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548
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
the transepts of the Jami' Masjid ' at Jaunpur, where the application
of the waggon vault and groin had been already mastered. But the
pillared cloisters in two stories with their lintels and carved brackets
are reminiscent of the palaces of Fathpur Sikri. There is much that
is original in the temples of Brindaban, but in few other Hindu
buildings is the influence of the prevailing style of the Muslims more
obvious than in the temple of Govind Deo.
Yet the secular architecture also of the Hindus did not remain
unaffected by the building activities of Akbar and his succesors, as
is shown by several palaces and other important structures erected
in Rajputana and Malwa about this time. Chief among these are the
royal residences and other state buildings in the romantic city of
Amber which were begun about 1600, and the palace of Bikaner, also
begun towards the end of the sixteenth century. These were followed
by the palace-fortresses of Jodhpur and Orchha, with the stately palace
of Datia, all dating from the early part of the seventeenth century,
and finally by the palace at Dig commenced about 1725. All these
palatial retreats of the Rajput princes show by their style an associa-
tion with the building art as evolved by the Mughuls, but with
elaborations of their own. Apart from the richness of their decoration,
they display a fancifulness expressive of the imaginative Hindu mind,
together with evidences of a survival of the ancient craft traditions
of the country. This Mughul foundation breaking out into Hindu
exuberance is well illustrated in its most florid aspect by the Durbar
buildings of Amber (Fig. 47), and perhaps with slightly more restraint
by the fluted pavilions of the citadel at Jodhpur. It is not difficult
to see in such buildings how the stone structures of the early Mughuls
by the addition of engrailed arches, glass mosaics, painted plaster,
gilded gesso and sgraffito were adapted to the more colourful require-
nients of the Hindu princes.
After the death of Akbar in 1605 there was a pause in the building
operations of the Mughuls. The strenuous and unceasing activity of
this great building monarch was followed by a period of partial
inertia. His successor's chief interests lay in fields other than that of
architecture. Under Jahangir the art of miniature painting fourished
exceedingly, and owing to his patronage it reached great heights.
But perhaps this emperor's principal delight was in the laying out
of large formal gardens, the romantic beauty of which has contri-
buted not a little to the aesthetic reputation of the Mughul dynasty.
Babur had already introduced this type of garden in India by
devising the Ram Bagh at Agra, and Akbar had a similar large
enclosure planted at Sikandra, where afterwards he planned his
tomb. Through Jahangir's love of nature, inherited from his pro-
genitor Babur, the Mughul garden was brought to perfection, and
at all places where this emperor sojourned for any length of time one
1 See vol, di, p. 628.
I


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MUGHUL GARDENS
849
of these pleasaunces was generally prepared. Some of his courtiers
also built retreats of this kind, as for instance Asaf Khan's Nishat
Bagh in Kashmir, and, later, the emperor Shah Jahan had a very
large one constructed at Shalamar near Lahore. The Mughul garden
is û conventional arrangement of squares, usually in the form of
terraces placed on a slope for the easy distribution of the water which
is an essential part of the scheme. Each terrace is divided into four
lesser squares in order to conform to the traditional plan of what is
known as the char bagh or fourfold plot, the whole being a combina-
tion of rectangles and straight lines, no curved paths or even circular
parterres being found. Artificial pools with numerous fountains play
an important part in the composition, while in an inconspicuous spot
a bath or hammam is sometimes introduced. Pavilions occupy central
positions, and the flagged causeways are shaded by avenues of
trees. One of the loveliest of these gardens is the Shalamar Bagh
in Kashmir constructed by Jahangir, which, however, owes not a
little of its charm to the wonderful situation with a background
of mountains and a view over the crystal waters of the Dal lake.
Immense chanar trees grace its walks and green swards, water ripples
and cascades down its sloping channels, lotus-bud fountains dance
in the sunshine and beds of flowers give colour and fragrance to the
whole.
It was in the production of scenes of this kind that the emperor
Jahangir excelled, but nevertheless his predecessor had given such
an impetus to the art of significant building that in spite of any
indifference he may have shown towards the subject, it was carried
along by its own momentum. The incentive was in a manner
supplied by a solemn obligation laid upon Jahangir, namely the
construction of his august father's mausoleum. Whether Akbar or his
son was responsible for the design of this structure is not clear, but
that practically the whole of the actual building was carried out in
Jahangir's reign is now fairly well established. The site, which was
on a garden prepared by Akbar at Sikandra near Agra, and also
very probably some idea of the design of the tomb, were settled
before his death. In all his building schemes, although some of these
may have been fanciful, Akbar made no serious mistakes, and it is
singular that the least successful monument associated with his name
is his mausoleum. The inference is that had this “Great Moghul"
taken the precaution of erecting his tomb in his own lifetime the result
might have been different. Under Jahangir's spasmodic supervision,
which on occasion looked like undue interference, and with his
dilettante temperament, the final state of the structure is perhaps
largely due. Jahangir had a trained eye for a picture, but not a
mind that could understand the largeness and breadth required for
architectural effect. When on one of his hasty visits to Sikandra he
relates that he was not satisfied with the work, and ordered the


