) (Interviewer tried hard to have subject describe differences between groups, but subject insisted): "All differences that exist are due to conditions people grow up in and also to the
emotional
responses .
Adorno-T-Authoritarian-Personality-Harper-Bros-1950
THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
regarded as accidental in terms of personality, but we also find people whose rigidity is hardly less related to personality than is the case with certain syn- dromes of high scorers. The latter kind of low scorers are definitely disposed towards totalitarianism in their thinking; what is accidental up to a certain degree is the particular brand of ideological world formula that they chance to come into contact with. We encountered a few subjects who had been identified ideologically with some progressive movement, such as the struggle for minority rights, for a long time, but with whom such ideas contained features of compulsiveness, even of paranoid obsession, and who, with respect to many of our variables, especially rigidity and "total" thinking, could hardly be distinguished from some of our high extremes. All the repre- sentatives of this syndrome can in one way or another be regarded as coun- terparts of the "Surface Resentment" type of high scorer. The accidentalness in their total outlook makes them liable to change fronts in critical situations, as was the case with certain kinds of radicals under the Nazi regime. They may often be recognized by a certain disinterestedness with respect to crucial minority questions per se, being, rather, against prejudice as a plank in the fascist platform; but. sometimes they also see only minority problems. They are likely to use cliches and phraseology hardly less frequently than do their political opponents. Some of them tend to belittle the importance of racial discrimination by labeling it simply as a byproduct of the big issues of class struggle-an attitude which may be indicative of repressed prejudice on their own part. Representatives of this syndrome can often be found, for example, among young, "progressive" people, particularly students, whose personal development has failed to keep pace with their ideological indoctrination. One of the best means for identifying the syndrome is to note the subject's readiness to deduce his stand towards minority problems from some general formula, rather than to make spontaneous statements. He also may often come forward with value judgments which cannot possibly be based on any real knowledge of the matter in question.
F z39 is a religious educator.
For the past ten years she has considered herself very progressive. Lately she has little time to read, but her husband reads and studies constantly and keeps her up to date by discussion. "My favorite world statesman is Litvinov. I think the most dramatic speech of modern times is the one he made at the Geneva conference when he pleaded for collective security. It has made us very happy to see the fog of ignorance and distrust surrounding the Soviet Union clear away during this war. Things are not settled yet though. There are many fascists in our own country who would fight Russia if they could. "
The hollowness of her enthusiasm about Litvinov has already been noted in our discussion of stereotyped thinking in politics (Chapter XVII). The same seems to be true of her assertion that she is an internationalist, followed up by
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773
her rhetorical question, "Would I be a true Christian if I weren't? " This is typical of the "deductive" way of thinking which seems to characterize the rigid low scorer. The present subject seems to proceed in the same way as she approaches minority questions.
Subject believes that all people are one, and again she feels that is the only point of view possible for a true Christian.
The somewhat sweeping expression "that all people are one" should be noted: a person free of stereotypy would rather tend to acknowledge differ- ences and to take a positive stand towards differentiation. What is meant is probably "equal in the sight of God" and she deduces her tolerance from this general assumption.
As mentioned in the chapter on politics, the superficiality of her progres- sivism is indicated by her highly aggressive attitude towards alcoholism, called by herself "one of her pet subjects," which plays almost the same role as do certain paranoid ideas in the "Cranks" among the high scorers. It may be recalled in this connection, that Alfred McClung Lee has demonstrated the close connection between prohibitionism and prejudiced ways of think- ing. As a matter of fact, there is evidence enough that this "Rigid" low scorer has more than a sprinkling of the "high" mentality. There is the emphasis on "status," with reference to her daughter: -
"I feel badly about her school too-(names the school). The influx of people with lower educational and cultural standards than ours has had effect on the schools of course. "
There are destructive fantasies, thinly veiled by "sensible" moral reflections:
"The same with smoking. I am not really worried about it though. No one of either side of our family ever smoked or drank, with one exception. My husband's sister smoked. She is dead now. "
There is a rationalization of punitiveness:
"If I could bring about Prohibition tomorrow I would do it. I believe in pre- venting everything that doesn't make man better-that makes him worse. Some people say if you forbid something it makes people do it on the sly. Well, I say, how about murder, and robbery, and dope? We have prohibited them and some people still commit crimes, but we do not think of taking off the ban on them. "
And there is, finally, official optimism, a characteristic reaction-formation against underlying destructiveness:
"If one didn't always have hope and believe everything was moving upwards, one's Christianity wouldn't mean anything, would it? "
Under changing conditions she might be willing to join a subversive move- ment as long as it pretended to be "Christian" and to "move upwards. "
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2. THE "PROTESTING" LOW SCORER5
This syndrome is in many respects the counterpart of the "Authoritarian" high scorer. Its determinants are psychological rather than rational. It is based on a specific resolution of the Oedipus complex which has deeply affected the individuals in question. While they are set against paternal authority, they have at the same time internalized the father image to a high degree. One may say that in them the superego is so strong that it turns against its own "model," the father, and all external authorities. They are thoroughly guided by conscience which seems to be, in many cases exhibiting this pattern, a secularization of religious authority. This conscience, however, is quite au- tonomous and independent of outside codes. They "protest" out of purely moral reasons against social repression or at least against some of its extreme manifestations, such as racial prejudice. 6 Most of the "neurotic" low scorers who play such a large role in our sample show the "Protest" syndrome. They are often shy, "retiring," uncertain about themselves, and even given to tor- menting themselves with all kinds of doubts and scruples. They sometimes
show certain compulsive features, and their reaction against prejudice has also an aspect of having been forced upon them by rigid superego demands. They are frequently guilt-ridden and regard the Jews a priori as "victims,"
as being distinctly different from themselves. An element of stereotypy may
be inherent in their sympathies and identifications. They are guided by the wish to "make good" the injustice that has been done to minorities. At the same time they may be easily attracted by the real or imaginary intellectual qualities of the Jews which they deem to be akin to their desire to be "aloof" from worldly affairs. While being nonauthoritarian in their way of thinking, they are often psychologically constricted and thus not able to act as ener- getically as their conscience demands. It is as if the internalization of con- science has succeeded so well that they are severely inhibited or even psy- chologically "paralyzed. " Their eternal guilt feelings tend to make them regard everyone as "guilty. " Though they detest discrimination, they may _ find it sometimes difficult to stand up against it. Socially, they seem usually
to belong to the middle class, but it is hard to define their group membership in more precise terms. However, our material seems to indicate that they are frequently to be found among people who underwent serious family troubles, such as a divorce of their parents. F127
is extremely pretty in the conventional "campus girl" style. She is very slight, blond, fair-skinned, and blue-eyed. She wears a becoming "sloppy Joe" sweater, daintily fixed blouse, and brief skirt, with bobby socks. She wears a sorority pin. She
5 This term was suggested by J. F. Brown.
6 lt was pointed out in Chapter XVIII that religion, when it has been internalized, is an effective antidote against prejudice and the whole fascist potential, notwithstanding its own authoritarian aspects.
