derhices, and ai icx-
tt their land to the Persian empire. This account is
to far confirmed by Herodotus, that we do not hear
from him of any consequences that followed the sua-
tes>> of the Massagetse, or that the attention of Cam-
jyses, the son and heir of Cyrus, was called away to-
wards the North. The first recorded measure of his
reign, on the contrary, was the invasion of Egypt.
;Thtrlicairt Greece, vol. 2, p. 172, teq. )--Thus much
icr the history of Cyrus, according to the generally re-
ceived account. It is more than probable, however, that
many and conflicting statements respecting his birth,
parentage, early life, attainment to sovereign power,
and subsequent career, were circulated throughout the
East, since we find discrepances between the narra-
tives of Herodotus, Ctesias, and Xenophon in these
several particulars, that can in no other way be ac-
counted for. It has been customary with most schol-
ars to decry the testimony of Ctesias, and to regard
him as a writer of hut slender pretensions to the char-
acter of veracity. As far, however, as the history of
Cyrus was concerned, to say nothing of other parts of
his narrative, this opinion is evidently unjust, and its
injustice will be placed in the clearest light if we com-
pare together the two rival statements of Ctesias and
Herodotus. The account of the latter teems with fa-
bles, from which that of the former appears to be entire-
ly free. It is far more consistent with reason, to be-
lieve with Ctesias that there was no affinity whatever
between Cyrus and Astyages, than with Herodotus, that
the latter was his maternal grandfather. Neither does
Ctesias make any mention of that moat palpable fable,
the exposure of the infant; nor of the equallv fabulous
story respecting the cruel punishment of Harpagus.
(Compare Bahr, ad Ctes. , Pert. , c. Z, and the words
of Rtineccius, Famil. Reg. Med. tt Bactr. , Lips. ,
1572, p. 35, "ab Astyage usurpata in Curum el
Harpagi JUium erudelilatis decanlatam ab Herodoto
l -Jiulam plane rejicimun. ") Nor neos) this dissimilar-
ity between the statements of Ctesias and Herodotus
occasion any surprise. The latter historian confesses,
very ingenuously, that there were three different tradi-
tions in his time relative to the origin of Cyrus, and
that he selected the one which appeared to him most
probable (I, 96). How unfortunate this selection was
we need hardly say. Ctesias, then, chose another tra-
dition for his guide, and Xenophon, perhaps, may have
partially mingled a third with his narrative. jEschy-
ius (Persa, v. 767) appears to have followed a fourth.
(Compare Stanley, ad Alschyl. , I. c, and Larcher, ad
Ctes. , Pert. , c. 2. ) With these several accounts,
again, what the Armenian writers tell us respecting Cy-
rus is directly at variance;.
(Compare Reeherehes Cu-
rieuses sur FHistoire Ancienne de VAsie, par Cirbied
tt Martin, p. 61, teqq. ) Among the modern scholars
who have espoused the cause of Ctesias, his recent ed-
itor, Bahr, stands most conspicuous. This writer re-
gards the narrative of Herodotus as savouring of tho
Greek love for the marvellous, and thinks it to have
been in some degree adumbrated from the story of the
Theban fEdipus and hia exposure on Githasroajx while,
on the other hand, Xenophon presents Cyrus to our
risw as a young man, imbued with the precepts of the
Socratic school, and exhibiting in his life and conduct
a model for the imitation of others. The same scholar
gives the following as what appears to him a near ap-
? ? proximation to the true history of Cyrua. He sup-
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? CYRUS.
? ion to the throne. He accompanied Artaxerxes,
whom the Greeks distinguished by the epithet of Mne-
mon, to Pasargadae, where the Persian kings went
through certain mystic ceremonies of inauguration, and
Tissaphernea took this opportunity of charging him
with a design against his brother's life. It would seem,
from Plutarch's account, that one of the officiating
priests was suoorned to support the charge; though it
w by no means certain that it was unfounded. Arta-
xerxes was convinced of its truth, and determined on
putting his brother to death; and Cyrus was only saved
by the passionate entreaties of Parysatis, in whose arms
he had sought refuge from tlte executioner. The char-
acter of Artaxerxes, though weak and timid, seems not
to have been naturally unamiable. The ascendency
which his mother, notwithstanding her undisscmblcd
predilection for her younger son, exercised over him,
was the source of the greater part of his crimes and
misfortunes. On this occasion he suffered it to over-
power both the suspicions suggested by Tissaphernes,
and the jealousy which the temper and situation of Cy-
rus might reasonably have excited. He not only par-
done' his brother, but permitted him to return to his
government. Cyrus felt himself not obliged, but hum-
bird, by his rival's clemency; and the danger he had
escaped only strengthened his resolution to make him-
self, as soon as possible, independent of the power to
which he owed his life. Immediately after his return
to Sardis, he began to make preparations for the exe-
cution of his design. The chief difficulty, was te keep
them concealed from Artaxerxes until they were fully
matured; for, though his mother, who was probably
from the beginning acquainted with his purpose, was
at court, always ready to put the most favourable con-
struction on his conduct, yet Tissaphernes was at hand
to watch it with malignant attention, and to send the
earliest information of any suspicious movement to the
king. Cyrus, towever, devised a variety of pretexts
'o blind Tissaphernes and the court, while he collected
an army for the expedition which he was meditating.
