No More Learning

Homer frequently records the various stratagems that he employed against the enemy. He represents him, "with self-inflicted wounds deformed" [ Od_4'244 ], deserting to the enemy. The wooden horse, "which Epeius built by the instruction of Athene" [ Od_8'493 ], was his device. Also nobody, the wine, the firebrand, and the ram, may properly be called stratagems, which he employed against the Cyclops. In the same class were the stopping of the ears of his crew with wax, and the lashing of himself to the mast, in order to prevent the baneful influence of the [Sirens'] music. And what will you say of the beggar's purse, and the deceptions imposed on Eumaeus and Penelope [ Od_19'203 ]:
His was the art instruction to detail,
And facts inculcate, under fiction's veil.

To box with Irus, to remove from the smoke the arms of the drunken young men, and to fix the bow at the door - were they not all military stratagems? But enough of these, and other examples of a similar kind, provided by Homer.

How do the tragedians represent the stratagem which Odysseus used against Palamedes? The Achaeans, in solemn judgement, decided in favour of Odysseus, who had secretly left the barbarian gold in the other's tent; and thus, overcome by artifice and manoeuvre, the accomplished general was falsely convicted of treason. This is what is portrayed in the plays of the tragedians.

But in the following collection of stratagems I have followed the faithful records of history. I have related them succinctly, and arranged them under [the name of] each general. The whole is comprised in eight books, which contain nine hundred stratagems, beginning with Dionysus.

[1] Dionysus.

In order to gain admittance into the cities during his Indian expedition, Dionysus dressed his troops in white linen and deer skins, instead of gleaming armour. Their spears were adorned with ivy, and the points of the spears were hidden under a thyrsus. His orders were given by cymbals and drums, instead of trumpets; and intoxicating his enemies with wine, he engaged them in dancing and Bacchic orgies. Such were the stratagems which that general practised in his conquest of India, and the rest of Asia.

2 Dionysus, finding his army unable to bear the excessive heat of the Indian climate, occupied a three-peaked mountain; one of peaks of which is called Corasibiē, another Condasbe, and the third he called Merus ["thigh"] in commemoration of his birth. The mountain contains a variety of fountains, abounds in wild beasts, produces plenty of fruit, and the air is cooled by continual snow. His army, from their position here, used suddenly to show themselves to the barbarians in the plains; and showering down on them large flights of arrows from the those high and craggy precipices, obtained easy conquests.

3 After Dionysus had subdued the Indians, he formed an alliance with them and the Amazons, and took them into his service. When he penetrated into Bactria, whose boundary is the river Saranges, he found that the Bactrians had possessed themselves of the mountains above the river, in order to dispute his passage. Encamping therefore on the river side, opposite the enemy, he ordered the Amazons and the Bacchants to ford it; expecting that the Bactrians, in contempt of the women, would quit their posts on the mountains, and attack them; which they accordingly did. The women retreated, and were pursued by the enemy to the opposite bank. Then Dionysus at the head of his troops furiously attacked the Bactrians, and as they were surprised and impeded by the water, defeated them with great slaughter, and crossed the river himself without any further danger.

[2] Pan.

Pan, a general of Dionysus, was the first who created a regular system for the marshalling of an army. He invented the phalanx, and arrranged it with a right and left wing; from which he is usually represented with horns. Victory always belonged to the strongest sword, until he pointed the way to conquest by artifice and manoeuvre.

2 While he was in a wooded hollow, Dionysus was informed by his scouts that an immense army of the enemy was encamped a little above him. This was alarming news; but he was soon relieved of his worries by Pan, who ordered the whole army, in the silence of the night and on a given signal, to give out a loud shout. The surrounding rocks, and the hollows of the forest re-echoed the sound, and imposed on the enemy a fear that his forces were infinitely more numerous than they were; seized by anxiety, they abandoned their camp and fled. From the circumstances of this stratagem, the nymph Echo has been supposed by the poets to be the mistress of Pan; and hence also all pointless and imaginary fears are called panics.

[3] Heracles.

Heracles was determined to remove the race of Centaurs from Pelion, but he was inclined to act on the defensive, rather than commence hostilities. He resided for a short time with Pholus, and opened a jar of fragrant wine, which he and his companions secretly watched. The neighbouring Centaurs, allured by the smell, flocked together to the cave of Pholus, and seized the wine. Then Heracles, to punish the crimes of these thieves and robbers, attacked and slew them. [see also: Diodorus, 4. 12'3]

2 To avoid encountering the superior strength of the Erymanthian boar, Heracles had recourse to artifice. As the beast lay in a valley, which was full of snow, he annoyed him with stones from above. The boar at length roused himself in anger, and with great violence sprang forward, but sank into the snow. While he was thus entangled in the snow, and unable to exert himself, he became an easy prey for his assailant.

3 In his expedition against Troy, Heracles advanced to give the enemy battle as soon as he landed; and at the same time he ordered the pilots to put back a little to sea. The Trojan infantry soon gave way, while their cavalry pushed to the sea, in order to possess themselves of the ships; but they were not able to capture the ships, because they were floating a little off from the land. Heracles came in pursuit if them, and thus hemmed in by the enemy on one side and the sea on the other, they fell an easy victim to the conquerors.