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775
is very friendly and interested, seems to enjoy the discussion, but is quite vague in her answers about family life until the interview is quite well along. Then she suddenly decides to reveal the most important single fact in her life-her parents' divorce which she usually hides-and from that point on speaks with apparent freedom about her own feelings.
She shows the characteristic neurotic concern with herself, indicative of a feeling of impotence: she has a somewhat magical belief in psychology, ap- parently expecting that the psychologist knows more about her than she does herself:
What she would like above all is to be a psychiatrist. (Why? ) "Because psychi- atrists know more about people. Everyone tells me their troubles. I don't think there is anything more satisfying than to be able to help people with their problems. But I don't have the brains or the patience to be a psychiatrist. That is just an idea. "
Her attitude towards the father is hostile:
Father is a lawyer. A~ present he is enlisted in the army and is somewhere in the Pacific, in charge of a Negro battalion. (What does he think about that? ) "I don't know what he thinks about anything. "
Her social attitude is a combination of conformist "correctness," the em- phatic and self-confessed desire for "pleasure" (almost as if her conscience would order her to enjoy herself), and a tendency towards retiring in- ternalization. Her indifference to "status," though perhaps not quite au- thentic, is noteworthy.
(Interests? ) "Oh fun-and serious things too. I like to read and discuss things. I like bright people-can't stand clinging vines. Like to dance, dress up, go places. Am not much good at sports, but I play at them-tennis, swimming. I belong to a sorority and we do lots of war work as well as entertaining service men. (Subject names sorority. ) (That is supposed to be a good house isn't it? ) They say so. I didn't think there was anything very special about it. "
Her social progressiveness is characterized by both an element of fear and a conscientious sense of justice:
(What do you think about poverty? ) "I hate to think of it. And I don't think it is necessary. (Who is to blame? ) Oh, I don't mean the poor people are. I don't know, but you would think that by now we could work out a way so that everyone would have enough. "
Her anxiety makes her more aware of the fascist potential than most other low scorers are:
"It would be terrible to have Nazis here. Of course there are some. And they would like to have the same thing happen. . . . Lots of Jewish kids have a hard time-in the service, and in going to medical school. It isn't fair. (Why the dis- crimination? ) I don't know unless it is the Nazi influence. No, it went back before that. I guess there always are some people who have ideas like the Nazis. "
Her indignation is primarily directed against "unfairness. " The notion that
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
"there are always people with ideas like the Nazis" is remarkable: a highly developed sense of responsibility seems to give her an understanding in social? matters that goes far beyond her purely intellectual insight. Psychologically, the complete absence of prejudice in her case seems best understood as a superego function, since the girl relates a rather unpleasant experience which otherwise might well have made her prejudiced: she was kidnapped, as a child of four, by a Negro but
"He didn't hurt me. I don't think I was even scared. "
As to the genetic background of her attitude, the following clinical data are pertinent:
"I am more like my father I am afraid and that isn't good. He is a very impatient man, overbearing, and everything for himself. He and I didn't get along. He favored my sister because she played up to him. But both of us suffered with him. If I even called my sister a name as kids will do when they fight, I got spanked, and hard. That used to worry my mother. For that reason she hardly ever punished us, because he did it all the time, and mostly for nothing. I was spanked constantly. I remember that better than anything. (Do you think your mother and father loved each other? ) No, perhaps they did at first, but my mother couldn't stand the way he treated us. She divorced him. " (She flushes and her eyes fill with tears as she says this. When interviewer commented that she had not realized the parents were divorced she says-"1 wasn't going to say anything. I hardly ever do. ")
As to neurotic traits: there are indications of a strong mother-fixation:
"I don't want mother to ever get married again. (Why? ) I don't know. She doesn't need to. She can have friends. She is very attractive and has lots of friends but I couldn't stand to have her marry again. (Do you think she might anyway? ) No. She won't if I don't want her to. "
And there are symptoms of sexual inhibition, based on her experience of the breakdown of her parents' marriage.
(Boys? ) "Oh, I don't get serious and I don't want them to. I neck a little of course, but nothing to give them any idea I am cheap. I don't like cheap fellows either. "
Her statement that she does not want to commit herself because she is afraid of war marriages is probably a rationalization.
3. THE "IMPULSIVE" LOW SCORER
The case of an "impulse-ridden" low scorer has been described by Frenkel- Brunswik and Sanford (38). They write:
The case of an "impulse ridden" low scorer has been described by Frenkel- Brunswik and Sanford (44). They write:
as most typical of our low extremes. This girl was clearly impulse ridden. Her ego was lined up with her id, so that all kinds of excesses were made to seem permissible to her. In stating why she liked Jews she gave much the same reasons that the high extremes had given for hating them.
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There is reason to assume that this case represents a syndrome of its own, being in some respects the counterpart of the psychopathic high scorer. This syndrome stands out in all-adjusted people who have an extremely strong id, but are relatively free of destructive impulses: people who, on account of their own libidinous situation, sympathize with everything they feel to be repressed. Moreover, they are those who respond so strongly to all kinds of stimuli that the ingroup-outgroup relation has no meaning to them-rather, they are attracted by everything that is "different" and promises some new kind of gratification. If they have destructive elements, these seem to be di- rected against themselves instead of against others. The range of this syn- drome seems to reach from libertines and "addicts" of all kinds, over certain asocial characters such as prostitutes and nonviolent criminals, to certain psychotics. It may also be noted that in Germany very few Nazis were found among actors, circus folk, and vagrants-people whom the Nazis put into concentration camps. It is difficult to say what are the deeper psychological sources of this syndrome. It seems, however, that there is weakness both in the superego and in the ego, and that this makes these individuals somewhat unstable in political matters as well as in other areas. They certainly do not think in stereotypes, but it is doubtful to what extent they succeed in con- ceptualization at all.