His main object was to raise as strong a body of Greek
troops as he could, for it was only with such aid that
he could hope to overpower an adversary, who had the
whole force of the empire at his command: and he
knew enough of the Greeks to believe, that their su-
periority over his countrymen, in skill and courage, was
sufficient to compensate for almost any inequality of
numbers. In the spring of 401 B. C. , Cyrus began
his march from Sardis. His whole Grecian force, a
part of which joined him on the route, amounted to
1 1,00X1 neavy infantry, and about 2000 targeteers. His
barbarian troops were 100,000 strong. After directing
his line of march through the whole extent of Asia Mi-
nor, he entered the BabT^r. ::? . territory; and it was
not untu ne reacnea the piain of Cunaxa, between
sixty and seventy miles from Babylon, that he became
certain of his brother's intention to hazard an engage-
ment. Artaxerxes met him in this spot at the head of
an army of 900,000 men. If we may believe Plutarch,
the Persian monarch had continued to waver almost to
the last, between the alternatives of fighting and re-
treating, and was only diverted from adopting the lat-
ter course by the energetic remonstrances of Tiriba-
zus. In the battle which ensued, the Greeks soon
routed the barbarians opposed to them, but committed
an error in pursuing them too far, and Cyrus was com-
pelled, in order to avoid being surrounded by the rest
of the king's army, to make an attack upon the centre,
? ? whero his brother was in person. He routed the
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? crz
DAC
Uie sea in its vicinity, means nothing more than that
her worship was introduced into the island by some
maritime people, probably the Phoenicians. Cythera
was a place of great importance to the Spartans, since
in enemy, if in possession'of it, would be thereby en-
abled to ravage the soutbern coast of Laconia. Its
"arbours also sheltered the Spartan fleets, and afforded
c-"otectiu:i to all merchant vessels against the attacks
? f pirates, whose depredations, on the other hand,
would have been greatly facilitated by its acquisition.
(Tkucyd. , 4, 53. ) Hence the Argives, who originally
netd it, were driven out eventually by the Spartans.
A magistrate was sent yearly from Sparta, styled Cy-
therodices, to administer justice, and to examine into
the state of the island; and so important a position
was it, that Demaratus expressly advised Xerxes to
seize it with a part of his fleet, since by that means he
would compel the Spartans to withdraw from the con-
federacy, and defend their own territories. Demara-
tus quoted, on this occasian, the opinion of Chilo, the
Lacedaemonian sage, who had declared it would be a
great benefit to Sparta if that island were sunk into
the sea. Cvthera (Cerigo) is now one of the Ionian
islands. {Virg. , ^n. , 1, 262; 10. 5. --Pauaan. , 3,
33-- Ovul. Met. , 4, 338; 15, 386. --Fast. , 4, 15. --
Herodot, 1, 29. )
drum. *:*, a surname of Venus, from her rising out
ol the ocean near the island of Cythera.
Cythnos, an island between Ccos and Seriphus, in
the Mare Myrtoum, colonized by the Dryopes. (Ar-
um . ap. Strab. , 43d. --Dieaarch. , Ins. , 27. ) It was
the birthplace of Cyadias, an eminent painter. The
cheese of Cythnos, according to SCephanus and Julius
Pollux, was held in high estimation among the an-
cients. The island is now called Thermia. It was
also named Ophiussa and Dryopit. (Cramer's Arte.
Greece, vol. 3, p. 403. )
Cytineoii, the most considerable of the four cities
? I Doris in Greece. According to Thucydidcs (3,
)5), it was situate to the west of Parnassus, and on
he borders of the I. ocri Ozol*. /Eschines observes,
? hat it sent one deputy to the Amphictyonic council.
