No More Learning

Again, with regard to the breasts and the generative organs,
animals differ widely from one another and from man. For instance, the
breasts of some animals are situated in front, either in the chest
or near to it, and there are in such cases two breasts and two
teats, as is the case with man and the elephant, as previously stated.
For the elephant has two breasts in the region of the axillae; and the
female elephant has two breasts insignificant in size and in no way
proportionate to the bulk of the entire frame, in fact, so
insignificant as to be invisible in a sideways view; the males also
have breasts, like the females, exceedingly small. The she-bear has
four breasts. Some animals have two breasts, but situated near the
thighs, and teats, likewise two in number, as the sheep; others have
four teats, as the cow. Some have breasts neither in the chest nor
at the thighs, but in the belly, as the dog and pig; and they have a
considerable number of breasts or dugs, but not all of equal size.
Thus the shepard has four dugs in the belly, the lioness two, and
others more. The she-camel, also, has two dugs and four teats, like
the cow. Of solid-hooved animals the males have no dugs, excepting
in the case of males that take after the mother, which phenomenon is
observable in horses.

Of male animals the genitals of some are external, as is the case
with man, the horse, and most other creatures; some are internal, as
with the dolphin. With those that have the organ externally placed,
the organ in some cases is situated in front, as in the cases
already mentioned, and of these some have the organ detached, both
penis and testicles, as man; others have penis and testicles closely
attached to the belly, some more closely, some less; for this organ is
not detached in the wild boar nor in the horse.

The penis of the elephant resembles that of the horse; compared
with the size of the animal it is disproportionately small; the
testicles are not visible, but are concealed inside in the vicinity of
the kidneys; and for this reason the male speedily gives over in the
act of intercourse. The genitals of the female are situated where
the udder is in sheep; when she is in heat, she draws the organ back
and exposes it externally, to facilitate the act of intercourse for
the male; and the organ opens out to a considerable extent.

With most animals the genitals have the position above
assigned; but some animals discharge their urine backwards, as the
lynx, the lion, the camel, and the hare. Male animals differ from
one another, as has been said, in this particular, but all female
animals are retromingent: even the female elephant like other animals,
though she has the privy part below the thighs.

In the male organ itself there is a great diversity. For in some
cases the organ is composed of flesh and gristle, as in man; in such
cases, the fleshy part does not become inflated, but the gristly
part is subject to enlargement. In other cases, the organ is
composed of fibrous tissue, as with the camel and the deer; in other
cases it is bony, as with the fox, the wolf, the marten, and the
weasel; for this organ in the weasel has a bone.

When man has arrived at maturity, his upper part is smaller
than the lower one, but with all other blooded animals the reverse
holds good. By the 'upper' part we mean all extending from the head
down to the parts used for excretion of residuum, and by the 'lower'
part else. With animals that have feet the hind legs are to be rated
as the lower part in our comparison of magnitudes, and with animals
devoid of feet, the tail, and the like.

When animals arrive at maturity, their properties are as above
stated; but they differ greatly from one another in their growth
towards maturity. For instance, man, when young, has his upper part
larger than the lower, but in course of growth he comes to reverse
this condition; and it is owing to this circumstance that-an
exceptional instance, by the way-he does not progress in early life as
he does at maturity, but in infancy creeps on all fours; but some
animals, in growth, retain the relative proportion of the parts, as
the dog. Some animals at first have the upper part smaller and the
lower part larger, and in course of growth the upper part gets to be
the larger, as is the case with the bushy-tailed animals such as the
horse; for in their case there is never, subsequently to birth, any
increase in the part extending from the hoof to the haunch.

Again, in respect to the teeth, animals differ greatly both
from one another and from man. All animals that are quadrupedal,
blooded and viviparous, are furnished with teeth; but, to begin
with, some are double-toothed (or fully furnished with teeth in both
jaws), and some are not. For instance, horned quadrupeds are not
double-toothed; for they have not got the front teeth in the upper
jaw; and some hornless animals, also, are not double toothed, as the
camel. Some animals have tusks, like the boar, and some have not.
Further, some animals are saw-toothed, such as the lion, the pard, and
the dog; and some have teeth that do not interlock but have flat
opposing crowns, as the horse and the ox; and by 'saw-toothed' we mean
such animals as interlock the sharp-pointed teeth in one jaw between
the sharp-pointed ones in the other. No animal is there that possesses
both tusks and horns, nor yet do either of these structures exist in
any animal possessed of 'saw-teeth'. The front teeth are usually
sharp, and the back ones blunt. The seal is saw-toothed throughout,
inasmuch as he is a sort of link with the class of fishes; for
fishes are almost all saw-toothed.

No animal of these genera is provided with double rows of
teeth. There is, however, an animal of the sort, if we are to
believe Ctesias. He assures us that the Indian wild beast called the
'martichoras' has a triple row of teeth in both upper and lower jaw;
that it is as big as a lion and equally hairy, and that its feet
resemble those of the lion; that it resembles man in its face and
ears; that its eyes are blue, and its colour vermilion; that its
tail is like that of the land-scorpion; that it has a sting in the
tail, and has the faculty of shooting off arrow-wise the spines that
are attached to the tail; that the sound of its voice is a something
between the sound of a pan-pipe and that of a trumpet; that it can run
as swiftly as deer, and that it is savage and a man-eater.

Man sheds his teeth, and so do other animals, as the horse, the
mule, and the ass. And man sheds his front teeth; but there is no
instance of an animal that sheds its molars. The pig sheds none of its
teeth at all.

2

With regard to dogs some doubts are entertained, as some contend
that they shed no teeth whatever, and others that they shed the
canines, but those alone; the fact being, that they do shed their
teeth like man, but that the circumstance escapes observation, owing
to the fact that they never shed them until equivalent teeth have
grown within the gums to take the place of the shed ones. We shall
be justified in supposing that the case is similar with wild beasts in
general; for they are said to shed their canines only. Dogs can be
distinguished from one another, the young from the old, by their
teeth; for the teeth in young dogs are white and sharp-pointed; in old
dogs, black and blunt.

3

In this particular, the horse differs entirely from animals in
general: for, generally speaking, as animals grow older their teeth
get blacker, but the horse's teeth grow whiter with age.

The so-called 'canines' come in between the sharp teeth and the
broad or blunt ones, partaking of the form of both kinds; for they are
broad at the base and sharp at the tip.

Males have more teeth than females in the case of men, sheep,
goats, and swine; in the case of other animals observations have not
yet been made: but the more teeth they have the more long-lived are
they, as a rule, while those are short-lived in proportion that have
teeth fewer in number and thinly set.

4

The last teeth to come in man are molars called 'wisdom-teeth',
which come at the age of twenty years, in the case of both sexes.
Cases have been known in women upwards. of eighty years old where at
the very close of life the wisdom-teeth have come up, causing great
pain in their coming; and cases have been known of the like phenomenon
in men too. This happens, when it does happen, in the case of people
where the wisdom-teeth have not come up in early years.