Our illustration, F205, is selected from the Psychiatric Clinic material:
She is a pleasantly mannered, attractive young college girl who is obviously seriously maladjusted and who suffers from great mood swings, tension, who can- not concentrate on her school work and has no goals in life. . . . Sometimes she is extremely upset, comes crying and "mixed up," complains that she is not being helped fast enough. Therapist feels that she cannot stand any deeper probing, that therapy will have to be mostly supportive, because of her weak ego, possibility of precipitating a psychosis. Schizoid tendencies.
She is set against prejudice with a strong accent on "interbreeding," prob- ably an expression of her own impulse for promiscuity: there should be no "boundaries":
(Prejudices? ) "If there were interbreeding between races it might help in the combining of cultures-it may internationalize culture. I think there should be one system of education everywhere. It may not be practical-but perhaps selective breeding would be possible-an accumulation of good traits might come out. And the imbeciles could be sterilized. " (Quotes some study on heredity subject has learned about. ) "It seems improvements aren't made fast enough. The whole society is ill and unhappy. "
The last sentence indicates that her own discontent leads her, by the way of empathy, towards a rather radical and consistent critique of society. The keenness of her insight as well as her being attracted by what is "different" comes out even more clearly in her statement on minority problems:
''There is a terrific amount of minority oppression-prejudice. There is a fear of
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minorities, a lack of knowledge. I would like to assimilate all groups-internation- ally. Would want the education of the world unified. The minorities themselves also keep themselves apart. It's a vicious circle. Society makes them outcasts and they react this way. " (Differences?
) (Interviewer tried hard to have subject describe differences between groups, but subject insisted): "All differences that exist are due to conditions people grow up in and also to the emotional responses . (to discrimination). (Jews? ) I don't see how they are different as a group. I have Jewish friends. . . . Maybe they are more sensitive because of prejudice against them. But that's good. "
According to the clinical data the girl is a genuine Lesbian, who was severely reprimanded because of her homosexuality, and became afterwards "rather promiscuous to determine whether she did react sexually to men. " "All emotionally upset in one way or the other," she said. Her later history indicates that the Lesbian component is stronger than anything else.
It may be added that the Los Angeles sample contains three call-house girls, all of them completely free of prejudice and also low on the F scale. Since their profession tends to make them resentful about sex altogether, and since they profess symptoms of frigidity, they do not seem to belong to the "Impulsive" syndrome. However, only much closer analysis could ascer- tain whether the ultimate basis of their character formation is of the "im- pulsive" kind and has only been hidden by later reaction-formations, or whether their low score is due to a purely social factor, namely the in- numerable contacts they have with all kinds of people.
4. THE "EASY-GOING" LOW SCORER
This syndrome is the exact opposite of the "Manipulative" high scorer. Negatively, it is characterized by a marked tendency to "let things go," a profound unwillingness to do violence to any object (an unwillingness which often may approach, on the surface level, conformity), and by an extreme reluctance to make decisions, often underscored by the subjects themselves. This reluctance even affects their language: they may be recognized by the frequency of unfinished sentences, as if they would not like to commit them- selves, but rather leave it to the listener to decide on the merits of the case. ' Positively, they are inclined to "live and let live," while at the same time their own desires seem to be free of the acquisitive touch. Grudging and dis- content are absent. They show a certain psychological richness, the opposite of constrictedness: a capacity for enjoying things, imagination, a sense of humor which often assumes the form of self-irony. The latter, however, is as little destructive as their other attitudes: it is as if they were ready to con- fess all kinds of weaknesses not so much out of any neurotic compulsion as because of a strong underlying sense of inner security. They can give them- selves up without being afraid of losing themselves. They are rarely radical in their political outlook, but rather behave as if they were already living under nonrepressive conditions, in a truly human society, an attitude which
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779
may, sometimes, tend to weaken their power of resistance. There is no evi- dence of any truly schizoid tendencies. They are completely nonstereopathic -they do not even resist stereotypy, but simply fail to understand the urge
~ for subsumption.
The etiology of the "Easy-Going" syndrome is still somewhat obscure. The
subjects in whom it is pronounced seem not to be defined by the preponder- ance of any psychological agency, or by retrogression to any particular in- fantile phase though there is, superficially seen, something of the child about them. Rather, they should be understood dynamically. They are people whose character structure has not become "congealed": no set pattern of control by any of the agencies of Freud's typology has crystallized, but they are completely "open" to experience. This, however, does not imply ego weakness, but rather the absence of traumatic experiences and defects which otherwise lead to the "reification" of the ego. In this sense, they are "normal," but it is just this normality which gives them in our civilization the appear- ance of a certain immaturity. Not only did they not undergo severe child- hood conflicts, but their whole childhood seems to be determined by motherly or other female images. 7 Perhaps they may best be characterized as those who know no fear of women. This may account for the absence of aggressive- ness. At the same time, it is possibly indicative of an archaic trait: to them, the world has still a matriarchal outlook. Thus, they may often represent, sociologically, the genuine "folk" element as against rational civilization. Representatives of this syndrome are not infrequent among the lower middle- classes. Though no "action" is to be expected of them, one may count on them as on persons who, under no circumstances, ever will adjust themselves to political or psychological fascism. The aforementioned M711
is very amiable, mild, gende, casual, slow, and somewhat lethargic in both voice and manner. He is quite verbal, but very circumstantial. His statements are typically surrounded with qualifications to which he commonly devotes more attention than to the main proposition. He seems to suffer from pervasive indecision and doubt, to be pretty unsure of his ideas, and to have great difficulty in committing himself to positive statements on very many matters. In general, he tends to avoid committing himself to things, either intellectually or emotionally, and in general avoids getting involved in things.