4 In India Heracles adopted a daughter, whom he called Pandaeē. To her he allotted the southern part of India which is situated by the sea, dividing it into three hundred and sixty-five cantons. He imposed on these cantons a daily tax; and he ordered each canton in turn, on their stated day, to pay the royal stipend. So that if any of them refused the tax, the queen might depend on the others, because they were obliged to make up the loss, to help her in enforcing the due payment of it.

5 When Heracles went to war against the Minyans, whose cavalry were formidable within the Minyan plain, he did not think it safe to hazard a battle immediately, but diverted the course of the river Cephisus. This river flows by the two mountains Parnassus and Hedylium, and directs its course through the middle of Boeotia; but before it reaches the sea, it discharges its stream into a large subterranean chasm, and disappears. Heracles filled this chasm with great stones, and diverted the river into the plain where the Minyan cavalry was stationed. The plain soon became a lake, and the Minyan cavalry were rendered useless. After he had conquered the Minyans, Heracles opened the chasm again, and the Cephisus returned to its formal channel.

[4] Theseus.

Theseus, in his battles, always used to have the fore-part of his head shaved, so that the enemy should not have the opportunity of seizing him by the hair. His example was afterwards followed by all the Greeks; and from him, that sort of hair-cut was called theseis. But those who were particularly distinguished for this imitation of Theseus were the Abantes, whom Homer describes as follows [ Il_2'542 ]:
Their foreheads bare,
Down their broad shoulders flowed a length of hair. [see also: Plutarch, Thes_5]

[5] Demophon.

Diomedes committed the palladium into the care of Demophon. When Agamemnon demanded to take it, Demophon gave the real one to Buzyges, an Athenian, to carry to Athens; but kept a counterfeit one, made exactly like the original palladium, in his tent. When Agamemnon, at the head of a large body of troops, came to seize it by force, Demophon drew out his forces, and for some time sustained a sharp conflict with him; so that he might the more easily induce him to believe, that it could be no other than the original, for which he would have fought so resolutely. After many had been wounded on both sides, Demophon's men retreated, leaving the unsuspecting victor triumphantly to bear away the counterfeit palladium .

[6] Cresphontes.

Cresphontes, Temenus and the sons of Aristodemus agreed to share amongst themselves the government of the Peloponnese, and decided to divide the country into three parts: Argos, Sparta and Messene. While they were deliberating how to assign the property to each of themselves, Cresphontes, who had fixed his mind upon Messene, suggested that he whose lot was drawn first, should have Sparta; the second, Argos; and that Messene should be the portion of the third. His advice was followed, and they cast lots; which they did by each throwing a white stone into a pitcher of water. But instead of a stone, Cresphontes moulded a piece of clay, which he made into the resemblance of a stone. When he threw it into the water, it was immediately dissolved. After the other two stones coming out assigned Argos to Temenus, and Sparta to the sons of Aristodemus, Messene was assigned to Cresphontes, as if purely by fortune.

[7] Cypselus.

In the reign of Cypselus, the Heracleidae made an expedition against the Arcadians; but an oracle warned them that, if they received presents of hospitality from the Arcadians, they should immediately conclude a peace with them. Cypselus therefore, in the harvest season, ordered the farmers, after they had reaped the corn, to leave it by the highway, as a grateful present to the soldiers of the Heracleidae, who readily availed themselves of it. Cypselus afterwards went out to meet them, and offered them gifts of hospitality; but they declined to accept the gifts, remembering the oracle. "Why do you refuse? " replied Cypselus. "Your army, in taking our corn, has already received our presents of hospitality. " By this device of Cypselus, the Heracleidae were induced to make peace, and they entered into an alliance with the Arcadians.

[8] Elnes.

When the Lacedaemonians were ravaging Tegea, Elnes, the king of Arcadia, selected the most able and vigorous of his troops, and posted them on a height above the enemy, with orders to attack them from there in the middle of the night. He stationed the old men and boys as guards before the city; and commanded them, at the time he intended to attack, to kindle a large fire. While the enemy, distracted by the sight of the fire, were all looking in that direction, the men ran down from the height to attack them, and killed most of them; many of the survivors were taken as prisoners. Thus was accomplished the prediction of the oracle:
I give you to Tegea to advance,
And there in fatal steps to lead the dance.

[9] Temenus.

Temenus and the rest of the Heracleidae, who intended to make an expedition against Rhium, dispatched some Locrian rebels, with instructions to inform the Peloponnesians that the Heracleidae had a fleet at Naupactus; and that although they were pretending to be sailing to Rhium, their real intention was to make a descent on the Isthmus. The Peloponnesians believed this message, and marched their forces to the Isthmus; and by this means, they gave Temenus an opportunity to capture Rheium without opposition.

[10] Procles.

While the Heracleidae, Procles and Temenus, were at war with the Eurystheidae, who were then in possession of Sparta, they were suddenly attacked by the enemy, as they were sacrificing to Athene for a safe passage over the mountains. Procles was not disconcerted, but ordered the flutes to lead the army forwards. The hoplites, who were inspired by the beat and the harmony of the music, preserved their ranks intact, and eventually defeated the enemy. From this experience of the influence of music, the Laconians were taught to keep flutes in their army; who, advancing before them into battle, would always sound the charge. And I know that the oracle had promised victory to the Laconians, so long as they continued to use flutes in their army, and did not fight against those who kept flutes. The battle of Leuctra confirmed this prediction; for there the Laconians, without the music of flutes, fought against the Thebans, who always used flutes in battle; so that the god seemed to have foretold directly that the Thebans would defeat the Laconians.