(De FbU. Leg. , p. 43. )^
Citorus, a city of I'aphlagonia, on the coast be-
tween the promontory Carambis and Amastris. It
was a Greek town of great antiquity, since Homer al-
ludes to it (II. , 2, 853), and is thought to have been
(sanded by a colony of Milesians. According to Stra-
bo (545), it had been a port of the inhabitants of Si-
nope. In its vicinity was a mountain, named Cyto-
rus, which produced a beautifully-veined species of
box-tree. (CatuUtis, 4, 13. --Virg. , Georg. , 2, 437. )
The ruins of the ancient city are found near a harbour
called (juitrot or Kitros. (Tavernier, Voyage, lib. 3,
e. 6. ) In the vicinity is a high mountain called Ku-
troe or Kotru. (Abul/eda, tab. 18, p. 309. --Man-
ner! , Geogr. , vol. 6, pt*. 3, p. 23. )
C vzici's, I. an island off the northern coast of My-
? ia, nearly triangular in shape, and about five hundred
stadia in circuit. Its base was turned towards the
Propontis. while the vertex advanced so closely to the
continent that it was easy to connect it by a double
bridge. This, as Pliny reports, was done by Alexan-
der. Scylax, however, says that it was always a pen-
insula, and his authority is followed by Mannort, who
is of opinion that the inhabitants may, after the time
of Ssylix, have separated it from the mainland by a
? ? canal or ditch, for purposes of security. (Plin. , 5,
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? D-ED
VAZD
erected a stiielv bridge over the Danube. 3325 Eng-
lish feet ii '? nglh. This A urelmn destroyed: his mo-
tive in so doing is said to have been the fear lest the
t-arbarians would find it an easy passage to the coun-
tries south of the Danube, for he had by a treaty aban-
doned to the Goths the Dacia of Trajan. (Vopisc,
33, 39. ) On this occasion he named the province
louth of the Danube, to which his forces were with-
drawn, Dacia Aureliani. ( Vid. Mcesia. ) There were
afterward distinguished in Dacia, the part bordering
on the Danube and called Kipensis, and that which
was sequestered in the interior country under the name
of Mediterranea. This last was probably the same
>>'! . h what vrs more anciently termed Dardania. The
Daci of tVo Romans are the same with the Getae of
the Greeks. (Manncrt, Geogr. , vol. 4, p. 188, seqq. )
From Dacus comes Davus, the common name of
staves in Greek and Roman plays. Geu was used
in the same sense. The Daci were, in process of
lime, successively subdued by the Sarmatss, the Goths,
and the Huns; and lastly, the Saxons, driven by the
conquests of Charlemagne, established themselves in
Dacia. The Saxons principally concentrated them-
selves in what is now Transylvania, corresponding
to the ancient Dacia Mediterranea, a fertile region,
surrounded with forests and metalliferous mountains.
(Sambu;o, Append. Rer. Hung. Bonfin. , p. 760. ) To
their coming must be entirely attributed the origin of
ks cultivation. All its principal towns were built by
them: traces of their language still remain; and it
is from them that Transylvania received the name of
Siebenburgcn, or Me Region of Seven Cities. (Ckron.
Hung. , c. 2, ap. Ker. Hung. Script. , p. 31. --Clarke's
Travels--Greece, Egypt, Holy Land, etc. , vol. 8, p.
895, seqq. )
Dacicus, I. a surname of the Emperor Trajan, from
his conquest of Dacia. (Rasche, Lex. Jiei Num. , vol.
3, col. 27. )--II. A surname, supposed, but errone-
ously, to have been assumed by Domitian, on account
of a pretended victory over the Dacians. The coins
jn which it occurs are Trajan's. (Achaintre, ad Juv. ,
Sat. , 6, 204. )
Dactyli. Vid. Idasi Dactyli.
DwEdala, I. a town of Caria, near the confines of
Lycia, and on the northern shore of the Glaucus Sinus.
It was said to have derived its name from Daedalus,
who, being stung by a snake on crossing the small
river Nitius, died and was buried here. (Steph. Hi/: ,
s. D. AniiSfi/.
ductions were likewise very rich, especially copper,
found at Tamasus, and supposed to be alluded to in
the Odyssey. The first inhabitants of this island are
generally supposed to have come from Phoenicia; and
yet, that the Cyprians spoke a language different from
*e Phoenicians and peculiar to themselves, is evident
from the scattered glosses preserved by the lexicog-
raphers ind grammarians. One thing is certain, how-
ever, that the whole of the ceremonies and religious
ntes observed by the Cyprians, with respect to Venus
and Adonis, were without doubt borrowed from Phoe-
nicia. Venus, in fact, was the principal deity of the
island, and, as might be expected, the Cyprians were,
in consequence, a sensual and licentious people. Pros-
titution was sanctioned by the laws (Herod,, 1, 199
--Atktnttus, 12, p. 516), and hired flatterers and pro-
fessed sycophants attended on the luxurious princes of
the land. (ClearcK. ap. Alhen , 6, p. 255. ) Never-
theless, literature and the arts nourished here to a con-
siderable extent, even at an early period, as the name
of the Cypria Carmina, ascribed by some to Homer,
efficiently attests. (Herod, 2, 118--Athcmtus, 15,
p. 682. ) The island of Cyprus is still famed for its
fertility. The most valuable production at preser. t is
cotton. The French also send thither for turpentine,
building timber, oranges, and particularly Cyprus wine.