He describes his choice of profession as accidental, but it is interesting that he was originally a landscape architect-which may imply a desire for the res- titution of nature rather than its domination-and later became an inter- viewer in government employment, a job that gives him the gratification of helping other people without his stressing, however, this aspect narcis- sistically. He is not indifferent to wealth and admits his wish for "security," but is, at the same time, totally unimpressed by the importance of money per
7 The subject chosen as an illustration of this type "was brought up in a household of women-mother and grandmother. "
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se. His religious attitude has been described in Chapter XVIII, and it fits psy- chologically, in every detail, into the make-up of the "Easy-Going" syn- drome. It may be added that he "does not believe in the Immaculate Con- ception" but doesn't think "it makes any difference. "
When asked about discipline in childhood, he answers "practically none," "very undisciplined. " His strong attachment to his mother is emphasized without any inhibition: the only period of his childhood when there were any "bones of contention" was when his mother "exhibited her possessive- ness. She didn't like the gals I went with. " What he himself likes about women is described as follows:
"A wfully hard to say when you're pretty sold on a gal. . . . Seems to have all the things I like-fun to be with, brains, pretty. She likes me, which is important. We share things together. (What enjoy doing together? ) Music, reading, swim- ming, dancing. Most of the things which don't require too much energy, which makes it good. "
It is remarkable that there is no trace of hostility against the father-whom he lost very early-in spite of the mother-fixation. It is the imaginative gift of the father which lingers in his memory:
(Pleasant memories of father? ) "Lots of pleasant memories, because he spoiled us when he was home, always cooking up wonderful ideas for things to do. (Mother and father got along? ) I think very well. (Which parent take after? ) I don't know, because I didn't know my father very well. (Father's faults? ) Don't know. "
Most significant are his statements on race issues:
(What think of minority group problems? ) "I wish I knew. I don't know. I think that is one problem we should all be working on. (Biggest problem? ) Negroes, in terms of numbers. . . . I don't think we've ever faced the problem squarely. . . . Many Negroes have come to the West Coast. . . . (Have you ever had Negroes as friends? ) Yes . . . Not intimately, though have known a number that I've liked and enjoyed. (What about intermarriage? ) I think it's a false issue. ? . . They say, 'What if your sister married a Negro? ' I wouldn't have any feelings about it, frankly. . . . (Negro traits? ) No. "
As to the Jews, he does not come to their "defense," but actually denies that they are a "problem":
(What about the Jewish problem? ) "I don't think there is a Jewish problem. There again, I think that's been a herring for agitators. (How do you mean? ) Hitler, Ku Klux Klan, etc. (Jewish traits? ) No . . . I've seen Jewish people exhibit so- called Jewish traits, but also many non-Jewish people. " . . . (Subject emphasizes there is no distinction along racial lines. )
The danger implicit in the "Easy-Going" syndrome, i. e. , too great reluctance to use violence even against violence, is suggested by the following passage:
(What about picketing Gerald K. Smith? ) "I think Gerald K. Smith should have an opportunity to speak, if we are operating under a democracy. (What about
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picketing as registering a protest? ) If a certain group wants to, they have a right to. . . . I don't think it's always effective. "
That the subject's attitude of noncommitment to any "principle" is actually based on a sense of the concrete and not purely evasive is indicated by the following highly elucidating passage:
(Interviewer reads question . . . about tireless leader and refers to subject as agreeing a little, asks for elaboration. ) "I agree a little. However, the opposite of that, Huey Long, was a courageous, tireless leader and Hitler (laughs). It depends. (How do you mean? ) Well, I admired Willkie; I admired Roosevelt; I admired Wallace. But, I don't think we should ever have leaders in whom the people put their faith and then settle back. People seem to seek leaders to avoid thinking for themselves. "
This subject's interview concludes with the dialectical statement that "power is almost equivalent to the abuse of power. "
5. THE GENUINE LIBERAL
By contrast to the pattern just described, this syndrome is very outspoken in reaction and opinion. The subject in whom it is pronounced has a strong sense of personal autonomy and independence. He cannot stand any outside interference with his personal convictions and beliefs, and he does not want to interfere with those of others either. His ego is quite developed but not libidinized-he is rarely "narcissistic. " At the same time, he is willing to admit id tendencies, and to take the consequence-as is the case with Freud's "erotic type" (39). One of his conspicuous features is moral courage, often far beyond his rational evaluation of a situation. He cannot "keep silent" if some- thing wrong is being done, even if he seriously endangers himself. Just as he is strongly "individualized" himself, he sees the others, above all, as individ- uals, not as specimens of a general concept. He shares some features with other syndromes found among low scorers. Like the "Impulsive," he is little re- pressed and even has certain difficulties in keeping himself under "control. " However, his emotionality is not blind, but directed towards the other person as a subject. His love is not only desire but also compassion-as a matter of fact, one might think of defining this syndrome as the "compas- sionate" low scorer. He shares with the "Protesting" low scorer the vigor of identification with the underdog, but without compulsion, and without traces of overcompensation: he is no "Jew lover. " Like the "Easy-Going" low scorer he is antitotalitarian, but much more consciously so, without the element of hesitation and indecision. It is this configuration rather than any single trait which characterizes the "Genuine Liberal. " Aesthetic interests seem to occur frequently.
The illustration we give is a girl whose character of a "genuine liberal" stands out the more clearly, since, according to the interviewer,
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she is politically naive like the majority of our college women, regardless whether they are high or low.
No "ticket" is involved. Fszs
is a 2 1-year-old college student. She is a handsome brunette with dark, flashing eyes, who exudes temperament and vitality. She has none of the pretty-pretty femininity so frequently seen in high subjects, and would probably scorn the little feminine wiles and schemes practiced by such women. On the contrary, she is extremely frank and outspoken in manner, and in build she is athletic. One senses in her a very passionate nature and so strong a desire to give intensely of herself in all her relationships, that she must experience difficulty in restraining herself within the bounds of conventionality.
Apart from a semiprofessional interest in music she also "enjoys painting and dramatics. " As to her vocation, however, she is still undecided. She
has taken nurses' aid training. She liked helping people in this way. "I enjoyed it. I feel that I could now take care of a sick person. It didn't bother me to carry bed- pans and urinals. I learned that I could touch flesh without being squeamish. I learned to be tactful about certain things. And then it was patriotic! (slightly joking tone). People liked me. (Why did they like you? ) Because I smiled, and because I was always making cracks-like I'm doing now. "
Her views with regard to minorities are guided by the idea of the individual:
"Minorities have to have just as many rights as majorities. They are all people and should have just as many rights as the majority. There should be no minorities; there should only be individuals and they should be judged according to the indi- vidual. Period! Is that sufficient? "
(Negroes? ) "Same thing! Still as individuals. Their skin is black, but they are still people. Individuals have loves and sorrows and joys. I don't think you should
kill them all or liquidate them or stick them in a corner just because they are dif- ferent people. I would not marry one, because I should not want to marry a person who has a trait I don't like, like a large nose, etc. I would not want to have children with dark skins. I would not mind if they live next door to me.