[11] Acuēs.

When the Spartans entered Tegea, which was betrayed to them in the night, Acuēs ordered his men to slay anyone who asked for a watchword. Therefore the Arcadians asked no questions; but the Lacedaemonians, not being able to discern their friends in the dark of night, were obliged to ask anyone whom they met, whether they were friend or foe. In this way they revealed their identity, and were instantly killed by the Arcadians.

[12] Thessalus.

When the Boeotians of Arne made war against the Thessalians, Thessalus used a clever stratagem to reduce them to terms of peace, without hazarding a battle. Waiting for a dark and moonless night, he dispersed his men throughout the fields. He ordered them to light torches and lamps, and post themselves in different places on the tops of hills, sometimes raising their lights above their heads, then lowering them again; so as to produce a confusing and strange spectacle. The Boeotians, when they saw the surrounding flames, supposed themselves to be involved in a blaze of lightning; they were thrown in consternation, and pleaded for peace with the Thessalians.

[13] Menelaus.

While Menelaus was returning with Helene from Egypt, he was forced to put in at Rhodes. When Polyxo, who was then mourning the death of her husband Tlepolemus at Troy, heard of their arrival, she resolved to avenge his death on Helene and Menelaus. At the head of as many Rhodians as she could muster, both men and women, armed with fire and stones, she advanced to the ships. Menelaus, because the wind did not permit him to put out to sea, concealed the queen under deck; and at the same time, he dressed one of the most beautiful of her attendants in her royal robes and diadem. The Rhodians, assuming that she was Helene, threw fire and stones at the unfortunate attendant. Then, satisfied that (as they thought) that they had gained revenge for Tlepolemus through the death of Helene, they returned home; leaving Menelaus and Helene at leisure to continue the rest of their journey.

[14] Cleomenes.

In a war between the Lacedaemonians and the Argives, the two armies were encamped facing each other. Cleomenes, the king of the Lacedaemonians, noticed that every command in his army was betrayed to the enemy, who acted accordingly. When he ordered his men to arms, the enemy armed also; if he marched out, they were ready to form up against him; when he ordered his men to rest, they did likewise. Therefore he gave out secret instructions that, whenever he next gave public orders to take a meal, his troops should arm for battle. His public orders were as usual transmitted to the unsuspecting Argives; and when Cleomenes advanced in arms to attack them, they were easily overwhelmed, being unarmed and unprepared to oppose him. [see also: Herodotus, 6. 77-78]

[15] Polydorus.

The Lacedaemonians had been at war with the Messenians for twenty years, when Polydorus pretended that there was a dispute between him and Theopompus, the king of the other house. He sent a deserter to the enemy's camp, with information that the kings were at variance, and had divided their forces. The Messenians, upon receiving this report, observed the movements of the enemy with particular attention. And Theopompus, in accordance with information they had received, decamped and concealed his army at a little distance from the spot; there he remained in readiness to act, whenever the occasion might require. The Messenians, seeing this movement, and despising the small size of Polydorus' army, sallied out of the city and gave him battle. Theopompus, upon a signal given by his scouts, advanced from his hiding place and made himself master of the empty abandoned town; then he fell upon the Messenians in the rear, while Polydorus attacked them in front, and gained a complete victory.

[16] Lycurgus.

The method Lycurgus used to impose his laws upon the Lacedaemonians was, on enacting any new law, to go to off to Delphi; there he enquired of the oracle, whether it would be advantageous to the state to accept the law, or. The prophetess, persuaded by the eloquence of a bribe, always confirmed that it was right to accept it. Thus, through a fear of offending the god, the Lacedaemonians religiously observed those laws, as if they were divine oracles.

2 One command of Lycurgus, sanctioned by the oracle, was this: "O Laconians, do not be too frequently engaged in war; lest by that means you also teach your enemies to be good soldiers. "

3 Another of his instructions was, always to give quarter to those who fled; lest otherwise the enemy should judge it safer to hazard their lives in a brave resistance, than to yield and run away. [see also: Plutarch, Lyc_22'5]

[17] Tyrtaeus.

Before a battle with the Messenians, the Lacedaemonians determined either to conquer or to die; and so that, if they died, they might easily be recognised amongst the bodies by their friends, they engraved their names on their shields, which were fastened to their left arms. In order to take advantage of this resolution, by making the Messenians aware of it, Tyrtaeus gave secret orders that the Helots should be offered frequent opportunities of deserting. As soon as the Helots realised that they were being less strictly guarded, many of them deserted to the enemy, whom they informed of the extent of the Laconians' desperation. The Messenians were intimidated by these reports, and after a weak resistance yielded a complete victory to the Lacedaemonians. [see also: Diodorus, 8. 27'2]

[18] Codrus.