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650
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
mason “once more to knock down some parts”, some of the reasons
for its defects may be apparent.
Spatial effect is the key-note of Akbar's tomb, and the great square
garden with which it is surrounded emphasises this quality. This
garden, itself an important accessory to the composition as a whole,
is a formal arrangement of squares, but much of its original intention
is now lost. It was divided into four quarters by broad paved cause-
ways raised 8 feet above the surrounding parterres. The sweep of
each of these wide approaches is interrupted in the middle by being
expanded into a terrace containing an ornamental tank and fountain.
Aqueducts traverse these causeways, and in convenient places flights
of steps lead down to flower beds at a lower level. A fine gateway
is introduced into the centre of each side of the high embattled wall
enclosing the whole garden area, that on the south side and the
largest of all forming the main entrance, the others being false door-
ways added to ensure symmetry. Each of these portals is a minor
monument in itself, as they are charmingly proportioned and the
variety of their carved, painted and inlaid decoration makes each
one a work of art. Specially does this apply to the main entrance,
which, apart from its elegant appearance and the boldness of the
arabesques decorating its surfaces, is distinguished by the addition
of a tall white marble minaret rising from each of its four corners.
The presence of these minarets marks a notable step in the develop-
ment of Islamic architecture in Hindustan, as in no other instance
does this characteristic feature appear in upper India since the
erection of the Qutb Minar four centuries previously. And here it
emerges, not as an experiment, but fully developed with all its parts
in perfect harmony and in exact and final form.
The mausoleum building itself is a huge structure occupying a
square of 340 feet side, and consists of five terraces diminishing as
they ascend, thus approximating a low truncated pyramid. Muslim
tombs in India are invariably designed on the plan of a crypt in
which the body is buried, and a building above containing the tomb-
chamber with its cenotaph. As might be expected in view of Akbar's
unconventional nature his tomb is a departure from this orthodox
arrangement. Instead of the subterranean vault there is a high
domed hall, almost on ground level, which takes the place of crypt
and tomb-chamber combined. Around this domed hall was built
the lowest terrace, a stupendous mass of masonry 30 feet high, and
almost solid except for a range of cloisters continued all round its
outer sides. Externally, as part of the facade, these outer sides of
the terrace are arcaded, and in the centre of each is inserted a large
portico with a deeply recessed archway. The portico on the south
side forms the entrance to the domed mortuary chamber, which is
reached by a long and slightly descending corridor, light being
admitted through clerestory windows by means of shafts from above.


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TOMBS OF AKBAR AND JAHANGIR
551
The roof of this terrace provides a wide platform, in the centre of
which rises the superstructure comprising the four remaining storeys.
Three of these storeys consist of superimposed tiers of pillared arcades
and kiosks built mainly of red sandstone. The arcades lead to ranges
of rooms in the interior, but they also act as a façade to the masonry
which encloses the dome of the mortuary chamber below. Supported
on these rows of sandstone arcades is the topmost storey of white
marble, its perforated lattices forming the cloisters of an open court
with a cenotaph in the centre; each corner of this storey is surmounted
by a slender marble kiosk.
Although there is much that calls for admiration in this vast
structure, particularly in the treatment of its final storey, which for
delicacy and finish is unsurpassed in any other Mughul monument,
as a whole it is disappointing. It is unimpressive because it lacks
the quality of mass which is one of the principles of beauty, and
of coherence which is the basis of style. The lowest terrace is a noble
conception, substantial yet not heavy, a suitable foundation inviting
an imposing superstructure to be erected on its broad platform. But
the opportunity was not taken. Instead of a solid and dignified
building above, consistent with this ponderous base, there arises a
light and almost frivolous array of arcades and kiosks, more appro-
priate in a summer palace than forming the principal part of a royal
mausoleum. Here it may have been that Jahangir interposed,
ordered what had previously been approved to be demolished and
"reconstructed at a cost of fifteen lakhs of rupees". It was at this
critical stage that those concerned in the production of the building
seem to have become confused and lost their aesthetic propriety in a
maze of little arches, balconies and pillared pavilions. They recap-
tured it in the chaste and elegantly designed marble storey above,
but by that time it was too late to present this ambitious monument
as a complete and balanced unity.
Much the same criticism applies to Jahangir's own mausoleum
built at Shahdara near Lahore some twenty years later, which is
conceived on somewhat similar lines. But it lacks even the lofty
effect of the earlier example, as there is no superstructure, the body
of the building consisting of a single story in the form of a square
terrace 22 feet high. It is true some appearance of height is obtaincd
by a handsome minaret rising from each corner, and there was
originally a marble pavilion placed in the middle of the platform
above, which, when in situ, would have offered a central point of
interest. Now shorn of this feature, which was removed during the
Sikh supremacy, the whole composition is singularly ineffective.
Efforts were made to improve its appearance by the lavish applica-
tion of inlaid marbles, glazed tiles, and painted patterns, some of
which are remarkably good examples of mural decoration, but no
amount of embellishment of this nature can redeem its obvious