5

The elephant has four teeth on either side, by which it munches
its food, grinding it like so much barley-meal, and, quite apart
from these, it has its great teeth, or tusks, two in number. In the
male these tusks are comparatively large and curved upwards; in the
female, they are comparatively small and point in the opposite
direction; that is, they look downwards towards the ground. The
elephant is furnished with teeth at birth, but the tusks are not
then visible.

6

The tongue of the elephant is exceedingly small, and situated
far back in the mouth, so that it is difficult to get a sight of it.

7

Furthermore, animals differ from one another in the relative size
of their mouths. In some animals the mouth opens wide, as is the
case with the dog, the lion, and with all the saw-toothed animals;
other animals have small mouths, as man; and others have mouths of
medium capacity, as the pig and his congeners.

(The Egyptian hippopotamus has a mane like a horse, is
cloven-footed like an ox, and is snub-nosed. It has a huckle-bone like
cloven-footed animals, and tusks just visible; it has the tail of a
pig, the neigh of a horse, and the dimensions of an ass. The hide is
so thick that spears are made out of it. In its internal organs it
resembles the horse and the ass. )

8

Some animals share the properties of man and the quadrupeds, as
the ape, the monkey, and the baboon. The monkey is a tailed ape. The
baboon resembles the ape in form, only that it is bigger and stronger,
more like a dog in face, and is more savage in its habits, and its
teeth are more dog-like and more powerful.

Apes are hairy on the back in keeping with their quadrupedal
nature, and hairy on the belly in keeping with their human form-for,
as was said above, this characteristic is reversed in man and the
quadruped-only that the hair is coarse, so that the ape is thickly
coated both on the belly and on the back. Its face resembles that of
man in many respects; in other words, it has similar nostrils and
ears, and teeth like those of man, both front teeth and molars.
Further, whereas quadrupeds in general are not furnished with lashes
on one of the two eyelids, this creature has them on both, only very
thinly set, especially the under ones; in fact they are very
insignificant indeed. And we must bear in mind that all other
quadrupeds have no under eyelash at all.

The ape has also in its chest two teats upon poorly developed
breasts. It has also arms like man, only covered with hair, and it
bends these legs like man, with the convexities of both limbs facing
one another. In addition, it has hands and fingers and nails like man,
only that all these parts are somewhat more beast-like in
appearance. Its feet are exceptional in kind. That is, they are like
large hands, and the toes are like fingers, with the middle one the
longest of all, and the under part of the foot is like a hand except
for its length, and stretches out towards the extremities like the
palm of the hand; and this palm at the after end is unusually hard,
and in a clumsy obscure kind of way resembles a heel. The creature
uses its feet either as hands or feet, and doubles them up as one
doubles a fist. Its upper-arm and thigh are short in proportion to the
forearm and the shin. It has no projecting navel, but only a
hardness in the ordinary locality of the navel. Its upper part is much
larger than its lower part, as is the case with quadrupeds; in fact,
the proportion of the former to the latter is about as five to
three. Owing to this circumstance and to the fact that its feet
resemble hands and are composed in a manner of hand and of foot: of
foot in the heel extremity, of the hand in all else-for even the
toes have what is called a 'palm':-for these reasons the animal is
oftener to be found on all fours than upright. It has neither hips,
inasmuch as it is a quadruped, nor yet a tail, inasmuch as it is a
biped, except nor yet a tal by the way that it has a tail as small
as small can be, just a sort of indication of a tail. The genitals
of the female resemble those of the female in the human species; those
of the male are more like those of a dog than are those of a man.

9

The monkey, as has been observed, is furnished with a tail. In
all such creatures the internal organs are found under dissection to
correspond to those of man.

So much then for the properties of the organs of such animals
as bring forth their young into the world alive.

10

Oviparous and blooded quadrupeds-and, by the way, no terrestrial
blooded animal is oviparous unless it is quadrupedal or is devoid of
feet altogether-are furnished with a head, a neck, a back, upper and
under parts, the front legs and hind legs, and the part analogous to
the chest, all as in the case of viviparous quadrupeds, and with a
tail, usually large, in exceptional cases small. And all these
creatures are many-toed, and the several toes are cloven apart.
Furthermore, they all have the ordinary organs of sensation, including
a tongue, with the exception of the Egyptian crocodile.

This latter animal, by the way, resembles certain fishes. For, as
a general rule, fishes have a prickly tongue, not free in its
movements; though there are some fishes that present a smooth
undifferentiated surface where the tongue should be, until you open
their mouths wide and make a close inspection.

Again, oviparous blooded quadrupeds are unprovided with ears, but
possess only the passage for hearing; neither have they breasts, nor a
copulatory organ, nor external testicles, but internal ones only;
neither are they hair coated, but are in all cases covered with
scaly plates. Moreover, they are without exception saw-toothed.

River crocodiles have pigs' eyes, large teeth and tusks, and
strong nails, and an impenetrable skin composed of scaly plates.
They see but poorly under water, but above the surface of it with
remarkable acuteness. As a rule, they pass the day-time on land and
the nighttime in the water; for the temperature of the water is at
night-time more genial than that of the open air.

11

The chameleon resembles the lizard in the general configuration of
its body, but the ribs stretch downwards and meet together under the
belly as is the case with fishes, and the spine sticks up as with
the fish. Its face resembles that of the baboon. Its tail is
exceedingly long, terminates in a sharp point, and is for the most
part coiled up, like a strap of leather. It stands higher off the
ground than the lizard, but the flexure of the legs is the same in
both creatures. Each of its feet is divided into two parts, which bear
the same relation to one another that the thumb and the rest of the
hand bear to one another in man. Each of these parts is for a short
distance divided after a fashion into toes; on the front feet the
inside part is divided into three and the outside into two, on the
hind feet the inside part into two and the outside into three; it
has claws also on these parts resembling those of birds of prey. Its
body is rough all over, like that of the crocodile. Its eyes are
situated in a hollow recess, and are very large and round, and are
enveloped in a skin resembling that which covers the entire body;
and in the middle a slight aperture is left for vision, through
which the animal sees, for it never covers up this aperture with the
cutaneous envelope. It keeps twisting its eyes round and shifting
its line of vision in every direction, and thus contrives to get a
sight of any object that it wants to see. The change in its colour
takes place when it is inflated with air; it is then black, not unlike
the crocodile, or green like the lizard but black-spotted like the
pard. This change of colour takes place over the whole body alike, for
the eyes and the tail come alike under its influence. In its movements
it is very sluggish, like the tortoise. It assumes a greenish hue in
dying, and retains this hue after death. It resembles the lizard in
the position of the oesophagus and the windpipe. It has no flesh
anywhere except a few scraps of flesh on the head and on the jaws
and near to the root of the tail. It has blood only round about the
heart, the eyes, the region above the heart, and in all the veins
extending from these parts; and in all these there is but little blood
after all. The brain is situated a little above the eyes, but
connected with them. When the outer skin is drawn aside from off the
eye, a something is found surrounding the eye, that gleams through
like a thin ring of copper. Membranes extend well nigh over its entire
frame, numerous and strong, and surpassing in respect of number and
relative strength those found in any other animal. After being cut
open along its entire length it continues to breathe for a
considerable time; a very slight motion goes on in the region of the
heart, and, while contraction is especially manifested in the
neighbourhood of the ribs, a similar motion is more or less
discernible over the whole body. It has no spleen visible. It
hibernates, like the lizard.