In a war between the Athenians and the Peloponnesians, the oracle declared that victory would go to the Athenians, if their king fell by the hands of a Peloponnesian. The enemy, informed of the oracle, gave a public order to every soldier in their army, to abstain from attacking the person of Codrus, who was at that time the king of the Athenians. But Codrus disguised himself in the clothes of a wood-cutter, and at evening time he went forward from the trenches to hew some wood; and there he happened to meet some Peloponnesians, who were out on a similar errand. Codrus deliberately quarrelled with them, and wounded some of them with his axe, until out of exasperation they fell upon him with their axes, and slew him. Then they returned to their camp, elated by the achievement of what they thought was a noble exploit. The Athenians, when they saw that the oracle had been fulfilled, delayed no further but advanced to battle with new courage and resolution. Beforehand they dispatched a herald into the enemy's camp, to request the body of their dead king. When the Peloponnesians realised what had happened, they immediately abandoned their camp and fled. The Athenians afterwards paid divine honours to Codrus, who had purchased so complete a victory by his voluntary death.

[19] Melanthus.

In a war between the Athenians and Boeotians, for the possession of Melaenae, which was a tract of land on the border between Attica and Boeotia, the oracle declared:
Black [Melas] bringing death to yellow [Xanthus]
Shall obtain Melaenae.
Which came to pass as follows. Melanthus, general of the Athenians, and Xanthus, general of the Boeotians, agreed to decide the victory by single combat. As soon as they were engaged, Melanthus called out, "Thus to bring a second against a single man is unfair! ", whereupon Xanthus turned round to see who this second person was. Melanthus seized his opportunity, and ran through his unguarded opponent with his spear. The victorious Athenians, in commemoration of this successful stratagem, instituted an annual festival, which they call Apaturia ["cheat" = ἀπατάω]. [see also: Frontinus, Str_2. 5'41]

[20] Solon.

The Athenians, worn out by a long war in which they had been engaged against the Megarians for the island of Salamis, enacted a law, that imposed a penalty of death on anyone who asserted that the city ought to attempt to recover the island. Solon, undaunted by the severity of the punishment, devised a means to circumvent the law. He pretended madness, and, running into the assembly, repeated an elegy which he had composed for the occasion. This martial poem so aroused the Athenians to war that, inspired by Ares and the Muses, they advanced to battle, signing hymns and shouting. They entirely defeated the Megarians, and regained possession of Salamis. Solon was held in universal admiration, because he had repealed a law by madness, and won a battle by the power of music. [see also: Plutarch, Sol_8'1]

2 In the course of the war between Athens and Megara for the possession of Salamis, Solon sailed to Colias, where he found the women performing a sacrifice to Demeter. He immediately dispatched someone to Megara who, pretending to be a deserter, advised them to sail with all speed to Colias, where they could easily seize the Athenian women. The Megarians instantly manned their ships, and put to sea. Meanwhile, Solon ordered the women to leave; and he sent some beardless youths, dressed in women's clothes with garlands on their heads, but secretly armed with daggers, to play and dance by the sea-shore. Deceived by the appearance of the youths in their women's clothes, the Megarians landed and attempted to seize them, as if they were defenceless women. But the youths drew their swords, and proved by the slaughter of their enemies that they were really men. Then they embarked on the ships, and took possession of Salamis. [see also: Plutarch, Sol_8'2]

[21] Peisistratus.

Peisistratus, in an expedition from Euboea against Pallenis in Attica, fell in with a body of the enemy, whom he defeated and slew. When he advanced farther, he met the remaining part of their army. He ordered his men not to attack, but to crown themselves with garlands, so as to suggest to them that he had already made a truce with the first group that he had met. Convinced by this, the enemy formed an alliance with Peisistratus and admitted him into the city. Peisistratus mounted his chariot, with a tall beautiful woman called Phyē by his side, who was clad in the armour of Pallas. When they saw them, the Athenians were convinced that Athene was his protectress and guide; and by this means he established himself as tyrant of Athens. [see also: Herodotus, 1. 60-62]

2 When he intended to disarm the Athenians, Peisistratus commanded them all to appear at the Anaceium, in arms. When they were assembled, he stepped forth, as if to address them, but he began in so low a tone of voice, that, not being able to hear him, the people asked him to go to the Propylaeum, where they might all hear him more distinctly. And even then he did not raise his voice enough to be heard distinctly, so that the people were straining to listen to him. Meanwhile his associates went about and secretly carried off all the arms, putting them in the temple of Agraulus. The Athenians, when they found themselves left defenceless, realised too late that Peisistratus' weak voice was only a stratagem to deprive them of their arms.

3 Megacles, who was magistrate on behalf of the rich, and Peisistratus, who was magistrate on behalf of the lower orders, were in dispute with each other. After insulting and menacing Megacles at a public assembly, Peisistratus suddenly went away; and after slightly wounding himself, went into the agora the next day, and revealed his wounds to the Athenians. The people were fired with anger and resentment on seeing what he had suffered in their defence, and assigned him a bodyguard of three hundred men. By means of these guards, who always used to appear armed with clubs, Peisistratus became tyrant of Athens, and left his sons as tyrants after his death. [see also: Plutarch, Sol_30]

[22] Aristogeiton.

Aristogeiton, when he was put to torture to force him to name his associates, revealed none of them, but instead he named all the friends of Hippias. And when they had all been put to death by order of Hippias, Aristogeiton taunted him for being duped into punishing his own friends. [see also: Diodorus, 10. 17'2]

[23] Polycrates.