regarded as accidental in terms of personality, but we also find people whose rigidity is hardly less related to personality than is the case with certain syn- dromes of high scorers. The latter kind of low scorers are definitely disposed towards totalitarianism in their thinking; what is accidental up to a certain degree is the particular brand of ideological world formula that they chance to come into contact with. We encountered a few subjects who had been identified ideologically with some progressive movement, such as the struggle for minority rights, for a long time, but with whom such ideas contained features of compulsiveness, even of paranoid obsession, and who, with respect to many of our variables, especially rigidity and "total" thinking, could hardly be distinguished from some of our high extremes. All the repre- sentatives of this syndrome can in one way or another be regarded as coun- terparts of the "Surface Resentment" type of high scorer. The accidentalness in their total outlook makes them liable to change fronts in critical situations, as was the case with certain kinds of radicals under the Nazi regime. They may often be recognized by a certain disinterestedness with respect to crucial minority questions per se, being, rather, against prejudice as a plank in the fascist platform; but. sometimes they also see only minority problems. They are likely to use cliches and phraseology hardly less frequently than do their political opponents. Some of them tend to belittle the importance of racial discrimination by labeling it simply as a byproduct of the big issues of class struggle-an attitude which may be indicative of repressed prejudice on their own part. Representatives of this syndrome can often be found, for example, among young, "progressive" people, particularly students, whose personal development has failed to keep pace with their ideological indoctrination. One of the best means for identifying the syndrome is to note the subject's readiness to deduce his stand towards minority problems from some general formula, rather than to make spontaneous statements. He also may often come forward with value judgments which cannot possibly be based on any real knowledge of the matter in question.
F z39 is a religious educator.
For the past ten years she has considered herself very progressive. Lately she has little time to read, but her husband reads and studies constantly and keeps her up to date by discussion. "My favorite world statesman is Litvinov. I think the most dramatic speech of modern times is the one he made at the Geneva conference when he pleaded for collective security. It has made us very happy to see the fog of ignorance and distrust surrounding the Soviet Union clear away during this war. Things are not settled yet though. There are many fascists in our own country who would fight Russia if they could. "
The hollowness of her enthusiasm about Litvinov has already been noted in our discussion of stereotyped thinking in politics (Chapter XVII). The same seems to be true of her assertion that she is an internationalist, followed up by
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773
her rhetorical question, "Would I be a true Christian if I weren't? " This is typical of the "deductive" way of thinking which seems to characterize the rigid low scorer. The present subject seems to proceed in the same way as she approaches minority questions.
Subject believes that all people are one, and again she feels that is the only point of view possible for a true Christian.
The somewhat sweeping expression "that all people are one" should be noted: a person free of stereotypy would rather tend to acknowledge differ- ences and to take a positive stand towards differentiation. What is meant is probably "equal in the sight of God" and she deduces her tolerance from this general assumption.
As mentioned in the chapter on politics, the superficiality of her progres- sivism is indicated by her highly aggressive attitude towards alcoholism, called by herself "one of her pet subjects," which plays almost the same role as do certain paranoid ideas in the "Cranks" among the high scorers. It may be recalled in this connection, that Alfred McClung Lee has demonstrated the close connection between prohibitionism and prejudiced ways of think- ing. As a matter of fact, there is evidence enough that this "Rigid" low scorer has more than a sprinkling of the "high" mentality. There is the emphasis on "status," with reference to her daughter: -
"I feel badly about her school too-(names the school). The influx of people with lower educational and cultural standards than ours has had effect on the schools of course. "
There are destructive fantasies, thinly veiled by "sensible" moral reflections:
"The same with smoking. I am not really worried about it though. No one of either side of our family ever smoked or drank, with one exception. My husband's sister smoked. She is dead now. "
There is a rationalization of punitiveness:
"If I could bring about Prohibition tomorrow I would do it. I believe in pre- venting everything that doesn't make man better-that makes him worse. Some people say if you forbid something it makes people do it on the sly. Well, I say, how about murder, and robbery, and dope? We have prohibited them and some people still commit crimes, but we do not think of taking off the ban on them. "
And there is, finally, official optimism, a characteristic reaction-formation against underlying destructiveness:
"If one didn't always have hope and believe everything was moving upwards, one's Christianity wouldn't mean anything, would it? "
Under changing conditions she might be willing to join a subversive move- ment as long as it pretended to be "Christian" and to "move upwards. "
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2. THE "PROTESTING" LOW SCORER5
This syndrome is in many respects the counterpart of the "Authoritarian" high scorer. Its determinants are psychological rather than rational. It is based on a specific resolution of the Oedipus complex which has deeply affected the individuals in question. While they are set against paternal authority, they have at the same time internalized the father image to a high degree. One may say that in them the superego is so strong that it turns against its own "model," the father, and all external authorities. They are thoroughly guided by conscience which seems to be, in many cases exhibiting this pattern, a secularization of religious authority. This conscience, however, is quite au- tonomous and independent of outside codes. They "protest" out of purely moral reasons against social repression or at least against some of its extreme manifestations, such as racial prejudice. 6 Most of the "neurotic" low scorers who play such a large role in our sample show the "Protest" syndrome. They are often shy, "retiring," uncertain about themselves, and even given to tor- menting themselves with all kinds of doubts and scruples. They sometimes
show certain compulsive features, and their reaction against prejudice has also an aspect of having been forced upon them by rigid superego demands. They are frequently guilt-ridden and regard the Jews a priori as "victims,"
as being distinctly different from themselves. An element of stereotypy may
be inherent in their sympathies and identifications. They are guided by the wish to "make good" the injustice that has been done to minorities. At the same time they may be easily attracted by the real or imaginary intellectual qualities of the Jews which they deem to be akin to their desire to be "aloof" from worldly affairs. While being nonauthoritarian in their way of thinking, they are often psychologically constricted and thus not able to act as ener- getically as their conscience demands. It is as if the internalization of con- science has succeeded so well that they are severely inhibited or even psy- chologically "paralyzed. " Their eternal guilt feelings tend to make them regard everyone as "guilty. " Though they detest discrimination, they may _ find it sometimes difficult to stand up against it. Socially, they seem usually
to belong to the middle class, but it is hard to define their group membership in more precise terms. However, our material seems to indicate that they are frequently to be found among people who underwent serious family troubles, such as a divorce of their parents. F127
is extremely pretty in the conventional "campus girl" style. She is very slight, blond, fair-skinned, and blue-eyed. She wears a becoming "sloppy Joe" sweater, daintily fixed blouse, and brief skirt, with bobby socks. She wears a sorority pin. She
5 This term was suggested by J. F. Brown.
6 lt was pointed out in Chapter XVIII that religion, when it has been internalized, is an effective antidote against prejudice and the whole fascist potential, notwithstanding its own authoritarian aspects.