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552
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
architectural defects. As a contrast to the somewhat affected
grandeur of both these royal mausoleums, and also as a proof that
probably under less exacting conditions the craftsmen of the time
were capable of first-rate workmanship, are two tombs erected
towards the end of Jahangir's reign, one at Delhi and the other at
Agra. Apart from the high character of their design both of these
structures mark a definite stage in the evolution of the style, and
forecast plainly its subsequent attainments. The tomb of Khan
Khanan at Delhi, a nobleman who died in 1627, shows a return to
the Persian mode initiated in the mausoleum of Humayun some sixty
years before. Unfortunately in the eighteenth century it was stripped
of much of its marble covering, so that now it is little more than a
shell, but even in a mutilated state it is possible to see that in many
of its particulars it is a copy to a smaller scale of the emperor's tomb
near by. In one notable respect it differs, however, from its proto-
type, in that the wings of the façade have been simplified so that the
plan, instead of being octagonal, is a plain square; in all other direc-
lions both designs are almost identical. Each stands on a terrace
with seventeen arched recesses on each side. The mausoleum building
which rises above the platform formed by the terrace has much the
same distribution of parts in both examples; there is the large central
arched recess, the arrangement of kiosks above, and the double
Timurid dome over all. The tomb of Khan Khanan therefore indi-
cates that the Persian attribution even after this considerable passage
of time was still definitely alive (Fig. 58).
The other tomb of this date, that enshrining the remains of
I'timad-ud-daula at Agra, is a very different conception. It was
built by this high official's daughter Nur Mahall, the brilliant con-
sort of Jahangir, who, it should be added, was also responsible for
the construction of that emperor's mausoleum at Shahdara. No two
buildings could be more dissimilar, and the wide divergence of style
seems to show that while on the one hand the royal tomb of Shahdara
was no doubt originally planned by Jahangir himself, the tomb at
Agra bears in every part of it the imprint of the refined feminism
of this remarkable queen. There is no other building like it in the
entire range of Mughul architecture, the delicacy of treatment and
the chaste quality of its decoration placing it in a class by itself.
It is a comparatively small structure, the tomb building measures
only 69 feet wide, and as it is constructed in the purest white marble
with much of its ornamentation of inlaid semi-precious stones it
conveys the impression of a rich article of jewellery magnified into
architecture. Situated in the middle of a square enclosure, recalling
in some respects the pleasant repose of a cloister garth, this brilliant
little edifice stands out in strong contrast to its surroundings of dark
cypress trees and red sandstone gateways. The latter in themselves
are charmingly designed entrances, notably that on the western side
>


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BUILDINGS IN WHITE MARBLE
553
by which the mausoleum is approached from the river (Fig. 55).
All these essential appendages are in the best of taste and skilfully
subordinated to the marble edifice enthroned in the centre amidst
parterres, tanks and fountains. The mausoleum consists of a square
lower storey with a gracefully proportioned turret like a dwarf
minaret thrown out from each corner, while above a smaller second
storey rises in the form of a traceried pavilion; the interior is a simple
arrangement of a central chamber containing the cenotaphs, sur-
rounded by connected rooms corresponding to an enclosed verandah.
Light everywhere is obtained through perforated screens, a “gossamer
of fretted grilles" which give an exquisite texture to all the openings.
And over the whole, delicately modifying the dazzling effect of the
white marble, is laid with deft fingers a diaphanous veil of coloured
inlay in patterns of bewildering diversity. Whether regarded as an
architectural composition of matchless refinement, as an example of
applied art displaying rare craftsmanship, or as an artistic symbol
of passionate filial devotion, the tomb of I'timad-ud-daula expresses
in every part of it the high aesthetic ideals that prevailed among
the Mughuls at the time. But this building in addition to its intrinsic
beauty has another interest. It is the first structure of the Mughuls
to be composed entirely of white marble, and also the first in which
that form of inlaid decoration known as pietra dura makes its ap-
pearance. In its technical aspect therefore it denotes a turning-point
in the evolution of the building art, marking the change from the
sandstone construction and opus sectile ornamentation which satisfied
the simpler taste of Akbar and Jahangir to the sumptuous white
marble pavilions and pietra dura of Shah Jahan.
Augustus's boast that he found Rome of brick and left it of marble
has its counterpart in the building productions of Shah Jahan, who
found the Mughul cities of sandstone and left them of marble. In the
forts of Agra and Lahore, and at other places besides, this emperor
swept away many of the sandstone structures of his predecessors and
in their places erected marble palaces. The quarries of Makrana in
Rajputana provided unlimited supplies of this finely textured building
material, so that pavilions, courts and columned halls were all con-
structed in pure white marble; when for various reasons this was not
made use of the stone which took its place was faced with stucco,
the plastered surfaces being polished to an egg-shell whiteness in
keeping with the marble masonry. Such a definite change of material
naturally implied a corresponding change in architectural treatment.
The building art acquired a new sensibility. Instead of the rectangular
character of the previous period there arose the curved line and
flowing rhythm of the style of Shah Jahan, while the chisel of the
stone carver was replaced by the finer instruments of the marble
cutter and polisher. No longer was effect dependent on bold string-
courses and intricate carving; the chaste texture of the marble itseif