12

Birds also in some parts resemble the above mentioned animals;
that is to say, they have in all cases a head, a neck, a back, a
belly, and what is analogous to the chest. The bird is remarkable
among animals as having two feet, like man; only, by the way, it bends
them backwards as quadrupeds bend their hind legs, as was noticed
previously. It has neither hands nor front feet, but wings-an
exceptional structure as compared with other animals. Its
haunch-bone is long, like a thigh, and is attached to the body as
far as the middle of the belly; so like to a thigh is it that when
viewed separately it looks like a real one, while the real thigh is
a separate structure betwixt it and the shin. Of all birds those
that have crooked talons have the biggest thighs and the strongest
breasts. All birds are furnished with many claws, and all have the
toes separated more or less asunder; that is to say, in the greater
part the toes are clearly distinct from one another, for even the
swimming birds, although they are web-footed, have still their claws
fully articulated and distinctly differentiated from one another.
Birds that fly high in air are in all cases four-toed: that is, the
greater part have three toes in front and one behind in place of a
heel; some few have two in front and two behind, as the wryneck.

This latter bird is somewhat bigger than the chaffinch, and is
mottled in appearance. It is peculiar in the arrangement of its
toes, and resembles the snake in the structure of its tongue; for
the creature can protrude its tongue to the extent of four
finger-breadths, and then draw it back again. Moreover, it can twist
its head backwards while keeping all the rest of its body still,
like the serpent. It has big claws, somewhat resembling those of the
woodpecker. Its note is a shrill chirp.

Birds are furnished with a mouth, but with an exceptional one,
for they have neither lips nor teeth, but a beak. Neither have they
ears nor a nose, but only passages for the sensations connected with
these organs: that for the nostrils in the beak, and that for
hearing in the head. Like all other animals they all have two eyes,
and these are devoid of lashes. The heavy-bodied (or gallinaceous)
birds close the eye by means of the lower lid, and all birds blink
by means of a skin extending over the eye from the inner corner; the
owl and its congeners also close the eye by means of the upper lid.
The same phenomenon is observable in the animals that are protected by
horny scutes, as in the lizard and its congeners; for they all without
exception close the eye with the lower lid, but they do not blink like
birds. Further, birds have neither scutes nor hair, but feathers;
and the feathers are invariably furnished with quills. They have no
tail, but a rump with tail-feathers, short in such as are
long-legged and web-footed, large in others. These latter kinds of
birds fly with their feet tucked up close to the belly; but the
small rumped or short-tailed birds fly with their legs stretched out
at full length. All are furnished with a tongue, but the organ is
variable, being long in some birds and broad in others. Certain
species of birds above all other animals, and next after man,
possess the faculty of uttering articulate sounds; and this faculty is
chiefly developed in broad-tongued birds. No oviparous creature has an
epiglottis over the windpipe, but these animals so manage the
opening and shutting of the windpipe as not to allow any solid
substance to get down into the lung.

Some species of birds are furnished additionally with spurs,
but no bird with crooked talons is found so provided. The birds with
talons are among those that fly well, but those that have spurs are
among the heavy-bodied.

Again, some birds have a crest. As a general rule the crest sticks
up, and is composed of feathers only; but the crest of the barn-door
cock is exceptional in kind, for, whereas it is not just exactly
flesh, at the same time it is not easy to say what else it is.

13

Of water animals the genus of fishes constitutes a single group
apart from the rest, and including many diverse forms.

In the first place, the fish has a head, a back, a belly, in the
neighbourhood of which last are placed the stomach and viscera; and
behind it has a tail of continuous, undivided shape, but not, by the
way, in all cases alike. No fish has a neck, or any limb, or testicles
at all, within or without, or breasts. But, by the way this absence of
breasts may predicated of all non-viviparous animals; and in point
of fact viviparous animals are not in all cases provided with the
organ, excepting such as are directly viviparous without being first
oviparous. Thus the dolphin is directly viviparous, and accordingly we
find it furnished with two breasts, not situated high up, but in the
neighbourhood of the genitals. And this creature is not provided, like
quadrupeds, with visible teats, but has two vents, one on each
flank, from which the milk flows; and its young have to follow after
it to get suckled, and this phenomenon has been actually witnessed.

Fishes, then, as has been observed, have no breasts and no
passage for the genitals visible externally. But they have an
exceptional organ in the gills, whereby, after taking the water in the
mouth, they discharge it again; and in the fins, of which the
greater part have four, and the lanky ones two, as, for instance,
the eel, and these two situated near to the gills. In like manner
the grey mullet-as, for instance, the mullet found in the lake at
Siphae-have only two fins; and the same is the case with the fish
called Ribbon-fish. Some of the lanky fishes have no fins at all, such
as the muraena, nor gills articulated like those of other fish.

And of those fish that are provided with gills, some have
coverings for this organ, whereas all the selachians have the organ
unprotected by a cover. And those fishes that have coverings or
opercula for the gills have in all cases their gills placed
sideways; whereas, among selachians, the broad ones have the gills
down below on the belly, as the torpedo and the ray, while the lanky
ones have the organ placed sideways, as is the case in all the
dog-fish.

The fishing-frog has gills placed sideways, and covered not
with a spiny operculum, as in all but the selachian fishes, but with
one of skin.

Morever, with fishes furnished with gills, the gills in some
cases are simple in others duplicate; and the last gill in the
direction of the body is always simple. And, again, some fishes have
few gills, and others have a great number; but all alike have the same
number on both sides. Those that have the least number have one gill
on either side, and this one duplicate, like the boar-fish; others
have two on either side, one simple and the other duplicate, like
the conger and the scarus; others have four on either side, simple, as
the elops, the synagris, the muraena, and the eel; others have four,
all, with the exception of the hindmost one, in double rows, as the
wrasse, the perch, the sheat-fish, and the carp. The dog-fish have all
their gills double, five on a side; and the sword-fish has eight
double gills. So much for the number of gills as found in fishes.

Again, fishes differ from other animals in more ways than as
regards the gills. For they are not covered with hairs as are
viviparous land animals, nor, as is the case with certain oviparous
quadrupeds, with tessellated scutes, nor, like birds, with feathers;
but for the most part they are covered with scales. Some few are
rough-skinned, while the smooth-skinned are very few indeed. Of the
Selachia some are rough-skinned and some smooth-skinned; and among the
smooth-skinned fishes are included the conger, the eel, and the tunny.

All fishes are saw-toothed excepting the scarus; and the teeth in
all cases are sharp and set in many rows, and in some cases are placed
on the tongue. The tongue is hard and spiny, and so firmly attached
that fishes in many instances seem to be devoid of the organ
altogether. The mouth in some cases is wide-stretched, as it is with
some viviparous quadrupeds. . . .

With regard to organs of sense, all save eyes, fishes possess
none of them, neither the organs nor their passages, neither ears
nor nostrils; but all fishes are furnished with eyes, and the eyes
devoid of lids, though the eyes are not hard; with regard to the
organs connected with the other senses, hearing and smell, they are
devoid alike of the organs themselves and of passages indicative of
them.