Hyacinths, anemonies, ranunculuses, and the sirHc
sod double narcissus, grow here without cultivation"
They deck the mountains, and give the country the
appearance of an immense flower-garden. But agri-
? ? culture is neglected, and an unwholesome atmosphere
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? i;yr
cykenk.
country, and pasturage was more attended to. Cap-
tain Beechy, in the course of his travels through thi3
region, noticed a plant about three feet in height, very
much resembling the hemlock or wild carrot. He waa
told, that it was usually fatal to the camels who ate of
it, and that its juice was so acrid as to fester the flesh,
if at all excoriated. He supposes it to be the silphium.
Delia Cells describes, apparently, the same production
as ar. umbelliferous plant, with compound, indented
leaves, fleshy, delicate, and shining, without any invotu-
cri'm; the fruit being somewhat flattened, surmounted
by three ribs, and furnished all round with a membrane
>s glossy as silk (p. 128). Captain Smith succeeded
i! bringing ever a specimen of the plant, which is said
to be now thriving in Devonshire. (Beechy, p. 410,
str/'/ ) M. Pacho says, that the Arabs call it derias;
and he proposes to class the plant as a species of la-
serwort, under the name of laserpitium derias. It
seems to resemble the laserpitium Jerulaceum of J. m-
nasus. --Cyrcnaica was called Pentapolis, from its hav-
ing five cities of note in it, Cyrene, Barce, Ptolemais,
Berenice, and Tauchira. All of these exist at the
present day under the form of towns or villages, and,
what is remarkable, their names are scarcely changed
from what we may suppose the pronunciation to have
been among the Greeks. They are now called Ku-
rin, Barca, Tollamata, hemic, and Tauter*--Some
farther remarks upon the district of Cyrcnaica will be
found under the head of Cyrene, being blended with
the history of that city as its capital. For a full ac-
count of Lhe silphium, see the 36th volume of the
W/mi'-zc. it VAcadem. des Belles Leltres, p. 18, and
lor cmto valuable observations respecting Cyrcnaica,
consult i! ie work of M. Pacho, Relation d'un Voy-
age da. is la Marmariquc, la Cyrtnaique, etc. , I'aris,
1828,4to.
Cvrenaici, a sect of philosophers who followed the
doctrines of Aristippus, and whose name was derived
from trsir founder's having been a native of Cyrene,
and from their school's having been established in this
place. Aristippus made the summumbonum and the
t:? . oc of man to consist in enjoyment, accompanied by
good taste and freedom of mind, to xpareiv Kai /"/
qrrasrOai iiftbvuv upiarov, ov to ftrj xpvot/ai. (Diog.
Lae-i , 2, 75. ) Happiness, said the Cyrenai'cs. con-
sists, not in tranquillity or indolence, but in a pleas-
ing agitation of the mind or in active enjoyment.
Pleasure is the ultimate object of human pursuit; it
is only in subserviency to this that fame, friendship,
and even virtue are to be desired All crimes are
venial, because never committed but through the im-
mediate impulse of passion. Nothing is just or un-
just by nature, but by custom and law. The business
of philosophy is to regulate the senses in that manner
which will render them most productive of pleasure.
Since, then, pleasure is to be derived, not from the past
or the future, but the present, a wise man will take care
to enjoy the present hour, and will be indifferent to life
or death. Such were the tenets of the Oyrenvc school.
The short duration of thia sect was owing, in part, to
the remote distance of Cyrene from Greece, the chief
scat of learning and philosophy; in part to the un-
bounded latitude which these philosophers allowed
themselves in practice as well as opinion; and in part
to the rise of the Epicurean sect, which taught the doc-
trine of pleasure in a more philosophical form (En-
ht'J's History of Philosophy, vol. 1, p. 197. --Tenne-
? ? manii's Manual, p. 101, Johnson's transl)
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? CVR
UtfUILLtiS.
me sophist. Numbers ol Jews, appeaf to have settled
in Cvrenaica, even prior to the Christian era. It was
>> Jew of Cyrcne whom the Roman soldiers compell-
ed to bear one end of our Saviour's cross. (Matt. ,
27,32--Mark, 15, 21. ) Cyrenean Jews were pres-
ent at Jerusalem on the day of the Pentecost; some
of them took part with their Alexandrean brethren in
disputing against the proto-martyr Stephen ; and Chris-
tian Jews of Cyprus and Cyrene, fleeing from the per-
secution of their intolerant brethren, were the first
preachers of Christianity to the Greeks of Antioch.