When Polycrates, the tyrant of Samos, infested the Greek seas, he made no distinction in his depredations between the friends and foes. He observed that, if his friends demanded back whatever of their property he had seized, he would have the opportunity of obliging them by returning it to them; and thus bind them even more closely to his cause. But if he took nothing from them, then he would have nothing with which to oblige them. [see also: Diodorus, 10. 16'1]

2 When the Samians offered a public sacrifice in the temple of Hera, they were attended by a procession of men in arms, and a great quantity of weapons was collected for the occasion. Polycrates gave the conduct of the procession to his brothers, Syloson and Pantognostus. As soon as the sacrifice started, most of the men deposited their weapons on the altar, and addressed themselves to prayer.
But the companions of Syloson and Pantagnostus, who were still armed, upon a given signal attacked the others, and each killed those standing by them. Meanwhile Polycrates, at the head of his supporters, occupied the most advantageous places in the city, where he was joined by his brothers and their party, who had promptly forced their way to him from the temple. With these men he fortified and defended himself in the citadel called Astypalaea; until, after receiving reinforcements from Lygdamis, the tyrant of Naxos, he established himself as tyrant of the Samians.

[24] Histiaeus.

While Histiaeus of Miletus was residing at the court of King Dareius in Persia, he formed a plan to incite the Ionians to revolt; but he was at a loss as to how to transmit a letter safely, when all the roads were controlled by the king's guards. He shaved off the head of one of his servants, and inscribed on it the brief message: "Histiaeus to Aristagoras, call for the revolt of Ionia. " As soon as the servant's hair had grown again, he sent him off to Aristagoras. By this means, he passed by the guards without suspicion; and when he reached the coast, he asked to be shaved, and then showed the marks on his head to Aristagoras, who acted as the message instructed, and caused the revolt of Ionia. [see also: Herodotus, 5. 35]

[25] Pittacus.

Pittacus and Phrynon agreed to settle the dispute about the ownership of Sigeium by single combat. In appearance, they both went out to fight with equal weapons; but Pittacus had secretly concealed a net under his shield. He cast the net over Phrynon, and then he easily dragged down his entangled opponent and killed him. It was afterwards wittily remarked that he had captured Sigeium for the Lesbians with a linen net. This stratagem of Pittacus gave rise to the use of nets in duels between gladiators. [see also: Diogenes Laertius, 1. 74]

[26] Bias.

Croesus, the king of Lydia, intended to attack the islands, but was deterred from this plan by Bias of Priene. Bias told the king that the islanders had bought up a great number of horses, so that they might be able to bring a formidable force of cavalry against him. "By Zeus," said the king, "I wish that I could catch those islanders on the continent. " "True," said Bias, "and what do you think they could wish for more, than to catch Croesus upon the seas? " This reply of Bias had the effect of dissuading the king from his intended expedition. [see also: Diodorus, 9. 25'1]

Following Chapters (27-49)

Attalus' home page | 29. 02. 16 | Any comments?

back

Polyaenus: Stratagems
- BOOK 1, Chapters 27-49
Adapted from the translation by R. Shepherd (1793). See key to translations for an explanation of the format.

The Greek text of these chapters is available in archive. org.

CONTENTS: ← Previous Chapters (1-26) ; 27 Gelon ; 28 Theron ; 29 Hieron ; 30 Themistocles ; 31 Aristeides ; 32 Leonidas ; 33 Leotychides ; 34 Cimon ; 35 Myronides ; 36 Pericles ; 37 Cleon ; 38 Brasidas 39 Nicias ; 40 Alcibiades ; 41 Archidamus ; 42 Gylippus ; 43 Hermocrates ; 44 Eteonicus ; 45 Lysander ; 46 Agis ; 47 Thrasyllus ; 48 Conon ; 49 Xenophon

[27] Gelon.

Gelon of Syracuse, the son of Deinomenes, was appointed commander in the war against Himilco the Carthaginian. When he had defeated the enemy by his gallant conduct, he went into the assembly and gave an account of his achievements as general: the expenses of the war, the times, arms, horses and ships. After great praise had been bestowed on him for all of this, he removed his armour, and advanced unarmed into the midst of them. "Thus unarmed," he said, "I present myself to you, so that, if I have ever injured or oppressed any individual amongst you, I may now feel the just resentment of your weapons. " He was answered by the applause of all present, who acclaimed him as the most gallant, the best of all generals. To this he replied, "Then for the future, always take care to choose a similar leader. " But they answered, "We do not have any other such leader. " He was therefore elected general for a second time; which paved the way for him to become tyrant of the Syracusans. [see also: Diodorus, 11. 26'5]

2 When Himilco, king of Carthage, invaded Sicily, Gelon, who was then the tyrant of the Sicilians, marched against him, but did not venture to risk a battle. Instead he put his own clothes on Pediarchus, who was commander of the archers, and very much resembled him in appearance, and ordered Pediarchus to march out of the camp in order to attend a sacrifice on the altars. The band of archers followed him, dressed in white clothes, and carrying myrtle branches in their hands, but with bows secretly concealed under them. They had been ordered to use the bows against Himilco, as soon as they saw him advancing to sacrifice in a similar manner. When Himilco, not suspecting any trickery, came forward to make a sacrifice, a shower of arrows suddenly cut him down, while he was performing the ceremonies and offering libations. [see also: Diodorus, 11. 22'1]

3 In order to overthrow the state of Megara, Gelon invited over to Sicily any of the Dorians who were willing to emigrate. At the same time, he imposed an enormous fine on Diognetus, the ruler of Megara. When Diognetus attempted to raise the money for the fine from his citizens, they refused and joined the colonists at Syracuse, submitting to the power of Gelon.