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is very friendly and interested, seems to enjoy the discussion, but is quite vague in her answers about family life until the interview is quite well along. Then she suddenly decides to reveal the most important single fact in her life-her parents' divorce which she usually hides-and from that point on speaks with apparent freedom about her own feelings.
She shows the characteristic neurotic concern with herself, indicative of a feeling of impotence: she has a somewhat magical belief in psychology, ap- parently expecting that the psychologist knows more about her than she does herself:
What she would like above all is to be a psychiatrist. (Why? ) "Because psychi- atrists know more about people. Everyone tells me their troubles. I don't think there is anything more satisfying than to be able to help people with their problems. But I don't have the brains or the patience to be a psychiatrist. That is just an idea. "
Her attitude towards the father is hostile:
Father is a lawyer. A~ present he is enlisted in the army and is somewhere in the Pacific, in charge of a Negro battalion. (What does he think about that? ) "I don't know what he thinks about anything. "
Her social attitude is a combination of conformist "correctness," the em- phatic and self-confessed desire for "pleasure" (almost as if her conscience would order her to enjoy herself), and a tendency towards retiring in- ternalization. Her indifference to "status," though perhaps not quite au- thentic, is noteworthy.
(Interests? ) "Oh fun-and serious things too. I like to read and discuss things. I like bright people-can't stand clinging vines. Like to dance, dress up, go places. Am not much good at sports, but I play at them-tennis, swimming. I belong to a sorority and we do lots of war work as well as entertaining service men. (Subject names sorority. ) (That is supposed to be a good house isn't it? ) They say so. I didn't think there was anything very special about it. "
Her social progressiveness is characterized by both an element of fear and a conscientious sense of justice:
(What do you think about poverty? ) "I hate to think of it. And I don't think it is necessary. (Who is to blame? ) Oh, I don't mean the poor people are. I don't know, but you would think that by now we could work out a way so that everyone would have enough. "
Her anxiety makes her more aware of the fascist potential than most other low scorers are:
"It would be terrible to have Nazis here. Of course there are some. And they would like to have the same thing happen. . . . Lots of Jewish kids have a hard time-in the service, and in going to medical school. It isn't fair. (Why the dis- crimination? ) I don't know unless it is the Nazi influence. No, it went back before that. I guess there always are some people who have ideas like the Nazis. "
Her indignation is primarily directed against "unfairness. " The notion that
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"there are always people with ideas like the Nazis" is remarkable: a highly developed sense of responsibility seems to give her an understanding in social? matters that goes far beyond her purely intellectual insight. Psychologically, the complete absence of prejudice in her case seems best understood as a superego function, since the girl relates a rather unpleasant experience which otherwise might well have made her prejudiced: she was kidnapped, as a child of four, by a Negro but
"He didn't hurt me. I don't think I was even scared. "
As to the genetic background of her attitude, the following clinical data are pertinent:
"I am more like my father I am afraid and that isn't good. He is a very impatient man, overbearing, and everything for himself. He and I didn't get along. He favored my sister because she played up to him. But both of us suffered with him. If I even called my sister a name as kids will do when they fight, I got spanked, and hard. That used to worry my mother. For that reason she hardly ever punished us, because he did it all the time, and mostly for nothing. I was spanked constantly. I remember that better than anything. (Do you think your mother and father loved each other? ) No, perhaps they did at first, but my mother couldn't stand the way he treated us. She divorced him. " (She flushes and her eyes fill with tears as she says this. When interviewer commented that she had not realized the parents were divorced she says-"1 wasn't going to say anything. I hardly ever do. ")
As to neurotic traits: there are indications of a strong mother-fixation:
"I don't want mother to ever get married again. (Why? ) I don't know. She doesn't need to. She can have friends. She is very attractive and has lots of friends but I couldn't stand to have her marry again. (Do you think she might anyway? ) No. She won't if I don't want her to. "
And there are symptoms of sexual inhibition, based on her experience of the breakdown of her parents' marriage.
(Boys? ) "Oh, I don't get serious and I don't want them to. I neck a little of course, but nothing to give them any idea I am cheap. I don't like cheap fellows either. "
Her statement that she does not want to commit herself because she is afraid of war marriages is probably a rationalization.
3. THE "IMPULSIVE" LOW SCORER
The case of an "impulse-ridden" low scorer has been described by Frenkel- Brunswik and Sanford (38). They write:
The case of an "impulse ridden" low scorer has been described by Frenkel- Brunswik and Sanford (44). They write:
as most typical of our low extremes. This girl was clearly impulse ridden. Her ego was lined up with her id, so that all kinds of excesses were made to seem permissible to her. In stating why she liked Jews she gave much the same reasons that the high extremes had given for hating them.
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There is reason to assume that this case represents a syndrome of its own, being in some respects the counterpart of the psychopathic high scorer. This syndrome stands out in all-adjusted people who have an extremely strong id, but are relatively free of destructive impulses: people who, on account of their own libidinous situation, sympathize with everything they feel to be repressed. Moreover, they are those who respond so strongly to all kinds of stimuli that the ingroup-outgroup relation has no meaning to them-rather, they are attracted by everything that is "different" and promises some new kind of gratification. If they have destructive elements, these seem to be di- rected against themselves instead of against others. The range of this syn- drome seems to reach from libertines and "addicts" of all kinds, over certain asocial characters such as prostitutes and nonviolent criminals, to certain psychotics. It may also be noted that in Germany very few Nazis were found among actors, circus folk, and vagrants-people whom the Nazis put into concentration camps. It is difficult to say what are the deeper psychological sources of this syndrome. It seems, however, that there is weakness both in the superego and in the ego, and that this makes these individuals somewhat unstable in political matters as well as in other areas. They certainly do not think in stereotypes, but it is doubtful to what extent they succeed in con- ceptualization at all.