Fishes without exception are supplied with blood. Some of them are
oviparous, and some viviparous; scaly fish are invariably oviparous,
but cartilaginous fishes are all viviparous, with the single exception
of the fishing-frog.

14

Of blooded animals there now remains the serpent genus. This genus
is common to both elements, for, while most species comprehended
therein are land animals, a small minority, to wit the aquatic
species, pass their lives in fresh water. There are also sea-serpents,
in shape to a great extent resembling their congeners of the land,
with this exception that the head in their case is somewhat like the
head of the conger; and there are several kinds of sea-serpent, and
the different kinds differ in colour; these animals are not found in
very deep water. Serpents, like fish, are devoid of feet.

There are also sea-scolopendras, resembling in shape their land
congeners, but somewhat less in regard to magnitude. These creatures
are found in the neighbourhood of rocks; as compared with their land
congeners they are redder in colour, are furnished with feet in
greater numbers and with legs of more delicate structure. And the same
remark applies to them as to the sea-serpents, that they are not found
in very deep water.

Of fishes whose habitat is in the vicinity of rocks there is a
tiny one, which some call the Echeneis, or 'ship-holder', and which is
by some people used as a charm to bring luck in affairs of law and
love. The creature is unfit for eating. Some people assert that it has
feet, but this is not the case: it appears, however, to be furnished
with feet from the fact that its fins resemble those organs.

So much, then, for the external parts of blooded animals, as
regards their numbers, their properties, and their relative
diversities.

15

As for the properties of the internal organs, these we must first
discuss in the case of the animals that are supplied with blood. For
the principal genera differ from the rest of animals, in that the
former are supplied with blood and the latter are not; and the
former include man, viviparous and oviparous quadrupeds, birds,
fishes, cetaceans, and all the others that come under no general
designation by reason of their not forming genera, but groups of which
simply the specific name is predicable, as when we say 'the
serpent,' the 'crocodile'.

All viviparous quadrupeds, then, are furnished with an oesophagus
and a windpipe, situated as in man; the same statement is applicable
to oviparous quadrupeds and to birds, only that the latter present
diversities in the shapes of these organs. As a general rule, all
animals that take up air and breathe it in and out are furnished
with a lung, a windpipe, and an oesophagus, with the windpipe and
oesophagus not admitting of diversity in situation but admitting of
diversity in properties, and with the lung admitting of diversity in
both these respects. Further, all blooded animals have a heart and a
diaphragm or midriff; but in small animals the existence of the latter
organ is not so obvious owing to its delicacy and minute size.

In regard to the heart there is an exceptional phenomenon
observable in oxen. In other words, there is one species of ox
where, though not in all cases, a bone is found inside the heart. And,
by the way, the horse's heart also has a bone inside it.

The genera referred to above are not in all cases furnished
with a lung: for instance, the fish is devoid of the organ, as is also
every animal furnished with gills. All blooded animals are furnished
with a liver. As a general rule blooded animals are furnished with a
spleen; but with the great majority of non-viviparous but oviparous
animals the spleen is so small as all but to escape observation; and
this is the case with almost all birds, as with the pigeon, the
kite, the falcon, the owl: in point of fact, the aegocephalus is
devoid of the organ altogether. With oviparous quadrupeds the case
is much the same as with the viviparous; that is to say, they also
have the spleen exceedingly minute, as the tortoise, the freshwater
tortoise, the toad, the lizard, the crocodile, and the frog.

Some animals have a gall-bladder close to the liver, and others
have not. Of viviparous quadrupeds the deer is without the organ, as
also the roe, the horse, the mule, the ass, the seal, and some kinds
of pigs. Of deer those that are called Achainae appear to have gall in
their tail, but what is so called does resemble gall in colour, though
it is not so completely fluid, and the organ internally resembles a
spleen.

However, without any exception, stags are found to have maggots
living inside the head, and the habitat of these creatures is in the
hollow underneath the root of the tongue and in the neighbourhood of
the vertebra to which the head is attached. These creatures are as
large as the largest grubs; they grow all together in a cluster, and
they are usually about twenty in number.

Deer then, as has been observed, are without a gall-bladder;
their gut, however, is so bitter that even hounds refuse to eat it
unless the animal is exceptionally fat. With the elephant also the
liver is unfurnished with a gall-bladder, but when the animal is cut
in the region where the organ is found in animals furnished with it,
there oozes out a fluid resembling gall, in greater or less
quantities.
Of animals that take in sea-water and are furnished with a
lung, the dolphin is unprovided with a gall-bladder. Birds and
fishes all have the organ, as also oviparous quadrupeds, all to a
greater or a lesser extent. But of fishes some have the organ close to
the liver, as the dogfishes, the sheat-fish, the rhine or
angel-fish, the smooth skate, the torpedo, and, of the lanky fishes,
the eel, the pipe-fish, and the hammer-headed shark. The
callionymus, also, has the gall-bladder close to the liver, and in
no other fish does the organ attain so great a relative size. Other
fishes have the organ close to the gut, attached to the liver by
certain extremely fine ducts. The bonito has the gall-bladder
stretched alongside the gut and equalling it in length, and often a
double fold of it. others have the organ in the region of the gut;
in some cases far off, in others near; as the fishing-frog, the elops,
the synagris, the muraena, and the sword-fish. Often animals of the
same species show this diversity of position; as, for instance, some
congers are found with the organ attached close to the liver, and
others with it detached from and below it. The case is much the same
with birds: that is, some have the gall-bladder close to the
stomach, and others close to the gut, as the pigeon, the raven, the
quail, the swallow, and the sparrow; some have it near at once to
the liver and to the stomach as the aegocephalus; others have it
near at once to the liver and the gut, as the falcon and the kite.

16

Again, all viviparous quadrupeds are furnished with kidneys and
a bladder. Of the ovipara that are not quadrupedal there is no
instance known of an animal, whether fish or bird, provided with these
organs. Of the ovipara that are quadrupedal, the turtle alone is
provided with these organs of a magnitude to correspond with the other
organs of the animal. In the turtle the kidney resembles the same
organ in the ox; that is to say, it looks one single organ composed of
a number of small ones. (The bison also resembles the ox in all its
internal parts).

17

With all animals that are furnished with these parts, the parts
are similarly situated, and with the exception of man, the heart is in
the middle; in man, however, as has been observed, the heart is placed
a little to the left-hand side. In all animals the pointed end of
the heart turns frontwards; only in fish it would at first sight
seem otherwise, for the pointed end is turned not towards the
breast, but towards the head and the mouth. And (in fish) the apex
is attached to a tube just where the right and left gills meet
together. There are other ducts extending from the heart to each of
the gills, greater in the greater fish, lesser in the lesser; but in
the large fishes the duct at the pointed end of the heart is a tube,
white-coloured and exceedingly thick. Fishes in some few cases have an
oesophagus, as the conger and the eel; and in these the organ is
small.