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534
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
--
-
was sufficient to give quality to any building, and any relief decora-
tion required to be of the most refined order and sparingly applied.
Variety of surface was obtained by panels in correct proportions
outlined by mouldings fine and rare in their contours. Most of the
ornamentation was, however, of a much more subtle nature, colour
and gilding being introduced, while patterns inlaid in semi-precious
stones—the pietra dura already mentioned—were a special feature.
But perhaps the most striking innovation was the change in the shape
of the arch, which in almost all buildings of Shah Jahan's reign is
foliated or cusped in its outlines, so that white marble arcades of
engrailed arches became the distinguishing characteristic of the
period. During the governance of this emperor, Mughul architec-
ture undoubtedly found its golden age. Of a highly artistic nature
he satisfied his desires by the building of sumptuous edifices of all
kinds, not waiting to complete one piece of self-expression before
committing himself to another. All other forms of culture not
dependent on the mason's art, such as literature, the school of
miniature painting encouraged by Akbar and Jahangir, and similar
intellectual pursuits, were disregarded, his entire patronage being
concentrated on building. And it was building of the most sensuous,
even voluptuous order. The productions of his predecessors were
looked upon as almost barbaric, the court chronicler comparing
certain of their "abominations" with the masterpieces of “this august
reign, when. . . lovely things reached the zenith of perfection". 1
At
Agra and Lahore the palaces within the forts were largely recon-
structed, and all the cities of the Mughuls display examples of Shah
Jahan's building predilections. In the fort at Agra the greatest
changes are recorded, the whole of the structures north of the
Jahangiri Mahall being dismantled and their places taken by marble
edifices such as the Diwan-i-Am, Diwan-i-Khass, the Khass Mahall,
the Shish Mahall, the Musamman Burj, the Anguri Bagh, the Machhi
Bhawan and the Moti Masjid. Details of all these alterations and
additions are to be found in contemporary accounts written in the
flowery language of the time. But even the most ardent flatterer,
trained in poetical analogies, could barely do justice to the surpassing
beauty of some of these structures, which in spite of vicissitudes still
hold their own as the most elegant of their kind. What could be
more graceful than the hall of the Diwan-i-Khass with its series
of double columns, or the Musamman Burj hanging like a fairy
bower over the grim ramparts? Even these, however, are excelled
by the peerless refinement of the Moti Masjid or "Pearl Mosque".
one of Shah Jahan's latest additions, as it was erected in 1654 when
the art had attained its ripest state. Few religious edifices convey
to the beholder a finer sense of purity than this chapel royal,
which both on account of the flawless quality of its material, and
1 Badshah Nama, I, 221.


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DELHI FORT
555
the skilfully modulated disposition of its elements, represents the
Mughul style at its zenith. The subordination and contrast of the
entrar. ce archways to the arcading of the sanctuary, the proportions
and arrangement of the kiosks surmounting the cornices, and,
notably, the subtle raising of the drum of the central dome in relation
to those on each side, are a few only of the aspects of this structure
which show in the most emphatic manner that the principles of
balance and rhythm were by this time thoroughly appreciated by
the Mughul builders.
Similar alterations were effected by Shah Jahan in the interior
arrangements of the fort at Lahore, where this ruler's additions
mainly in marble may be readily distinguished from the sandstone
structures of his predecessors. The "Hall of Forty Pillars", now called
the Diwan-i-'Am, the Musamman Burj, including the Shish Mahall,
the Naulakha, the Khwabgah, and all the buildings towards the
north-west portion, were erected at this time. But the remodelling
of the palaces of his forefathers did not satisfy the ardent building
propensities of Shah Jahan, and accordingly in 1638 he began at
Delhi the construction of an entirely new capital city of his own.
Within its walls was to be included a large citadel or palace-fortress,
the whole resting on the right bank of the Jumna. No regular plan
seems to have been followed in working out this scheme, except that
the city is roughly in the shape of a quadrant with the fortress at its
apex overlooking the river. Two wide thoroughfares radiate from
the main gates of the fortress to those in the city walls, and in the
angle thus formed was placed the Jami' Masjid. As a contrast to
this apparently casual lay-out of the walled city, the fort itself is a
fairly orderly production in the shape of a parallelogram running
north and south, with its corners chamfered and its northern side
set at an angle to accommodate the existing fortress of Salimgarn,
which then became a barbican to the newer construction. The rect-
angle thus formed measures 1600 feet by 3200 feet and is enclosed
by a formidable wall of the same type as that at Agra fort, but lacking
its bold rugged strength; within this area the designers proceeded
to plot out the interior arrangements under the personal supervision
of the emperor himself. These arrangements included such essential
requirements as three entrances consisting of a ceremonial, a private,
and a river gateway; barracks for the guard, and accommodation
for the immense retinue attached to the court, together with shops
and similar facilities for their personal convenience; an official por.
tion for public and private durbars and afiairs of state; a private
enclosure to contain the palaces of the emperor and the residences
of te royal family, with ornamental gardens attached; royal stora
rooms, regalia chambers, kitchens, horse and elephant stables, and
other 'miror amenities appertaining to the imperial establishment.
It is possible to see in the typical disposition of these requirements