(Acta, 2,10; 6, 9; 11,20. ) That Cyrene continued
to flourish under the Romans, may be inferred as well
from some Latin inscriptions as from the style of many
of the architectural remains To what circumstance
its desertion is attributable, does not appear; but in
the fifth century it had become a mass of ruin. It is
to described by Syncsius, who lived in the time of
Theodosius the younger. The wealth and honours of
Cyrene were transferred to the episcopal city of Ptol-
emais. The final extirpation of the Greek colonies of
Cyrcnaica dates, however, from the destructive inva-
sion of the Persian Chosroes, who, about 616, overran
Syria and Egypt, and he advanced as far westward as
the neighbourhood of Tripoli. The Saracens comple-
ted the work of destruction, and for seven centuries
this once fertile and populous region has been lost to
civilization, to commerce, and almost to geographical
knowledge. For three parts of the year Cyrene is
untenanted, except by jackals and hyenas, and during
the fourth, wandering Bedouins, too indolent to as-
cend the higher range of hills, pitch their tents chiefly
on lite low grounds to the southward of the summit on
which the city is built. The situation of Cyrene is
described by modern travellers as singularly beautiful.
It is built on the edge of a range of hills, rising about
80t) feet above a fine sweep of high table-land, form-
ing the summit of a lower chain, to which it descends
bv a series of terraces. The elevation of the lower
chain may be estimated at 1000 feet; so that Cyrene
stands about 1800 feet above the level of the sea, of
which it commands an extensive view over the table-
land, which, extending east and west as far as the eye
". an reach, stretches about five miles to the northward,
and then descends abruptly to the coast. The view
from the brow of the height, extending over the rocks,
and woods, and distant ocean, is described by Capt.
Becchy as almost unrivalled in magnificence. Ad-
vantage has been taken of the natural terraces of the
declivity, to shape the ledges into practicable roads,
leading along the face of the mountain, and communi-
cating, in some instances, by narrow flights of steps
cut in the rock. These roads, which may be supposed
to have been the favourite drives of the citizens of Cy-
rene, are very plainly indented with the marks of char-
iot-wheels, deeply furrowing the smooth, stony sur-
face. The rock, in most instances rising perpendicu-
larly from these galleries, has been excavated into in-
numerable tombs, formed with great labour and taste,
and generally adorned with architectural facades. In
several of the excavated tombs were discovered re-
mains of paintings, representing historical, allegorical,
ind pastoral subjects, executed in the manner of those
of Herculaneum and Pompeii: some of them by no
means inferior to the best that have been found in
those cities. (For some remarks on these paintings,
consult Beeehy, p. 451, ttqq. )
? ? Cvxeschata. Vid. Cyropolis.
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? CYR
CYR
or ot A. axandrea, who feared that the bishop's author-
ity, if rot checked, might infringe upon that of the
magisUkte. Parties were formed to support the rival
claunr, and battles were fought in the streets of Alex-
andre* ^ and Orestes himself was one day suddenly
surrounded by 500 monks, by whom he would have
r>een murdered had not the people interfered. One of
these assailants, being seized, was put to the torture
so severely that he died under the operation, on which
Cyrill had him immediately canonized, and on every
occasion commended his constancy and zeal. There
alio lived in Alexandrea a learned pagan lady, named
Hypatia, with whom Orestes was intimate, and who
was supposed to have encouraged his resistance to the
claims of the bishop. This accomplished female was
one day seized by a band of zealots, who dragged her
through the streets, and concluded by tearing her limb
from limb, a piece of atrocity attributed to the instiga-
tion of Cyrill, and from which his memory has never
been absolved. He next engaged in a furious contro-
versy with Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople, who
maintained that the Virgin Mary ought not to be called
the Mother of God, but the mother of our Lord or of
Christ, since the Deity can neither be born nor die.
These homilies, falling into the hands of the Egyptian
monks, caused a great commotion among them, and
Cyrill wrote a pastoral letter to them, in which he
maintained that the Virgin Mary ought to be called
the Mother of God, and denounced bitter censures
against all who supported an opposite opinion. A con-
troversial correspondence between the two bishops en-
sued, which ended in an open war of excommunica-
tions and anathemas. To put an end to this contro-
versy, in 431 a council was held at Ephcsus by the
Emperor Theodosius; and Cyrill, by his precipitation
and violence, and not waiting for a number cf Eastern
bishops, obtained the condemnation of Nestorius with-
out his being heard in his own defence, and that prelate
was deprived of his bishopric and banished to the
Egyptian deserts. When John, bishop of Antioch,
and the other Eastern bishops, however, appeared, they
avenged Nestorius, and, deposing Cyrill, put him in
prison. In a subsequent meeting of the council, he
was liberated and absolved from the sentence of de-
position, but had the mortification cf seeing the doc-
trine which he had condemned spreading rapidly through
the Roman empire, Assyria, and Persia. He died at
Alexandrea in the year 444. Cyrill was undoubtedly
a man of learning, but overbearing, ambitious, cruel,
and intolerant in the highest degree. He is much ex-
tolled by Catholic writers for his great zeal and piety,
of which the particulars thus specified are proofs. He
was the author of a number of works, treatises, &c,
the best edition of which was published at Paris in
1630, in 7 vols, fol. , under the care of Jean Aubert,
canon of Laon. (Biogr. Univ. , vol. 10, p. 406. )
CvKHOs(Kvpvor), the Greek name of Corsica. (Vid.