[28] Theron.

Theron, in a battle against the Carthaginians, put the enemy to flight. But the Sicilians immediately fell to plundering the tents in the enemy's camp, and while they were thus distracted, they were overwhelmed by the Iberians, who had come to the assistance of the Carthaginians. Theron, perceiving the carnage that was likely to follow, dispatched a body of men to wheel behind the camp and set fire to the farthest tents. The enemy, who had lost their tents and now saw the camp on fire, hurried back to their ships; but the Sicilians pursued them closely, and killed most of them before they could board the ships.

2 Theron, the son of Miltiades.

The inhabitants of Selinus had been defeated by the Carthaginians, and the battlefield was covered with their dead. The enemy pursued them so closely, that they did not dare to return to bury the dead, but they were appalled to leave them neglected and unburied. In this emergency, Theron promised that, if they would provide him with three hundred servants who could cut wood, he would march out with them, burn the dead and erect a tomb for them. "If we fail in our attempt," he continued, "and fall victim to the enemy, the city will not suffer much from the death of one citizen, and three hundred slaves. " The inhabitants of Selinus agreed to his proposal, and allowed him to choose the slaves whom he wanted. Accordingly, he chose those whom he judged to be to most active and sturdy, and led them forth, armed with bill-hooks, hatchets, and axes, under pretence of cutting wood for the funeral pyre. But after they had advanced a little distance from the city, Theron persuaded them to revolt against their masters, and late in the evening marched them back to the city. When they made themselves known to the guards, they were readily admitted, but as soon as they had entered, he cut down the guards. Then, having slain in their beds those citizens who were most likely to thwart his designs, he seized the city and made himself tyrant of Selinus.

[29] Hieron.

When the enemy prepared to dispute his passage over a river, Hieron posted his hoplites at the place where he intended to ford it; and ordered the cavalry and light infantry to advance further up, under pretence of crossing it at another point. When the enemy observed this, they similarly marched their troops further up, in order to thwart his supposed intention. Meanwhile Hieron effected a crossing with his hoplites, easily overwhelming the small force which the enemy had left to oppose them. As soon as he had crossed to the other side, he raised a signal to the cavalry and light infantry, who immediately returned and crossed the river at the first point, where Hieron and his hoplites were able to repel the enemy's attacks.

2 Whenever Hieron, during his wars with the Italians, took any prisoners who were particularly eminent or wealthy, he would not permit them to be immediately ransomed, but always retained them for some time with him, treating them politely and with every mark of honour. Afterwards, when he had received a ransom, he would courteously dismiss them. As a result of these clear signs of favour, they were suspected from that time onwards of secretly supporting the cause of Hieron.

[30] Themistocles.

The Athenians were disheartened by receiving the following oracle:
Salamis divine, you will cause the death of many women's children.
But Themistocles cleverly interpreted it as referring to their enemies. "The oracle," he said, "could never refer to Salamis as divine, if it were to prove the cause of destruction to the youth of Greece. " This explanation revived the courage and resolution of the Athenians, and their victory proved its veracity. [see also: Herodotus, 7. 142-143]

2 The people were convinced by Themistocles' explanation of another, equally obscure oracle:
Zeus will give a wall of wood to Tritogeneia.
When most of the Athenians thought they had been instructed to fortify their towers, Themistocles told them to man their triremes. "For these," he said, "O Athenians, are your wooden walls. " His words had their effect. The Athenians embarked, engaged with the enemy, and overcame them. [see also: Herodotus, 7. 141]

3 While the fleet was stationed near Salamis, the Greeks were almost unanimous in favour of retreating, but Themistocles urged them to stay and risk a battle in the narrow seas. As he was unable to convince them, he secretly sent Sicinnus, a eunuch who was tutor to his sons, by night to inform the king that the Greek intended to withdraw; "but", he added, "you should pre-empt them by forcing a battle. " The king followed the eunuch's advice, and attacked the Greek fleet; but the narrowness of the strait rendered the vast number of his ships a hindrance, rather than a help to him. Thus by a clever stratagem of their commander, the Greeks obtained a victory, even against their own inclinations. [see also: Herodotus, 8. 75]

4 The Greeks, after their victory at Salamis, decided to sail to the Hellespont, in order to destroy the bridge, and cut off the king's retreat. Themistocles opposed this plan, saying that if the king was prevented from retreating, he would be forced to renew the battle; and despair is often found to effect what courage has failed to achieve. Therefore he sent Arsaces, another eunuch, to inform the king that unless he retreated quickly, he would find that the bridge over the Hellespont had been demolished. Alarmed at this information, the king promptly marched to the Hellespont, and crossed the bridge before the Greeks could carry out their plan. In this way Themistocles allowed the Greeks to enjoy their victory, without risking a second battle. [see also: Herodotus, 8. 110]