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556
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
-
within the fortified area traces of very early traditions, beginning
with the palaces of the Assyrians, through those of Ecbatana, Susa,
Persepolis, and, then further west, to the palace of Diocletian at
Spalato, the resemblance of which to a Mughul palace-fort points
to a common origin. The hypostyle hall of ancient Persia may well
be the prototype of the hall of audience of the Mughuls, which in its
turn suggests the Roman forum, for in all these rectangular pillared
courts it was customary to transact judicial and political business.
Turning again to the east in ancient India the Mauryas copied at
Pataliputra the columned halls of the Achaemenid Persians, and
much of Dhammapala's description of Asoka's palace of the third
century B. C. might apply to Shah Jahan's fortress at Delhi.
This magnificent royal residence, the last and finest of its kind, is
unique because the whole of it was the conception of one mind, and
carried out on a systematic and uniform plan. The scheme of this
plan was an arrangement of rectangles, generally squares, no curved
or oblique lines being introduced, in accordance with that quadran-
gular convention so deeply rooted in the Mughul mind. Immediately
within the main gate a large space was divided off to contain the
habitations of the palace retinue, who although residing within an
enclosure assigned to them, would thus have easy access to both the
city outside and the palace within. Through this service area a wide
vaulted passage led directly from the main gate to the official portion,
admission to which was obtained through the naubat khana or music
gatehouse. This official portion, occupying a large rectangle in the
centre of the fort, consisted of an arcaded courtyard with the columned
hall of the Diwan-i-Am at the far side, where affairs of an official
nature were administered. Around this central enclosure the entire
area remaining was reserved for the accommodation and personal
use of the royal household, including also the Diwan-i-Khass where
private audiences were held. One half of this private part was
occupied by the residences and living rooms of the emperor's family,
while the corresponding space on the other side was divided up into
a series of formal gardens. And along the whole length of the re-
taining wall overlooking the river was aligned that range of marble
pavilions and palaces each one more chaste than the other, proving
by their combined beauty the truth of the couplet with which one
of them is inscribed, that “if there is a paradise on earth, it is this,
it is this, it is this".
Although there is much that is very fine in the external appearance
of this fortress as a whole with its steep insurmountable defences
and strong but elegantly designed gateways, the highest skill of its
architects was undoubtedly expended on the design, construction
and decorative treatment of this range of royal palaces, together with
the Diwan-i-'Am. Each of the palaces on its side looking into the
fort was fronted by a garden divided into parterres by watercourses


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FOUNTAINS AND GARDENS
557
with an ornamental fountain in the middle, while on their outer side
they crowned the sandstone ramparts with a succession of turrets,
kiosks, gilt domes, hanging balconies, oriel windows, arcades and
perforated screens, which if not exactly orderly in their arrangement,
were remarkably picturesque and breathed the very spirit of romance.
Along this wall there were something like twelve separate pavilions,
all connected with one another and each designed for a different
purpose and bearing a distinctive name, such as the Moti Mahall or
"Pearl Palace", the Hira Mahall or "Diamond Palace", and the
Rang Mahall or "Painted Palace". The style of each is much the
same, although there is a pleasing variety of plan, each consisting
of a single-storeyed hall usually open on all sides, divided into bays
by massive piers and the roof supported by foliated arches. Above
are flat coffered ceilings at one time plated with silver or gilt, and
the piers, walls and all interior surfaces are decorated either with
inlay, low relief carving or patterns in colour and gold. The floors
are paved with marble, and provision is made for a system of aque-
ducts to pass along the entire length of the buildings, partly to supply
water for the numerous hammams, but with the main object of adding
to each apartment all the refreshing accompaniments of a water-
palace. A constant supply of water was obtained by tapping the
river Jumna at a point seventy miles up stream and bringing it by
canal to the fort, where its inlet was at the northern angle. Here the
Nahr-i-Bihisht, or "Stream of Paradise", as it was called, entered by
a scalloped marble cascade in the open central arcade by the Shah
Burj or "King's Tower", and from there was distributed by stone
or marble channels in all the required directions. In some of the
pavilions it was diverted into fountains, the finest of which is the
one completely filling the central compartment of the Rang Mahall
(Fig. 72), and, in the words of Sayyid Ahmad, its
beauty baffles description. It is made of marble and fashioned in such a way
that it resembles a full blown flower,. . . yet it is of little depth. . . just like the
palm of a hand. The particular beauty of this is that, when it is full of rippling
water, the foliage of the inlay appears to wave to and fro. In its centre is a
beautiful flower like a cup of marble; moreover, on each curving point and
arched cusp, flowers and leaves of coloured stones spring from creeping plants,
and creeping plants from flowers and leaves. Within the cup you will find a hole
through which the water bubbles up from a hidden channel underneath. The
sheet of water falling from the edges of the cup and the waving of the plants
and flowers under the dancing water are nothing less than a scene of magic. 1
From the palaces the water was conveyed to the gardens, of which
that known as the Hayat Bakhsh was the largest and most enchantingly
laid out. Here, in a strictly formal pattern of square flower beds
amidst flowing watercourses, are two pavilions named after the two
months of the rainy season, Sawan and Bhadon, both
decorated with pictures and paintings like the enamelled throne of the Queen
of Sheba, or like Solomon's throne studded with emeralds. Through the two
1 Asar-us-Sanadid, Sayyid Ahmad Khan, Cawnpore 1904, chap. I, p. 54.