In fishes that are furnished with an undivided liver, the organ
lies entirely on the right side; where the liver is cloven from the
root, the larger half of the organ is on the right side: for in some
fishes the two parts are detached from one another, without any
coalescence at the root, as is the case with the dogfish. And there is
also a species of hare in what is named the Fig district, near Lake
Bolbe, and elsewhere, which animal might be taken to have two livers
owing to the length of the connecting ducts, similar to the
structure in the lung of birds.

The spleen in all cases, when normally placed, is on the
left-hand side, and the kidneys also lie in the same position in all
creatures that possess them. There have been known instances of
quadrupeds under dissection, where the spleen was on the right hand
and the liver on the left; but all such cases are regarded as
supernatural.

In all animals the wind-pipe extends to the lung, and the
manner how, we shall discuss hereafter; and the oesophagus, in all
that have the organ, extends through the midriff into the stomach.
For, by the way, as has been observed, most fishes have no oesophagus,
but the stomach is united directly with the mouth, so that in some
cases when big fish are pursuing little ones, the stomach tumbles
forward into the mouth.

All the afore-mentioned animals have a stomach, and one
similarly situated, that is to say, situated directly under the
midriff; and they have a gut connected therewith and closing at the
outlet of the residuum and at what is termed the 'rectum'. However,
animals present diversities in the structure of their stomachs. In the
first place, of the viviparous quadrupeds, such of the horned
animals as are not equally furnished with teeth in both jaws are
furnished with four such chambers. These animals, by the way, are
those that are said to chew the cud. In these animals the oesophagus
extends from the mouth downwards along the lung, from the midriff to
the big stomach (or paunch); and this stomach is rough inside and
semi-partitioned. And connected with it near to the entry of the
oesophagus is what from its appearance is termed the 'reticulum' (or
honeycomb bag); for outside it is like the stomach, but inside it
resembles a netted cap; and the reticulum is a great deal smaller than
the stomach. Connected with this is the 'echinus' (or many-plies),
rough inside and laminated, and of about the same size as the
reticulum. Next after this comes what is called the 'enystrum' (or
abomasum), larger an longer than the echinus, furnished inside with
numerous folds or ridges, large and smooth. After all this comes the
gut.

Such is the stomach of those quadrupeds that are horned and have
an unsymmetrical dentition; and these animals differ one from
another in the shape and size of the parts, and in the fact of the
oesophagus reaching the stomach centralwise in some cases and sideways
in others. Animals that are furnished equally with teeth in both
jaws have one stomach; as man, the pig, the dog, the bear, the lion,
the wolf. (The Thos, by the by, has all its internal organs similar to
the wolf's. )

All these, then have a single stomach, and after that the gut;
but the stomach in some is comparatively large, as in the pig and
bear, and the stomach of the pig has a few smooth folds or ridges;
others have a much smaller stomach, not much bigger than the gut, as
the lion, the dog, and man. In the other animals the shape of the
stomach varies in the direction of one or other of those already
mentioned; that is, the stomach in some animals resembles that of
the pig; in others that of the dog, alike with the larger animals
and the smaller ones. In all these animals diversities occur in regard
to the size, the shape, the thickness or the thinness of the
stomach, and also in regard to the place where the oesophagus opens
into it.

There is also a difference in structure in the gut of the two
groups of animals above mentioned (those with unsymmetrical and
those with symmetrical dentition) in size, in thickness, and in
foldings.

The intestines in those animals whose jaws are unequally
furnished with teeth are in all cases the larger, for the animals
themselves are larger than those in the other category; for very few
of them are small, and no single one of the horned animals is very
small. And some possess appendages (or caeca) to the gut, but no
animal that has not incisors in both jaws has a straight gut.

The elephant has a gut constricted into chambers, so constructed
that the animal appears to have four stomachs; in it the food is
found, but there is no distinct and separate receptacle. Its viscera
resemble those of the pig, only that the liver is four times the
size of that of the ox, and the other viscera in like proportion,
while the spleen is comparatively small.

Much the same may be predicated of the properties of the
stomach and the gut in oviparous quadrupeds, as in the land
tortoise, the turtle, the lizard, both crocodiles, and, in fact, in
all animals of the like kind; that is to say, their stomach is one and
simple, resembling in some cases that of the pig, and in other cases
that of the dog.

The serpent genus is similar and in almost all respects furnished
similarly to the saurians among land animals, if one could only
imagine these saurians to be increased in length and to be devoid of
legs. That is to say, the serpent is coated with tessellated scutes,
and resembles the saurian in its back and belly; only, by the way,
it has no testicles, but, like fishes, has two ducts converging into
one, and an ovary long and bifurcate. The rest of its internal
organs are identical with those of the saurians, except that, owing to
the narrowness and length of the animal, the viscera are
correspondingly narrow and elongated, so that they are apt to escape
recognition from the similarities in shape. Thus, the windpipe of
the creature is exceptionally long, and the oesophagus is longer
still, and the windpipe commences so close to the mouth that the
tongue appears to be underneath it; and the windpipe seems to
project over the tongue, owing to the fact that the tongue draws
back into a sheath and does not remain in its place as in other
animals. The tongue, moreover, is thin and long and black, and can
be protruded to a great distance. And both serpents and saurians
have this altogether exceptional property in the tongue, that it is
forked at the outer extremity, and this property is the more marked in
the serpent, for the tips of his tongue are as thin as hairs. The
seal, also, by the way, has a split tongue.

The stomach of the serpent is like a more spacious gut,
resembling the stomach of the dog; then comes the gut, long, narrow,
and single to the end. The heart is situated close to the pharynx,
small and kidney-shaped; and for this reason the organ might in some
cases appear not to have the pointed end turned towards the breast.
Then comes the lung, single, and articulated with a membranous
passage, very long, and quite detached from the heart. The liver is
long and simple; the spleen is short and round: as is the case in both
respects with the saurians. Its gall resembles that of the fish; the
water-snakes have it beside the liver, and the other snakes have it
usually beside the gut. These creatures are all saw-toothed. Their
ribs are as numerous as the days of the month; in other words, they
are thirty in number.

Some affirm that the same phenomenon is observable with
serpents as with swallow chicks; in other words, they say that if
you prick out a serpent's eyes they will grow again. And further,
the tails of saurians and of serpents, if they be cut off, will grow
again.

With fishes the properties of the gut and stomach are similar;
that is, they have a stomach single and simple, but variable in
shape according to species. For in some cases the stomach is
gut-shaped, as with the scarus, or parrot-fish; which fish, by the
way, appears to be the only fish that chews the cud. And the whole
length of the gut is simple, and if it have a reduplication or kink it
loosens out again into a simple form.

An exceptional property in fishes and in birds for the most
part is the being furnished with gut-appendages or caeca. Birds have
them low down and few in number. Fishes have them high up about the
stomach, and sometimes numerous, as in the goby, the galeos, the
perch, the scorpaena, the citharus, the red mullet, and the sparus;
the cestreus or grey mullet has several of them on one side of the
belly, and on the other side only one. Some fish possess these
appendages but only in small numbers, as the hepatus and the
glaucus; and, by the way, they are few also in the dorado. These
fishes differ also from one another within the same species, for in
the dorado one individual has many and another few. Some fishes are
entirely without the part, as the majority of the selachians. As for
all the rest, some of them have a few and some a great many. And in
all cases where the gut-appendages are found in fish, they are found
close up to the stomach.