5 When the Athenians first began to fortify their city with walls, the Laconians were greatly annoyed, but Themistocles found a means to deceive them by a clever stratagem. He was sent as an envoy to Sparta, and there he confidently denied that the walls were being constructed. "But," he added, "if you are not convinced by my words, send your best men to find out the truth, and in the meantime keep me here as your prisoner. " The Spartans agreed to do this; but Themistocles secretly sent a messenger to the Athenians, with strict instructions to detain any investigators who came to Athens, while the walls were being constructed; and after that, not to allow them to depart until the Spartans had released him. Accordingly, the walls were completed; Themistocles then returned home, the investigators were released, and Athens was fortified, against the will of the Lacedaemonians. [see also: Plutarch, Them_19]

6 During the war against the Aeginetans, Themistocles opposed the plan of the Athenians to distribute amongst themselves a hundred talents, which was the produce of their silver mines; he proposed that they should give a talent to each of a hundred of the wealthiest citizens. If the people were satisfied with the way that the money was spent, then it should be reckoned as coming out of the public account; but if not, then the contributions should be returned to the city. This proposal was accepted; and the hundred citizens without delay each fitted out a splendid trireme. The Athenians found themselves suddenly furnished with a powerful fleet, which they employed not only against the Aeginetans, but also against the Persians. [see also: Aristotle, AthPol_22'7]

7 When the Ionians fought under Xerxes in alliance with the Persians, Themistocles instructed the Greeks to have this inscription placed on the (? ) sides of their ships: "O impious Ionians, thus to fight against your fathers! " This message caused the king to distrust the loyalty of the Ionians. [see also: Herodotus, 8. 22]

8 Themistocles, when he was escaping from the resentment of the Athenians, embarked for Ionia, without making himself known to the master of the ship. But the vessel was forced by a storm to Naxos, which was at that time being attacked by the Athenians. Themistocles in alarm went to the master, and revealed who he was. At the same time, he threatened that, if the master allowed him to be captured, he would accuse him to the Athenians of having been bribed to transport him to Ionia. For the common safety of both of them, he therefore proposed that no-one should be permitted to set foot on shore. Terrified by these menaces, the master insisted that everyone remained on board; and put out again to sea as quickly as was possible. [see also: Thucydides, 1. 137]

[31] Aristeides.

Aristeides and Themistocles, who were inveterate enemies, were at the head of opposing factions in the state; but when the Persians marched against the Athenians, they went out of the city together, and grasping each other's hand, announced, "Here we leave our former disputes, and lay aside our mutual animosity, until we have put an end to the war in which we are engaged against Persia. " After this solemn declaration, loosing their hands, they filled up the ditch nearby, as if they had buried their enmity there; and they continued to co-operate throughout the whole course of the war. This harmony in the conduct of the generals did great damage to the enemy, and secured the victory for themselves.

[32] Leonidas.

Leonidas fought the Persian army at Thermopylae, where the narrowness of the pass made the great superiority of the enemy's forces of little use to them. [see also: Diodorus, 11. 6'4]

2 Shortly before a battle, Leonidas noticed that the clouds looked thick and lowering. He turned about to his officers, and told them not to be surprised at the thunder and lightning, which he observed from the appearance of the sky must be expected very soon. The army of Leonidas, thus forewarned of the phenomenon before it occurred, advanced confidently to battle. But the enemy, terrified and dispirited by the menaces of the elements, were easily defeated.

3 Leonidas, who had made a raid into the enemy's territory, dispatched small groups in different directions, with orders, upon a given signal, to fell trees and set fire to the villages. At sight of this, those who were in the city imagined that the enemy's forces were much more numerous than they really were, and did not venture out to confront them, but allowed them to carry off the spoil unmolested.

[33] Leotychides.

In a naval battle near Mycale, Leotychides observed that the Greeks were alarmed at the great superiority of the enemy's forces. He devised the following means of detaching the Ionians from their support of the Medes; which he knew they did more through fear, than inclination. He pretended that a dispatch had arrived, with information of a victory obtained by the Greeks over the Persians at Plataea. Encouraged by this news, the Ionians joined the Greeks; and fortune afterwards gave the sanction of truth to this stratagem, because the Greeks did indeed win a victory at Plataea. [see also: Diodorus, 11. 35'2]

[34] Cimon.

After Cimon had defeated the king's satraps at the river Eurymedon, he manned the many ships, which he had captured, with Greeks who were dressed in the style of Medes, and sent them to Cyprus. The Cyprians, deceived by the barbarian clothes, readily received the fleet as friends and allies. But no sooner were they safe on shore, than they revealed very plainly that they were Greeks; and made themselves masters of the island, more by the sudden consternation into which the Cyprians were thrown, than by the force which was employed against them. [see also: Diodorus, 11. 61'7]

2 Cimon, having carried off many captives from Sestus and Byzantium, was, at the request of the allies, appointed to distribute them. He assigned the captives, stripped of their possessions, to be one part of the spoils; the other was made up of trousers, cloaks, bracelets and other such things. The allies then chose to take the ornaments, and the Athenians contented themselves with the naked captives. Cimon was ridiculed for having made, as was thought, so unequal a division, and allowing the allies to choose much the better portion. Shortly afterwards, the friends and relations of the captives arrived from Lydia and Phrygia, and redeemed them for very large ransoms. The foresight of Cimon, and the advantageous arrangement he had made, then became clear; and Athenians returned the ridicule upon the allies. [see also: Plutarch, Cim_9]

[35] Myronides.