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558
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
waterways of the tanks which are made in the centre of these buildings, the
water is always issuing gracefully, and from the edge of their platforms,. . . . it
is falling into the tank below, in the form of a cascade. In the niches, flower
vases of gold and silver, full of golden flowers, are placed during the day time,
and at night, white wax candles, which look like stars amid fleecy clouds, are
lighted inside the veil of water. 1
This imaginative treatment of the private portions of the fort and
of the palaces wherein the emperor took his ease differed, however,
from the more sedate character of the official portion where he held
durbars and conducted publicly the affairs of state. The Diwan-i-
‘Am or "Hall of Public Audience” is an expansive columned hall
of sandstone with its central bay occupied by a large and stately
ihrone of marble carved and inlaid in the manner of the time. The
wall at the back of the throne is also embellished with inlaid decora-
tion, in the form of pietra dura, but much of this ornamentation differs
inaterially, both in design and technique, from that in any other
Mughul building. One scene particularly is a characteristically occi-
dental representation of Orpheus sitting under a tree and fiddling
to a circle of listening animals. It has now become clear that this
and several of the surrounding panels of birds and foliage were
criginally fashioned in Italy, and in the course of commercial rela-
tions found their way to India to be acquired as objects of art by
someone at the Mughul court. The artistic character of these pieces
suggested their inclusion in the scheme of decoration at the back
of the throne, where, surrounded by other panels of obviously
Indian handiwork, their exotic appearance has given rise to some
speculation.
Almost contemporary with the building of the fort at Delhi was
the construction of the Jami' Masjid, which, as already shown, was
an essential part of the scheme of Shah Jahan's new capital. This
grand mosque, the largest and most eminent in all India, was begun
in A. D. 1644, but was not completed until fourteen years later. In
the meantime a somewhat similar congregational mosque was being
erected under the emperor's patronage at Agra, which, although not
on the same majestic scale as the Delhi example, was nevertheless
a structure of considerable size and importance.
Both mosques are
planned according to tradition and follow the same broad principles
as regards arrangements and general style. But given all these com-
mon factors they show in the most marked manner how widely two
buildings of the same type may be made to differ in effect. Nothing
could be more severely dignified or imperious in appearance than
the Jami' Masjid at Delhi, or more suitable for its purpose, as it
was obviously designed primarily for the ceremonial attendance of
the emperor and his retinue, the imposing royal portal on the east
with its arcading effectually screening the congregation within from
1 Amal-i-Salih, fols. 580-83 (Delhi Fort, Arch. Survey of India, 1929).


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MOSQUES AT DELHI AND AGRA
559
outside observation. An example of the highest type of religious
architecture, precise and perfect, it forms a noble pile; the endless
flights of steps before each entrance, the lofty white domes and
tapering minarets with the broad arch of the façade are admirably
disposed. The courtyard, 325 feet side, is in keeping with the great
scale of the rest of the building, while the cloisters around the three
sides and the symmetrical range of arches comprising the sanctuary
are of the same generous proportions. But in spite of its great size,
the orderly distribution of its parts and its undeniable grandeur, the
building as a whole leaves the aesthetic sense only moderately stirred;
it fails to arouse the highest emotions on account of its impersonality
and aloofness. The uncompromising rigidity of its long horizontal
lines, the harsh black and white inlay of its domes and minarets, its
very vastness which necessitates the unending repetition of each
detail, all combine to give this otherwise magnificent structure a
character which never wholly attracts. On the other hand the mosque
at Agra, owing to its humanist values, makes a definitely intimate
appeal. Although it lacks the perfection of the Delhi structure—the
low position and timid contours of the domes are obvious defects-
its free open frontage bringing everything into view, its rippling
succession of kiosks of varying sizes which crown its parapets, the
interesting passages of shadow thrown by its chattris and turrets, the
warm broken colour of its masonry produce an effect of a singularly
pleasing kind. It is a mosque evidently built for the benefit of the
people; its shady cloisters, informal resting-places and alcoved re-
treats are an open invitation to all and sundry to spend a quiet hour
within its precincts.
While at the principal seats of the Mughuls the white marble style
was being maintained, a different phase of building was becoming
manifest in the Punjab, notably at Lahore. This took the form of
brick construction, with occasional sandstone additions, but owing
its distinctive character to the glazed tile decoration with which its
entire surfaces were often covered. The fact that Lahore was situated
in an alluvial plain, and somewhat remote from any outcrop of
stone, partly accounts for this brick and tile development, but not
entirely. Since the days of the Ghaznavid occupation, the Punjab
capital had been inclined to cultivate an independent architectural
tradition, and instinctively to look to the north-west and beyond
for its aesthetic inspiration. In the first half of the seventeenth
century the Safavid art of Persia had attained its zenith, and for a
time Lahore appears to have come under its powerful spell. It was
not that the buildings of the Punjab were exact reproductions of
those of Shah ‘Abbas the Great; they displayed a certain individuality,
but the brick construction was based on that prevailing in Persia,
and the glazed tiles were of the same type as those produced in the
famous kilns of Kashan and other places on the Iranian plateau. The