In regard to their internal parts birds differ from other animals
and from one another. Some birds, for instance, have a crop in front
of the stomach, as the barn-door cock, the cushat, the pigeon, and the
partridge; and the crop consists of a large hollow skin, into which
the food first enters and where it lies ingested. Just where the
crop leaves the oesophagus it is somewhat narrow; by and by it
broadens out, but where it communicates with the stomach it narrows
down again. The stomach (or gizzard) in most birds is fleshy and hard,
and inside is a strong skin which comes away from the fleshy part.
Other birds have no crop, but instead of it an oesophagus wide and
roomy, either all the way or in the part leading to the stomach, as
with the daw, the raven, and the carrion-crow. The quail also has
the oesophagus widened out at the lower extremity, and in the
aegocephalus and the owl the organ is slightly broader at the bottom
than at the top. The duck, the goose, the gull, the catarrhactes,
and the great bustard have the oesophagus wide and roomy from one
end to the other, and the same applies to a great many other birds. In
some birds there is a portion of the stomach that resembles a crop, as
in the kestrel. In the case of small birds like the swallow and the
sparrow neither the oesophagus nor the crop is wide, but the stomach
is long. Some few have neither a crop nor a dilated oesophagus, but
the latter is exceedingly long, as in long necked birds, such as the
porphyrio, and, by the way, in the case of all these birds the
excrement is unusually moist. The quail is exceptional in regard to
these organs, as compared with other birds; in other words, it has a
crop, and at the same time its oesophagus is wide and spacious in
front of the stomach, and the crop is at some distance, relatively
to its size, from the oesophagus at that part.

Further, in most birds, the gut is thin, and simple when loosened
out. The gut-appendages or caeca in birds, as has been observed, are
few in number, and are not situated high up, as in fishes, but low
down towards the extremity of the gut. Birds, then, have caeca-not
all, but the greater part of them, such as the barn-door cock, the
partridge, the duck, the night-raven, (the localus,) the ascalaphus,
the goose, the swan, the great bustard, and the owl. Some of the
little birds also have these appendages; but the caeca in their case
are exceedingly minute, as in the sparrow.

Book III

1

Now that we have stated the magnitudes, the properties, and the
relative differences of the other internal organs, it remains for us
to treat of the organs that contribute to generation. These organs
in the female are in all cases internal; in the male they present
numerous diversities.

In the blooded animals some males are altogether devoid of
testicles, and some have the organ but situated internally; and of
those males that have the organ internally situated, some have it
close to the loin in the neighbourhood of the kidney and others
close to the belly. Other males have the organ situated externally. In
the case of these last, the penis is in some cases attached to the
belly, whilst in others it is loosely suspended, as is the case also
with the testicles; and, in the cases where the penis is attached to
the belly, the attachment varies accordingly as the animal is
emprosthuretic or opisthuretic.

No fish is furnished with testicles, nor any other creature
that has gills, nor any serpent whatever: nor, in short, any animal
devoid of feet, save such only as are viviparous within themselves.
Birds are furnished with testicles, but these are internally situated,
close to the loin. The case is similar with oviparous quadrupeds, such
as the lizard, the tortoise and the crocodile; and among the
viviparous animals this peculiarity is found in the hedgehog. Others
among those creatures that have the organ internally situated have
it close to the belly, as is the case with the dolphin amongst animals
devoid of feet, and with the elephant among viviparous quadrupeds.
In other cases these organs are externally conspicuous.

We have already alluded to the diversities observed in the
attachment of these organs to the belly and the adjacent region; in
other words, we have stated that in some cases the testicles are
tightly fastened back, as in the pig and its allies, and that in
others they are freely suspended, as in man.

Fishes, then, are devoid of testicles, as has been stated, and
serpents also. They are furnished, however, with two ducts connected
with the midriff and running on to either side of the backbone,
coalescing into a single duct above the outlet of the residuum, and by
'above' the outlet I mean the region near to the spine. These ducts in
the rutting season get filled with the genital fluid, and, if the
ducts be squeezed, the sperm oozes out white in colour. As to the
differences observed in male fishes of diverse species, the reader
should consult my treatise on Anatomy, and the subject will be
hereafter more fully discussed when we describe the specific character
in each case.

The males of oviparous animals, whether biped or quadruped, are
in all cases furnished with testicles close to the loin underneath the
midriff. With some animals the organ is whitish, in others somewhat of
a sallow hue; in all cases it is entirely enveloped with minute and
delicate veins. From each of the two testicles extends a duct, and, as
in the case of fishes, the two ducts coalesce into one above the
outlet of the residuum. This constitutes the penis, which organ in the
case of small ovipara is inconspicuous; but in the case of the
larger ovipara, as in the goose and the like, the organ becomes
quite visible just after copulation.

The ducts in the case of fishes and in biped and quadruped
ovipara are attached to the loin under the stomach and the gut, in
betwixt them and the great vein, from which ducts or blood-vessels
extend, one to each of the two testicles. And just as with fishes
the male sperm is found in the seminal ducts, and the ducts become
plainly visible at the rutting season and in some instances become
invisible after the season is passed, so also is it with the testicles
of birds; before the breeding season the organ is small in some
birds and quite invisible in others, but during the season the organ
in all cases is greatly enlarged. This phenomenon is remarkably
illustrated in the ring-dove and the partridge, so much so that some
people are actually of opinion that these birds are devoid of the
organ in the winter-time.

Of male animals that have their testicles placed frontwards, some
have them inside, close to the belly, as the dolphin; some have them
outside, exposed to view, close to the lower extremity of the belly.
These animals resemble one another thus far in respect to this
organ; but they differ from one another in this fact, that some of
them have their testicles situated separately by themselves, while
others, which have the organ situated externally, have them
enveloped in what is termed the scrotum.

Again, in all viviparous animals furnished with feet the
following properties are observed in the testicles themselves. From
the aorta there extend vein-like ducts to the head of each of the
testicles, and another two from the kidneys; these two from the
kidneys are supplied with blood, while the two from the aorta are
devoid of it. From the head of the testicle alongside of the
testicle itself is a duct, thicker and more sinewy than the other just
alluded to-a duct that bends back again at the end of the testicle
to its head; and from the head of each of the two testicles the two
ducts extend until they coalesce in front at the penis. The duct
that bends back again and that which is in contact with the testicle
are enveloped in one and the same membrane, so that, until you draw
aside the membrane, they present all the appearance of being a
single undifferentiated duct. Further, the duct in contact with the
testicle has its moist content qualified by blood, but to a
comparatively less extent than in the case of the ducts higher up
which are connected with the aorta; in the ducts that bend back
towards the tube of the penis, the liquid is white-coloured. There
also runs a duct from the bladder, opening into the upper part of
the canal, around which lies, sheathwise, what is called the 'penis'.