Corsica. )
Cvropolis, a large city of Asia, on the banks of
the Iaxartes, founded by Cyrus. (CcUarius, Geogr.
Ant. , vol. 2. p. 715. --Salnuu. , in Sol in. , p. 480. ) It
was also called Cyreschata. Both of these names,
however, are Greek translations of the true Persian
terms. The termination of tho laat is the Greek to-
Xarn, expressing, as did the Persian one, the remote
situation of the place. Alexander destroyed it, and
built in its stead a city, called by the Roman geogra-
? ? phers Alexandrea Ultima, by the Greeks, however, 'AX-
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? CYRUS.
CYRUS.
Hi one of his vassals. Amorges, king of the Sacav vho
earns a decisive victory over the Derhices, and ai icx-
tt their land to the Persian empire. This account is
to far confirmed by Herodotus, that we do not hear
from him of any consequences that followed the sua-
tes>> of the Massagetse, or that the attention of Cam-
jyses, the son and heir of Cyrus, was called away to-
wards the North. The first recorded measure of his
reign, on the contrary, was the invasion of Egypt.
;Thtrlicairt Greece, vol. 2, p. 172, teq. )--Thus much
icr the history of Cyrus, according to the generally re-
ceived account. It is more than probable, however, that
many and conflicting statements respecting his birth,
parentage, early life, attainment to sovereign power,
and subsequent career, were circulated throughout the
East, since we find discrepances between the narra-
tives of Herodotus, Ctesias, and Xenophon in these
several particulars, that can in no other way be ac-
counted for. It has been customary with most schol-
ars to decry the testimony of Ctesias, and to regard
him as a writer of hut slender pretensions to the char-
acter of veracity. As far, however, as the history of
Cyrus was concerned, to say nothing of other parts of
his narrative, this opinion is evidently unjust, and its
injustice will be placed in the clearest light if we com-
pare together the two rival statements of Ctesias and
Herodotus. The account of the latter teems with fa-
bles, from which that of the former appears to be entire-
ly free. It is far more consistent with reason, to be-
lieve with Ctesias that there was no affinity whatever
between Cyrus and Astyages, than with Herodotus, that
the latter was his maternal grandfather. Neither does
Ctesias make any mention of that moat palpable fable,
the exposure of the infant; nor of the equallv fabulous
story respecting the cruel punishment of Harpagus.
(Compare Bahr, ad Ctes. , Pert. , c. Z, and the words
of Rtineccius, Famil. Reg. Med. tt Bactr. , Lips. ,
1572, p. 35, "ab Astyage usurpata in Curum el
Harpagi JUium erudelilatis decanlatam ab Herodoto
l -Jiulam plane rejicimun. ") Nor neos) this dissimilar-
ity between the statements of Ctesias and Herodotus
occasion any surprise. The latter historian confesses,
very ingenuously, that there were three different tradi-
tions in his time relative to the origin of Cyrus, and
that he selected the one which appeared to him most
probable (I, 96). How unfortunate this selection was
we need hardly say. Ctesias, then, chose another tra-
dition for his guide, and Xenophon, perhaps, may have
partially mingled a third with his narrative. jEschy-
ius (Persa, v. 767) appears to have followed a fourth.
(Compare Stanley, ad Alschyl. , I. c, and Larcher, ad
Ctes. , Pert. , c. 2. ) With these several accounts,
again, what the Armenian writers tell us respecting Cy-
rus is directly at variance;.
(Compare Reeherehes Cu-
rieuses sur FHistoire Ancienne de VAsie, par Cirbied
tt Martin, p. 61, teqq. ) Among the modern scholars
who have espoused the cause of Ctesias, his recent ed-
itor, Bahr, stands most conspicuous. This writer re-
gards the narrative of Herodotus as savouring of tho
Greek love for the marvellous, and thinks it to have
been in some degree adumbrated from the story of the
Theban fEdipus and hia exposure on Githasroajx while,
on the other hand, Xenophon presents Cyrus to our
risw as a young man, imbued with the precepts of the
Socratic school, and exhibiting in his life and conduct
a model for the imitation of others. The same scholar
gives the following as what appears to him a near ap-
? ? proximation to the true history of Cyrua. He sup-
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? CYRUS.