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560
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
outstanding characteristic of this style of building, both in Persia
and the Punjab, is its accentuation of colour, as it depends almost
entirely for its expression on the brilliant display of patterns in
faience. To such an extent was this colour scheme allowed to dominate
the entire fabric that one of the fundamental principles of good
building has been sacrificed, inasmuch as the designers subordinated
intentionally all constructional emphasis in order to give precedence
to the applied art. Eliminate this ornamentation and the building
becomes a bald arrangement of flat surfaces without shadow or any
form of relief, mouldings and string-courses are at a discount, the
whole structure resolving itself into a mere background on which the
tile-setter was encouraged to squander his art unrestrained. That
such a procedure produced buildings having any claim to architectural
merit is mainly due to the quality of this tile decoration, which is of
the highest order, as the brilliantly designed arabesques in variegated
h! ies lit by the eastern sun produce a vitality of effect disarming all
criticism. In Lahore and its neighbourhood a large number of buildings
were erected in this style during the reign of Shah Jahan, but
owing to the impermanent nature of their construction many of
them are in ruins or have almost entirely disappeared. The
immense mounds of soil from the brick kilns of this period testify
to the importance this industry assumed, so much so that one Buddhu
whose tomb is near Lahore was appointed chief purveyor of bricks
to the royal establishment. But in all these rubbish mounds, several
of which have been excavated, not a trace has been discovered of
the glazed tiles nor are there any definite records of such a craft
ever having existed in this locality in the past. Panels of faience
decorate the exterior of Raja Man Singh's palace at Gwalior, and the
glazed earthenware of Multan and Sindh has long been a thriving
handicraft, but it is clear from their style and technique that both
these are the offspring of an entirely different art tradition. The
Lahore tiles are of a type which is unmistakeable, and are of two
distinct kinds, the "mosaic" and the "square". The former consist
of pieces of a glazed composition cut to the shape and colour of the
design, and are set together like the tesserae of a mosaic; the latter
are usually 6 inches square and the pattern painted on them is
carried across the joints to fill the required space. Exactly similar
glazed decoration of both kinds is seen in profusion in the seven-
teenth-century buildings of Persia and 'Iraq, most of it being made
at the town of Kashan, where the name for it is Kashi, which is
also the name by which this art is commonly known in Lahore.
Some of the designs, notably those in the outer wall of Lahore fort,
are much more Persian than Mughul in character, and include
suggestions of Mithraic symbolism. Chardin, the French traveller,
mentions at this time that Persia supplied India with large quantities
of "earthenware", most probably referring to this trade in glazed


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WAZIR KHAN'S MOSQUE, LAHORE
661
tiles. It seems not unlikely therefore that most if not all of this
decoration was imported in bulk from Kashan.
The finest example of this phase of Mughul buildings is Wazir Khan's
mosque erected in 1634, but there are many others, such as the
Gulabi Bagh, the Chauburji, and 'Ali Mardan Khan's tomb, all at
Lahore, while as far distant as Agra the tomb of Afzal Khan of
Lahore known as the “Chini ka Rauza” is of the same type. The
mosque of Wazir Khan, a most picturesque structure, consists of the
customary arrangement of buildings enclosing a brick-paved court-
yard, with the entrance-gateway, cloisters and sanctuary all in their
accepted positions. Four octagonal minarets rise from the corners,
and the domes which roof the sanctuary and the gateway are of the
w-pi "Lodi” order. Much of the surface decoration, which
comprises not only tiles but in the interior patterns painted in dis-
temper, has become considerably abraded, although sufficient re-
mains to show what a gorgeous glow of colour this building presented
when first erected. The walls are flat except for an occasional cornice,
oriel window, or balcony, and are divided up into shallow sunk
compartments for the reception of the glazed patterns. The fertility
of design and the diversity of colour in the scheme are amazing, and
although in its present state a somewhat vivid yellow is inclined to
predominate, each panel, spandrel and border is in itself a work of
art, rivalling in the brilliancy of its hues the sheen of the blue jays
and green parrots which fit about its walls. There could be no finer
illustration of that ardent desire for a display of exuberant colour
innate in the east than these glazed tile buildings of the Punjab.
All such forms of architectural expression, however, and even those
possessing the formal elegance of the royal palaces, take second place
when compared with that masterpiece of Mughul architecture, the
Taj Mahall. During the first three years of his reign, Shah Jahan
had already provided in the fort at Agra a palace for the accommoda-
tion of his consort, described in the Shah-Jahan Nama as "the
Paradise-like buildings of Her exalted chaste Majesty, the Queen of
the world, the Begam Sahiba", and identified as the Khass Mahall,
the most sumptuous of all edifices up to that time. And as during
life no building was considered too splendid, so on her death it was
fitting that her remains should be enshrined within a monument of
matchless beauty. Architects were therefore summoned to prepare
designs for a mausoleum which to be worthy of her memory should
surpass all others in artistic dignity and stateliness. Of the manner
in which the design was obtained and who was responsible for the
noble building which eventually matured, there are no direct records.
What evidence there is is contradictory. On the one hand, there is
the contemporary statement of Father Manrique, who definitely
1 Langlès, Voyages du Chevalier Chardin (Paris, 1811), N, 165.
1
36