All these descriptive particulars may be regarded by the light of
the accompanying diagram; wherein the letter A marks the
starting-point of the ducts that extend from the aorta; the letters KK
mark the heads of the testicles and the ducts descending thereunto;
the ducts extending from these along the testicles are marked MM; the
ducts turning back, in which is the white fluid, are marked BB; the
penis D; the bladder E; and the testicles XX.

(By the way, when the testicles are cut off or removed, the ducts
draw upwards by contraction. Moreover, when male animals are young,
their owner sometimes destroys the organ in them by attrition;
sometimes they castrate them at a later period. And I may here add,
that a bull has been known to serve a cow immediately after
castration, and actually to impregnate her. )

So much then for the properties of testicles in male animals.

In female animals furnished with a womb, the womb is not in all
cases the same in form or endowed with the same properties, but both
in the vivipara and the ovipara great diversities present
themselves. In all creatures that have the womb close to the genitals,
the womb is two-horned, and one horn lies to the right-hand side and
the other to the left; its commencement, however, is single, and so is
the orifice, resembling in the case of the most numerous and largest
animals a tube composed of much flesh and gristle. Of these parts
one is termed the hystera or delphys, whence is derived the word
adelphos, and the other part, the tube or orifice, is termed metra. In
all biped or quadruped vivipara the womb is in all cases below the
midriff, as in man, the dog, the pig, the horse, and the ox; the
same is the case also in all horned animals. At the extremity of the
so-called ceratia, or horns, the wombs of most animals have a twist or
convolution.

In the case of those ovipara that lay eggs externally, the wombs
are not in all cases similarly situated. Thus the wombs of birds are
close to the midriff, and the wombs of fishes down below, just like
the wombs of biped and quadruped vivipara, only that, in the case of
the fish, the wombs are delicately formed, membranous, and
elongated; so much so that in extremely small fish, each of the two
bifurcated parts looks like a single egg, and those fishes whose egg
is described as crumbling would appear to have inside them a pair of
eggs, whereas in reality each of the two sides consists not of one but
of many eggs, and this accounts for their breaking up into so many
particles.

The womb of birds has the lower and tubular portion fleshy and
firm, and the part close to the midriff membranous and exceedingly
thin and fine: so thin and fine that the eggs might seem to be outside
the womb altogether. In the larger birds the membrane is more
distinctly visible, and, if inflated through the tube, lifts and
swells out; in the smaller birds all these parts are more indistinct.

The properties of the womb are similar in oviparous quadrupeds, as
the tortoise, the lizard, the frog and the like; for the tube below is
single and fleshy, and the cleft portion with the eggs is at the top
close to the midriff. With animals devoid of feet that are
internally oviparous and viviparous externally, as is the case with
the dogfish and the other so-called Selachians (and by this title we
designate such creatures destitute of feet and furnished with gills as
are viviparous), with these animals the womb is bifurcate, and
beginning down below it extends as far as the midriff, as in the
case of birds. There is also a narrow part between the two horns
running up as far as the midriff, and the eggs are engendered here and
above at the origin of the midriff; afterwards they pass into the
wider space and turn from eggs into young animals. However, the
differences in respect to the wombs of these fishes as compared with
others of their own species or with fishes in general, would be more
satisfactorily studied in their various forms in specimens under
dissection.

The members of the serpent genus also present divergencies either
when compared with the above-mentioned creatures or with one
another. Serpents as a rule are oviparous, the viper being the only
viviparous member of the genus. The viper is, previously to external
parturition, oviparous internally; and owing to this perculiarity
the properties of the womb in the viper are similar to those of the
womb in the selachians. The womb of the serpent is long, in keeping
with the body, and starting below from a single duct extends
continuously on both sides of the spine, so as to give the
impression of thus being a separate duct on each side of the spine,
until it reaches the midriff, where the eggs are engendered in a
row; and these eggs are laid not one by one, but all strung
together. (And all animals that are viviparous both internally and
externally have the womb situated above the stomach, and all the
ovipara underneath, near to the loin. Animals that are viviparous
externally and internally oviparous present an intermediate
arrangement; for the underneath portion of the womb, in which the eggs
are, is placed near to the loin, but the part about the orifice is
above the gut. )

Further, there is the following diversity observable in wombs as
compared with one another: namely that the females of horned
nonambidental animals are furnished with cotyledons in the womb when
they are pregnant, and such is the case, among ambidentals, with the
hare, the mouse, and the bat; whereas all other animals that are
ambidental, viviparous, and furnished with feet, have the womb quite
smooth, and in their case the attachment of the embryo is to the
womb itself and not to any cotyledon inside it.

The parts, then, in animals that are not homogeneous with
themselves and uniform in their texture, both parts external and parts
internal, have the properties above assigned to them.

2

In sanguineous animals the homogeneous or uniform part most
universally found is the blood, and its habitat the vein; next in
degree of universality, their analogues, lymph and fibre, and, that
which chiefly constitutes the frame of animals, flesh and whatsoever
in the several parts is analogous to flesh; then bone, and parts
that are analogous to bone, as fish-bone and gristle; and then, again,
skin, membrane, sinew, hair, nails, and whatever corresponds to these;
and, furthermore, fat, suet, and the excretions: and the excretions
are dung, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile.

Now, as the nature of blood and the nature of the veins have
all the appearance of being primitive, we must discuss their
properties first of all, and all the more as some previous writers
have treated them very unsatisfactorily. And the cause of the
ignorance thus manifested is the extreme difficulty experienced in the
way of observation. For in the dead bodies of animals the nature of
the chief veins is undiscoverable, owing to the fact that they
collapse at once when the blood leaves them; for the blood pours out
of them in a stream, like liquid out of a vessel, since there is no
blood separately situated by itself, except a little in the heart, but
it is all lodged in the veins. In living animals it is impossible to
inspect these parts, for of their very nature they are situated inside
the body and out of sight. For this reason anatomists who have carried
on their investigations on dead bodies in the dissecting room have
failed to discover the chief roots of the veins, while those who
have narrowly inspected bodies of living men reduced to extreme
attenuation have arrived at conclusions regarding the origin of the
veins from the manifestations visible externally. Of these
investigators, Syennesis, the physician of Cyprus, writes as follows:-

'The big veins run thus:-from the navel across the loins, along
the back, past the lung, in under the breasts; one from right to left,
and the other from left to right; that from the left, through the
liver to the kidney and the testicle, that from the right, to the
spleen and kidney and testicle, and from thence to the penis. '
Diogenes of Apollonia writes thus:-

'The veins in man are as follows:-There are two veins
pre-eminent in magnitude. These extend through the belly along the
backbone, one to right, one to left; either one to the leg on its
own side, and upwards to the head, past the collar bones, through
the throat. From these, veins extend all over the body, from that on
the right hand to the right side and from that on the left hand to the
left side; the most important ones, two in number, to the heart in the
region of the backbone; other two a little higher up through the chest
in underneath the armpit, each to the hand on its side: of these
two, one being termed the vein splenitis, and the other the vein
hepatitis. Each of the pair splits at its extremity; the one
branches in the direction of the thumb and the other in the
direction of the palm; and from these run off a number of minute veins
branching off to the fingers and to all parts of the hand. Other
veins, more minute, extend from the main veins; from that on the right
towards the liver, from that on the left towards the spleen and the
kidneys. The veins that run to the legs split at the juncture of the
legs with the trunk and extend right down the thigh. The largest of
these goes down the thigh at the back of it, and can be discerned
and traced as a big one; the second one runs inside the thigh, not
quite as big as the one just mentioned. After this they pass on
along the knee to the shin and the foot (as the upper veins were
described as passing towards the hands), and arrive at the sole of the
foot, and from thence continue to the toes. Moreover, many delicate
veins separate off from the great veins towards the stomach and
towards the ribs.