? ion to the throne. He accompanied Artaxerxes,
whom the Greeks distinguished by the epithet of Mne-
mon, to Pasargadae, where the Persian kings went
through certain mystic ceremonies of inauguration, and
Tissaphernea took this opportunity of charging him
with a design against his brother's life. It would seem,
from Plutarch's account, that one of the officiating
priests was suoorned to support the charge; though it
w by no means certain that it was unfounded. Arta-
xerxes was convinced of its truth, and determined on
putting his brother to death; and Cyrus was only saved
by the passionate entreaties of Parysatis, in whose arms
he had sought refuge from tlte executioner. The char-
acter of Artaxerxes, though weak and timid, seems not
to have been naturally unamiable. The ascendency
which his mother, notwithstanding her undisscmblcd
predilection for her younger son, exercised over him,
was the source of the greater part of his crimes and
misfortunes. On this occasion he suffered it to over-
power both the suspicions suggested by Tissaphernes,
and the jealousy which the temper and situation of Cy-
rus might reasonably have excited. He not only par-
done' his brother, but permitted him to return to his
government. Cyrus felt himself not obliged, but hum-
bird, by his rival's clemency; and the danger he had
escaped only strengthened his resolution to make him-
self, as soon as possible, independent of the power to
which he owed his life. Immediately after his return
to Sardis, he began to make preparations for the exe-
cution of his design. The chief difficulty, was te keep
them concealed from Artaxerxes until they were fully
matured; for, though his mother, who was probably
from the beginning acquainted with his purpose, was
at court, always ready to put the most favourable con-
struction on his conduct, yet Tissaphernes was at hand
to watch it with malignant attention, and to send the
earliest information of any suspicious movement to the
king. Cyrus, towever, devised a variety of pretexts
'o blind Tissaphernes and the court, while he collected
an army for the expedition which he was meditating.
His main object was to raise as strong a body of Greek
troops as he could, for it was only with such aid that
he could hope to overpower an adversary, who had the
whole force of the empire at his command: and he
knew enough of the Greeks to believe, that their su-
periority over his countrymen, in skill and courage, was
sufficient to compensate for almost any inequality of
numbers. In the spring of 401 B. C. , Cyrus began
his march from Sardis. His whole Grecian force, a
part of which joined him on the route, amounted to
1 1,00X1 neavy infantry, and about 2000 targeteers. His
barbarian troops were 100,000 strong. After directing
his line of march through the whole extent of Asia Mi-
nor, he entered the BabT^r. ::? . territory; and it was
not untu ne reacnea the piain of Cunaxa, between
sixty and seventy miles from Babylon, that he became
certain of his brother's intention to hazard an engage-
ment. Artaxerxes met him in this spot at the head of
an army of 900,000 men. If we may believe Plutarch,
the Persian monarch had continued to waver almost to
the last, between the alternatives of fighting and re-
treating, and was only diverted from adopting the lat-
ter course by the energetic remonstrances of Tiriba-
zus. In the battle which ensued, the Greeks soon
routed the barbarians opposed to them, but committed
an error in pursuing them too far, and Cyrus was com-
pelled, in order to avoid being surrounded by the rest
of the king's army, to make an attack upon the centre,
? ? whero his brother was in person. He routed the
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? crz
DAC
Uie sea in its vicinity, means nothing more than that
her worship was introduced into the island by some
maritime people, probably the Phoenicians. Cythera
was a place of great importance to the Spartans, since
in enemy, if in possession'of it, would be thereby en-
abled to ravage the soutbern coast of Laconia. Its
"arbours also sheltered the Spartan fleets, and afforded
c-"otectiu:i to all merchant vessels against the attacks
? f pirates, whose depredations, on the other hand,
would have been greatly facilitated by its acquisition.
(Tkucyd. , 4, 53. ) Hence the Argives, who originally
netd it, were driven out eventually by the Spartans.
A magistrate was sent yearly from Sparta, styled Cy-
therodices, to administer justice, and to examine into
the state of the island; and so important a position
was it, that Demaratus expressly advised Xerxes to
seize it with a part of his fleet, since by that means he
would compel the Spartans to withdraw from the con-
federacy, and defend their own territories. Demara-
tus quoted, on this occasian, the opinion of Chilo, the
Lacedaemonian sage, who had declared it would be a
great benefit to Sparta if that island were sunk into
the sea. Cvthera (Cerigo) is now one of the Ionian
islands. {Virg. , ^n. , 1, 262; 10. 5. --Pauaan. , 3,
33-- Ovul. Met. , 4, 338; 15, 386. --Fast. , 4, 15. --
Herodot, 1, 29. )
drum. *:*, a surname of Venus, from her rising out
ol the ocean near the island of Cythera.