Our illustration, F205, is selected from the Psychiatric Clinic material:
She is a pleasantly mannered, attractive young college girl who is obviously seriously maladjusted and who suffers from great mood swings, tension, who can- not concentrate on her school work and has no goals in life. . . . Sometimes she is extremely upset, comes crying and "mixed up," complains that she is not being helped fast enough. Therapist feels that she cannot stand any deeper probing, that therapy will have to be mostly supportive, because of her weak ego, possibility of precipitating a psychosis. Schizoid tendencies.
She is set against prejudice with a strong accent on "interbreeding," prob- ably an expression of her own impulse for promiscuity: there should be no "boundaries":
(Prejudices? ) "If there were interbreeding between races it might help in the combining of cultures-it may internationalize culture. I think there should be one system of education everywhere. It may not be practical-but perhaps selective breeding would be possible-an accumulation of good traits might come out. And the imbeciles could be sterilized. " (Quotes some study on heredity subject has learned about. ) "It seems improvements aren't made fast enough. The whole society is ill and unhappy. "
The last sentence indicates that her own discontent leads her, by the way of empathy, towards a rather radical and consistent critique of society. The keenness of her insight as well as her being attracted by what is "different" comes out even more clearly in her statement on minority problems:
''There is a terrific amount of minority oppression-prejudice. There is a fear of
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minorities, a lack of knowledge. I would like to assimilate all groups-internation- ally. Would want the education of the world unified. The minorities themselves also keep themselves apart. It's a vicious circle. Society makes them outcasts and they react this way. " (Differences?
) (Interviewer tried hard to have subject describe differences between groups, but subject insisted): "All differences that exist are due to conditions people grow up in and also to the emotional responses . (to discrimination). (Jews? ) I don't see how they are different as a group. I have Jewish friends. . . . Maybe they are more sensitive because of prejudice against them. But that's good. "
According to the clinical data the girl is a genuine Lesbian, who was severely reprimanded because of her homosexuality, and became afterwards "rather promiscuous to determine whether she did react sexually to men. " "All emotionally upset in one way or the other," she said. Her later history indicates that the Lesbian component is stronger than anything else.
It may be added that the Los Angeles sample contains three call-house girls, all of them completely free of prejudice and also low on the F scale. Since their profession tends to make them resentful about sex altogether, and since they profess symptoms of frigidity, they do not seem to belong to the "Impulsive" syndrome. However, only much closer analysis could ascer- tain whether the ultimate basis of their character formation is of the "im- pulsive" kind and has only been hidden by later reaction-formations, or whether their low score is due to a purely social factor, namely the in- numerable contacts they have with all kinds of people.
4. THE "EASY-GOING" LOW SCORER
This syndrome is the exact opposite of the "Manipulative" high scorer. Negatively, it is characterized by a marked tendency to "let things go," a profound unwillingness to do violence to any object (an unwillingness which often may approach, on the surface level, conformity), and by an extreme reluctance to make decisions, often underscored by the subjects themselves. This reluctance even affects their language: they may be recognized by the frequency of unfinished sentences, as if they would not like to commit them- selves, but rather leave it to the listener to decide on the merits of the case. ' Positively, they are inclined to "live and let live," while at the same time their own desires seem to be free of the acquisitive touch. Grudging and dis- content are absent. They show a certain psychological richness, the opposite of constrictedness: a capacity for enjoying things, imagination, a sense of humor which often assumes the form of self-irony. The latter, however, is as little destructive as their other attitudes: it is as if they were ready to con- fess all kinds of weaknesses not so much out of any neurotic compulsion as because of a strong underlying sense of inner security. They can give them- selves up without being afraid of losing themselves. They are rarely radical in their political outlook, but rather behave as if they were already living under nonrepressive conditions, in a truly human society, an attitude which
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may, sometimes, tend to weaken their power of resistance. There is no evi- dence of any truly schizoid tendencies. They are completely nonstereopathic -they do not even resist stereotypy, but simply fail to understand the urge
~ for subsumption.
The etiology of the "Easy-Going" syndrome is still somewhat obscure. The
subjects in whom it is pronounced seem not to be defined by the preponder- ance of any psychological agency, or by retrogression to any particular in- fantile phase though there is, superficially seen, something of the child about them. Rather, they should be understood dynamically. They are people whose character structure has not become "congealed": no set pattern of control by any of the agencies of Freud's typology has crystallized, but they are completely "open" to experience. This, however, does not imply ego weakness, but rather the absence of traumatic experiences and defects which otherwise lead to the "reification" of the ego. In this sense, they are "normal," but it is just this normality which gives them in our civilization the appear- ance of a certain immaturity. Not only did they not undergo severe child- hood conflicts, but their whole childhood seems to be determined by motherly or other female images. 7 Perhaps they may best be characterized as those who know no fear of women. This may account for the absence of aggressive- ness. At the same time, it is possibly indicative of an archaic trait: to them, the world has still a matriarchal outlook. Thus, they may often represent, sociologically, the genuine "folk" element as against rational civilization. Representatives of this syndrome are not infrequent among the lower middle- classes. Though no "action" is to be expected of them, one may count on them as on persons who, under no circumstances, ever will adjust themselves to political or psychological fascism. The aforementioned M711
is very amiable, mild, gende, casual, slow, and somewhat lethargic in both voice and manner. He is quite verbal, but very circumstantial. His statements are typically surrounded with qualifications to which he commonly devotes more attention than to the main proposition. He seems to suffer from pervasive indecision and doubt, to be pretty unsure of his ideas, and to have great difficulty in committing himself to positive statements on very many matters. In general, he tends to avoid committing himself to things, either intellectually or emotionally, and in general avoids getting involved in things.