'The veins that run through the throat to the head can be
discerned and traced in the neck as large ones; and from each one of
the two, where it terminates, there branch off a number of veins to
the head; some from the right side towards the left, and some from the
left side towards the right; and the two veins terminate near to
each of the two ears. There is another pair of veins in the neck
running along the big vein on either side, slightly less in size
than the pair just spoken of, and with these the greater part of the
veins in the head are connected. This other pair runs through the
throat inside; and from either one of the two there extend veins in
underneath the shoulder blade and towards the hands; and these
appear alongside the veins splenitis and hepatitis as another pair
of veins smaller in size. When there is a pain near the surface of the
body, the physician lances these two latter veins; but when the pain
is within and in the region of the stomach he lances the veins
splenitis and hepatitis. And from these, other veins depart to run
below the breasts.

'There is also another pair running on each side through the
spinal marrow to the testicles, thin and delicate. There is,
further, a pair running a little underneath the cuticle through the
flesh to the kidneys, and these with men terminate at the testicle,
and with women at the womb. These veins are termed the spermatic
veins. The veins that leave the stomach are comparatively broad just
as they leave; but they become gradually thinner, until they change
over from right to left and from left to right.

'Blood is thickest when it is imbibed by the fleshy parts; when
it is transmitted to the organs above-mentioned, it becomes thin,
warm, and frothy. '

3

Such are the accounts given by Syennesis and Diogenes. Polybus
writes to the following effect:-

'There are four pairs of veins. The first extends from the back of
the head, through the neck on the outside, past the backbone on either
side, until it reaches the loins and passes on to the legs, after
which it goes on through the shins to the outer side of the ankles and
on to the feet. And it is on this account that surgeons, for pains
in the back and loin, bleed in the ham and in the outer side of the
ankle. Another pair of veins runs from the head, past ears, through
the neck; which veins are termed the jugular veins. This pair goes
on inside along the backbone, past the muscles of the loins, on to the
testicles, and onwards to the thighs, and through the inside of the
hams and through the shins down to the inside of the ankles and to the
feet; and for this reason, surgeons, for pains in the muscles of the
loins and in the testicles, bleed on the hams and the inner side of
the ankles. The third pair extends from the temples, through the neck,
in underneath the shoulder-blades, into the lung; those from right
to left going in underneath the breast and on to the spleen and the
kidney; those from left to right running from the lung in underneath
the breast and into the liver and the kidney; and both terminate in
the fundament. The fourth pair extend from the front part of the
head and the eyes in underneath the neck and the collar-bones; from
thence they stretch on through the upper part of the upper arms to the
elbows and then through the fore-arms on to the wrists and the
jointings of the fingers, and also through the lower part of the
upper-arms to the armpits, and so on, keeping above the ribs, until
one of the pair reaches the spleen and the other reaches the liver;
and after this they both pass over the stomach and terminate at the
penis. '

The above quotations sum up pretty well the statements of all
previous writers. Furthermore, there are some writers on Natural
History who have not ventured to lay down the law in such precise
terms as regards the veins, but who all alike agree in assigning the
head and the brain as the starting-point of the veins. And in this
opinion they are mistaken.

The investigation of such a subject, as has been remarked, is one
fraught with difficulties; but, if any one be keenly interested in the
matter, his best plan will be to allow his animals to starve to
emaciation, then to strangle them on a sudden, and thereupon to
prosecute his investigations.

We now proceed to give particulars regarding the properties and
functions of the veins. There are two blood-vessels in the thorax by
the backbone, and lying to its inner side; and of these two the larger
one is situated to the front, and the lesser one is to the rear of it;
and the larger is situated rather to the right hand side of the
body, and the lesser one to the left; and by some this vein is
termed the 'aorta', from the fact that even in dead bodies part of
it is observed to be full of air. These blood-vessels have their
origins in the heart, for they traverse the other viscera, in whatever
direction they happen to run, without in any way losing their
distinctive characteristic as blood-vessels, whereas the heart is as
it were a part of them (and that too more in respect to the
frontward and larger one of the two), owing to the fact that these two
veins are above and below, with the heart lying midway.

The heart in all animals has cavities inside it. In the case of
the smaller animals even the largest of the chambers is scarcely
discernible; the second larger is scarcely discernible in animals of
medium size; but in the largest animals all three chambers are
distinctly seen. In the heart then (with its pointed end directed
frontwards, as has been observed) the largest of the three chambers is
on the right-hand side and highest up; the least one is on the
left-hand side; and the medium-sized one lies in betwixt the other
two; and the largest one of the three chambers is a great deal
larger than either of the two others. All three, however, are
connected with passages leading in the direction of the lung, but
all these communications are indistinctly discernible by reason of
their minuteness, except one.

The great blood-vessel, then, is attached to the biggest of the
three chambers, the one that lies uppermost and on the right-hand
side; it then extends right through the chamber, coming out as
blood-vessel again; just as though the cavity of the heart were a part
of the vessel, in which the blood broadens its channel as a river that
widens out in a lake. The aorta is attached to the middle chamber;
only, by the way, it is connected with it by much narrower pipe.

The great blood-vessel then passes through the heart (and runs
from the heart into the aorta). The great vessel looks as though
made of membrane or skin, while the aorta is narrower than it, and
is very sinewy; and as it stretches away to the head and to the
lower parts it becomes exceedingly narrow and sinewy.

First of all, then, upwards from the heart there stretches a
part of the great blood-vessel towards the lung and the attachment
of the aorta, a part consisting of a large undivided vessel. But there
split off from it two parts; one towards the lung and the other
towards the backbone and the last vertebra of the neck.

The vessel, then, that extends to the lung, as the lung itself
is duplicate, divides at first into two; and then extends along by
every pipe and every perforation, greater along the greater ones,
lesser along the less, so continuously that it is impossible to
discern a single part wherein there is not perforation and vein; for
the extremities are indistinguishable from their minuteness, and in
point of fact the whole lung appears to be filled with blood.

The branches of the blood-vessels lie above the tubes that
extend from the windpipe. And that vessel which extends to the
vertebra of the neck and the backbone, stretches back again along
the backbone; as Homer represents in the lines:-

(Antilochus, as Thoon turned him round),

Transpierc'd his back with a dishonest wound;

The hollow vein that to the neck extends,

Along the chine, the eager javelin rends.

From this vessel there extend small blood-vessels at each rib
and each vertebra; and at the vertebra above the kidneys the vessel
bifurcates. And in the above way the parts branch off from the great
blood-vessel.

But up above all these, from that part which is connected with the
heart, the entire vein branches off in two directions.