The Athenian and Theban armies confronted each other. Myronides, the Athenian general, ordered his men, as soon as the signal for battle was given, to begin the charge from the left. After he had led them for a short time in the charge, he suddenly advanced to the right wing, calling out, "We are victorious in the left. " When they heard the word "victorious", the Athenian took fresh courage, and charged the enemy with redoubled fury. The Thebans, on the other hand, were dismayed by the news of their defeat, and abandoned the battlefield to the enemy. [see also: Frontinus, Str_2. 4'11]

2 When Myronides was leading the Athenians against Thebes, and was about to advance to battle, he ordered them to ground their arms, and look at the country around them. When they had done so, he said, "Observe what a wide plain this is; and what a large number of cavalry the enemy have in it. If we run away, the cavalry will undoubtedly overtake us; but if we stand like men, there are the fairest hopes of victory. " By these words, he convinced them of the necessity of holding their ground; and advanced as far as the territories of Phocis and Locris. [see also: Frontinus, Str_4. 7'21]

[36] Pericles.

The Lacedaemonians were ravaging Attica. In order to divert their operations, by carrying the war into their own country, Pericles fitted out some Athenian triremes with orders to lay waste the coast of Laconia; and thus he retaliated for the injuries the Athenians had sustained, by committing greater damage upon the enemy. [see also: Thucydides, 1. 143]

2 Archidamus, who had formerly been a friend and acquaintance of Pericles, invaded Attica. Pericles, who was very rich and had large estates, suspected that on account of their former friendship, Archidamus might not allow his property to be ravaged in the same way as the rest. In order to avoid the suspicion of the Athenians, before the devastation began, he went into the assembly and publicly donated all his possessions to the city. [see also: Thucydides, 2. 13]

[37] Cleon.

By means of a lucky discovery, Cleon betrayed Sestus to the Abydenes without risking a battle. Theodorus, a friend of his, who was commander of the watch in the city, was having an affair with a woman in the suburbs. Theodorus observed that a narrow aqueduct passed through the walls. By removing a stone, he made a hole through which he went to visit his mistress; and on his return, he replaced the stone in its usual position, and continued his affair in secret. Once, when wine and mirth had loosed his tongue, he revealed his intrigue to his friend Cleon. Cleon immediately informed the Abydenes; and on a dark night, when Theodorus had removed the stone and was dallying with his mistress, he brought in some of the enemy through the aqueduct. These, after they had slain the watch, opened the gates to the rest of the enemy, who easily made themselves masters of Sestus.

[38] Brasidas.

When Amphipolis, which was under Athenian protection, had been betrayed to Brasidas, he ordered the gates to be shut. Then he threw the keys over the wall, so that, not being able to open the gates again to the enemy that besieged the place, they would be forced to rely on a vigorous defence.

2 Brasidas was attacked near Amphipolis, and hemmed in on a rough craggy hill. To prevent his escape, the enemy raised a high wall of stone round the hill. The Laconians urged their general to lead them out to battle, and not to let them be cooped up until they perished from famine. But Brasidas ignored their protests, and told them that he knew best what was the proper time for battle. When the enemy had extended their wall round most of the hill, and only one place was left open, like a pass into a spacious lawn, he gave orders for battle, saying that this was the time for them to show their bravery. By a vigorous sally, they forced a passage through, with great slaughter of the enemy and little loss to themselves. The narrowness of the entrance was of no inconvenience to the small number of their forces, while the wall secured them from an attack on their rear. Thus the enemy's numbers were rendered useless, and the Laconians effected a safe retreat. [see also: Frontinus, Str_1. 5'23]

3 When Brasidas had advanced secretly to Amphipolis and found everything there in confusion, he judged it sensible not to risk a battle with enemy forces who would be inflamed by despair. He issued a proclamation, promising safety to the Athenians, if they would agree to a truce with him and then retreat with their own property. And to the citizens of Amphipolis he made another proposal, that they could retain their freedom, if they entered into a strict alliance with the Lacedaemonians. The terms of the proclamations were accepted by the Athenians, who withdrew their forces; the citizens of Amphipolis willingly became allies of the Lacedaemonians, and Brasidas gained control of their city. [see also: Thucydides, 4. 105]

4 When Brasidas intended to sail to Scione by night, he ordered a trireme to be manned, and sail before him, while he followed in a light vessel; so that if the trireme was attacked by a larger vessel, the light vessel could come to its assistance; but if it was attacked by another trireme, Brasidas could sail on and arrive safely at Scione. [see also: Thucydides, 4. 120]

5 When the enemy were harassing on the Lacedaemonians' rear in a narrow defile, Brasidas ordered his men to cut down large quantities of wood as they marched, and to pile it in heaps. Then he set the wood on fire, so that the flames spread far around; thus he secured his rear, and effected a safe retreat.

[39] Nicias.

Nicias sailed by night to the mountain Solyges, which is in the territory of Corinth. There he landed his Athenian forces, and a thousand other troops, and posted them in ambush in different places. Then he returned to Athens, and the next morning as soon as it was light he set sail openly for Corinth. The Corinthians promptly advanced to oppose him, and to dispute his landing; but the Athenians suddenly arose from their ambush, and totally defeated the enemy. [see also: Thucydides, 4.