Cythnos, an island between Ccos and Seriphus, in
the Mare Myrtoum, colonized by the Dryopes. (Ar-
um . ap. Strab. , 43d. --Dieaarch. , Ins. , 27. ) It was
the birthplace of Cyadias, an eminent painter. The
cheese of Cythnos, according to SCephanus and Julius
Pollux, was held in high estimation among the an-
cients. The island is now called Thermia. It was
also named Ophiussa and Dryopit. (Cramer's Arte.
Greece, vol. 3, p. 403. )
Cytineoii, the most considerable of the four cities
? I Doris in Greece. According to Thucydidcs (3,
)5), it was situate to the west of Parnassus, and on
he borders of the I. ocri Ozol*. /Eschines observes,
? hat it sent one deputy to the Amphictyonic council.
(De FbU. Leg. , p. 43. )^
Citorus, a city of I'aphlagonia, on the coast be-
tween the promontory Carambis and Amastris. It
was a Greek town of great antiquity, since Homer al-
ludes to it (II. , 2, 853), and is thought to have been
(sanded by a colony of Milesians. According to Stra-
bo (545), it had been a port of the inhabitants of Si-
nope. In its vicinity was a mountain, named Cyto-
rus, which produced a beautifully-veined species of
box-tree. (CatuUtis, 4, 13. --Virg. , Georg. , 2, 437. )
The ruins of the ancient city are found near a harbour
called (juitrot or Kitros. (Tavernier, Voyage, lib. 3,
e. 6. ) In the vicinity is a high mountain called Ku-
troe or Kotru. (Abul/eda, tab. 18, p. 309. --Man-
ner! , Geogr. , vol. 6, pt*. 3, p. 23. )
C vzici's, I. an island off the northern coast of My-
? ia, nearly triangular in shape, and about five hundred
stadia in circuit. Its base was turned towards the
Propontis. while the vertex advanced so closely to the
continent that it was easy to connect it by a double
bridge. This, as Pliny reports, was done by Alexan-
der. Scylax, however, says that it was always a pen-
insula, and his authority is followed by Mannort, who
is of opinion that the inhabitants may, after the time
of Ssylix, have separated it from the mainland by a
? ? canal or ditch, for purposes of security. (Plin. , 5,
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? D-ED
VAZD
erected a stiielv bridge over the Danube. 3325 Eng-
lish feet ii '? nglh. This A urelmn destroyed: his mo-
tive in so doing is said to have been the fear lest the
t-arbarians would find it an easy passage to the coun-
tries south of the Danube, for he had by a treaty aban-
doned to the Goths the Dacia of Trajan. (Vopisc,
33, 39. ) On this occasion he named the province
louth of the Danube, to which his forces were with-
drawn, Dacia Aureliani. ( Vid. Mcesia. ) There were
afterward distinguished in Dacia, the part bordering
on the Danube and called Kipensis, and that which
was sequestered in the interior country under the name
of Mediterranea. This last was probably the same
>>'! . h what vrs more anciently termed Dardania. The
Daci of tVo Romans are the same with the Getae of
the Greeks. (Manncrt, Geogr. , vol. 4, p. 188, seqq. )
From Dacus comes Davus, the common name of
staves in Greek and Roman plays. Geu was used
in the same sense. The Daci were, in process of
lime, successively subdued by the Sarmatss, the Goths,
and the Huns; and lastly, the Saxons, driven by the
conquests of Charlemagne, established themselves in
Dacia. The Saxons principally concentrated them-
selves in what is now Transylvania, corresponding
to the ancient Dacia Mediterranea, a fertile region,
surrounded with forests and metalliferous mountains.
(Sambu;o, Append. Rer. Hung. Bonfin. , p. 760. ) To
their coming must be entirely attributed the origin of
ks cultivation. All its principal towns were built by
them: traces of their language still remain; and it
is from them that Transylvania received the name of
Siebenburgcn, or Me Region of Seven Cities. (Ckron.
Hung. , c. 2, ap. Ker. Hung. Script. , p. 31. --Clarke's
Travels--Greece, Egypt, Holy Land, etc. , vol. 8, p.
895, seqq. )
Dacicus, I. a surname of the Emperor Trajan, from
his conquest of Dacia. (Rasche, Lex. Jiei Num. , vol.
3, col. 27. )--II. A surname, supposed, but errone-
ously, to have been assumed by Domitian, on account
of a pretended victory over the Dacians. The coins
jn which it occurs are Trajan's. (Achaintre, ad Juv. ,
Sat. , 6, 204. )
Dactyli. Vid. Idasi Dactyli.
DwEdala, I. a town of Caria, near the confines of
Lycia, and on the northern shore of the Glaucus Sinus.
It was said to have derived its name from Daedalus,
who, being stung by a snake on crossing the small
river Nitius, died and was buried here. (Steph. Hi/: ,
s. D. AniiSfi/.