He describes his choice of profession as accidental, but it is interesting that he was originally a landscape architect-which may imply a desire for the res- titution of nature rather than its domination-and later became an inter- viewer in government employment, a job that gives him the gratification of helping other people without his stressing, however, this aspect narcis- sistically. He is not indifferent to wealth and admits his wish for "security," but is, at the same time, totally unimpressed by the importance of money per
7 The subject chosen as an illustration of this type "was brought up in a household of women-mother and grandmother. "
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se. His religious attitude has been described in Chapter XVIII, and it fits psy- chologically, in every detail, into the make-up of the "Easy-Going" syn- drome. It may be added that he "does not believe in the Immaculate Con- ception" but doesn't think "it makes any difference. "
When asked about discipline in childhood, he answers "practically none," "very undisciplined. " His strong attachment to his mother is emphasized without any inhibition: the only period of his childhood when there were any "bones of contention" was when his mother "exhibited her possessive- ness. She didn't like the gals I went with. " What he himself likes about women is described as follows:
"A wfully hard to say when you're pretty sold on a gal. . . . Seems to have all the things I like-fun to be with, brains, pretty. She likes me, which is important. We share things together. (What enjoy doing together? ) Music, reading, swim- ming, dancing. Most of the things which don't require too much energy, which makes it good. "
It is remarkable that there is no trace of hostility against the father-whom he lost very early-in spite of the mother-fixation. It is the imaginative gift of the father which lingers in his memory:
(Pleasant memories of father? ) "Lots of pleasant memories, because he spoiled us when he was home, always cooking up wonderful ideas for things to do. (Mother and father got along? ) I think very well. (Which parent take after? ) I don't know, because I didn't know my father very well. (Father's faults? ) Don't know. "
Most significant are his statements on race issues:
(What think of minority group problems? ) "I wish I knew. I don't know. I think that is one problem we should all be working on. (Biggest problem? ) Negroes, in terms of numbers. . . . I don't think we've ever faced the problem squarely. . . . Many Negroes have come to the West Coast. . . . (Have you ever had Negroes as friends? ) Yes . . . Not intimately, though have known a number that I've liked and enjoyed. (What about intermarriage? ) I think it's a false issue. ? . . They say, 'What if your sister married a Negro? ' I wouldn't have any feelings about it, frankly. . . . (Negro traits? ) No. "
As to the Jews, he does not come to their "defense," but actually denies that they are a "problem":
(What about the Jewish problem? ) "I don't think there is a Jewish problem. There again, I think that's been a herring for agitators. (How do you mean? ) Hitler, Ku Klux Klan, etc. (Jewish traits? ) No . . . I've seen Jewish people exhibit so- called Jewish traits, but also many non-Jewish people. " . . . (Subject emphasizes there is no distinction along racial lines. )
The danger implicit in the "Easy-Going" syndrome, i. e. , too great reluctance to use violence even against violence, is suggested by the following passage:
(What about picketing Gerald K. Smith? ) "I think Gerald K. Smith should have an opportunity to speak, if we are operating under a democracy. (What about
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picketing as registering a protest? ) If a certain group wants to, they have a right to. . . . I don't think it's always effective. "
That the subject's attitude of noncommitment to any "principle" is actually based on a sense of the concrete and not purely evasive is indicated by the following highly elucidating passage:
(Interviewer reads question . . . about tireless leader and refers to subject as agreeing a little, asks for elaboration. ) "I agree a little. However, the opposite of that, Huey Long, was a courageous, tireless leader and Hitler (laughs). It depends. (How do you mean? ) Well, I admired Willkie; I admired Roosevelt; I admired Wallace. But, I don't think we should ever have leaders in whom the people put their faith and then settle back. People seem to seek leaders to avoid thinking for themselves. "
This subject's interview concludes with the dialectical statement that "power is almost equivalent to the abuse of power. "
5. THE GENUINE LIBERAL
By contrast to the pattern just described, this syndrome is very outspoken in reaction and opinion. The subject in whom it is pronounced has a strong sense of personal autonomy and independence. He cannot stand any outside interference with his personal convictions and beliefs, and he does not want to interfere with those of others either. His ego is quite developed but not libidinized-he is rarely "narcissistic. " At the same time, he is willing to admit id tendencies, and to take the consequence-as is the case with Freud's "erotic type" (39). One of his conspicuous features is moral courage, often far beyond his rational evaluation of a situation. He cannot "keep silent" if some- thing wrong is being done, even if he seriously endangers himself. Just as he is strongly "individualized" himself, he sees the others, above all, as individ- uals, not as specimens of a general concept. He shares some features with other syndromes found among low scorers. Like the "Impulsive," he is little re- pressed and even has certain difficulties in keeping himself under "control. " However, his emotionality is not blind, but directed towards the other person as a subject. His love is not only desire but also compassion-as a matter of fact, one might think of defining this syndrome as the "compas- sionate" low scorer. He shares with the "Protesting" low scorer the vigor of identification with the underdog, but without compulsion, and without traces of overcompensation: he is no "Jew lover. " Like the "Easy-Going" low scorer he is antitotalitarian, but much more consciously so, without the element of hesitation and indecision. It is this configuration rather than any single trait which characterizes the "Genuine Liberal. " Aesthetic interests seem to occur frequently.
The illustration we give is a girl whose character of a "genuine liberal" stands out the more clearly, since, according to the interviewer,
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she is politically naive like the majority of our college women, regardless whether they are high or low.
No "ticket" is involved. Fszs
is a 2 1-year-old college student. She is a handsome brunette with dark, flashing eyes, who exudes temperament and vitality. She has none of the pretty-pretty femininity so frequently seen in high subjects, and would probably scorn the little feminine wiles and schemes practiced by such women. On the contrary, she is extremely frank and outspoken in manner, and in build she is athletic. One senses in her a very passionate nature and so strong a desire to give intensely of herself in all her relationships, that she must experience difficulty in restraining herself within the bounds of conventionality.
Apart from a semiprofessional interest in music she also "enjoys painting and dramatics. " As to her vocation, however, she is still undecided. She
has taken nurses' aid training. She liked helping people in this way. "I enjoyed it. I feel that I could now take care of a sick person. It didn't bother me to carry bed- pans and urinals. I learned that I could touch flesh without being squeamish. I learned to be tactful about certain things. And then it was patriotic! (slightly joking tone). People liked me. (Why did they like you? ) Because I smiled, and because I was always making cracks-like I'm doing now. "
Her views with regard to minorities are guided by the idea of the individual:
"Minorities have to have just as many rights as majorities. They are all people and should have just as many rights as the majority. There should be no minorities; there should only be individuals and they should be judged according to the indi- vidual. Period! Is that sufficient? "
(Negroes? ) "Same thing! Still as individuals. Their skin is black, but they are still people. Individuals have loves and sorrows and joys. I don't think you should
kill them all or liquidate them or stick them in a corner just because they are dif- ferent people. I would not marry one, because I should not want to marry a person who has a trait I don't like, like a large nose, etc. I would not want to have children with dark skins. I would not mind if they live next door to me.