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562
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
affirms that models were prepared and submitted to the emperor by
a certain Geronimo Verroneo, a Venetian, who was residing in the
Mughul capital at the time. On the other hand, indigenous docu-
ments have been preserved containing a detailed account of those
employed on the building, all of whom were Asiatics, with no
indication of any European intervention. And as an answer to the
Jesuit father's contention there is the standing testimony of the Taj
Mahall itself, which shows in all its aspects that it was the natural
evolution of the style, true to tradition and entirely unaffected by
occidental influence. The truth seems to be that Verroneo was in-
vited, as were others, to produce designs, but that prepared by the
Mughul master-builders was the one eventually selected.
Particulars of those who took part in the production of this incom-
parable masterpiece indicate that no effort was spared to obtain the
services of specialists in every phase of the work. Several of these
were indigenous craftsmen from Delhi, Lahore, Multan and similar
art centres of the Mughul empire, while others were drawn from
more distant sources, such as a calligraphist from Baghdad and
another from Shiraz, to ensure that all the inscriptions were correctly
carved or inlaid; a "flower carver" from Bukhara; an expert in
dome construction, Isma'il Khan Rumi, who by his name may have
come from Constantinople; a pinnacle maker from Samarqand, a
master-mason from Qandahar, and, lastly, an experienced garden
planner. The chief supervisor who co-ordinated the entire work was
one Ustad 'Isa, “the best designer of his time”, and, according to
one account, originally an inhabitant of Shiraz. It may be noted
that while the structural portions seem to have been principally in
the hands of Muhammadans, the decoration was mainly the work
of Hindu craftsmen, the difficult task of preparing the pietra dura
specially being entrusted to a group of the latter from Kanauj.
The design finally approved was based largely on the recently
completed tomb of Khan Khanan at Delhi, which in its turn was a
reduced and modified copy of the mausoleum of the emperor
Humayun. But the large edifice enclosing the tomb-chamber of the
Taj Mahall, although the main feature of the composition, is only
a portion of the scheme as a whole. It is supplemented by certain
essential accompaniments leading up to the main building, com-
prising a garden, entrance-gateways, a mosque, and other accessories
that would surround the mausoleum with an appropriate setting.
In the preliminary thought expended on these amenities the Mughul
architect excelled, every need was provided for and no incongruous
changes were afterwards introduced to mar the effect. The result was
that before the actual construction was even begun every minute
detail, useful or ornamental, was correctly specified. Outside the
1 See note, pp. 174-7, vol. II, Travels of Sebastian Manrique, trans. by C. E.
Luard and H. Hosten.


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THE TAJ MAHALL, AGRA
563
precincts of the Taj itself among other annexes were buildings for
the accommodation of visitors, their attendants and conveyances, a
bazar for their maintenance and a forecourt with wide approach
to avoid congestion of traffic. Nothing was omitted; a more com-
flete lay-out it would be impossible to conceive. The position of the
building was also carefully considered. The site selected was on a high
bank of the river at a bend, so that from every point of view there
was a pleasing effect; on the one side its reflections in the water gave
it an added charm, while on the other, from the garden, its white
marble façades stand out clearly, having no background except the
sky. At the same time its proximity to the river demanded special
care in the preparation of the foundations, which it was the practice
of the Mughul builder to support on masonry cylinders sunk in the
soil at close intervals. Some such system was no doubt employed in
the substructure of the terrace, as the entire building including
the
minarets apparently rests on one firm compact bed of masonry. That
the method adopted was a sound one is shown by the condition of
the building, for after three centuries, during which it has suffered
serious neglect, its lines and angles are still as accurate as when first
produced; any deviation from the true in a structure which relies
for much of its beauty on the mathematical precision of its outlines
would of course be fatal.
The whole scheme, including the garden, is laid out in the form
of a rectangle with its long axis lying north and south, the mausoleum
standing at the northern end, a departure from the traditional square
plan with the main building in the centre. This rectangle is enclosed
by a high wall with broad arcaded turrets at each corner, and is
entered on the south side by a monumental gateway, in itself an
admirable composition. Within the enclosure is the conventional
garden, so designed as to comprise an intrinsic part of the architec-
tural effect, the avenue of cypress trees being planted to harmonise
with the lines of the building, and the watercourses with their orna-
mental pools elevated in such a manner as to reflect the most attrac-
tive points of view. At the northern end of the enclosure is a wide
terrace with the mausoleum occupying the centre and balanced by
subsidiary buildings on either side. The latter consist of a mosque
on the west and a corresponding structure of no special religious
significance on the east, but added in order to maintain strict
symmetry. Although naturally intended as the predominating feature
in the scheme, the mausoleum building in itself is remarkable for the
vivid simplicity of both its plan and elevation. It rises almost
abruptly from the high marble terrace, with no noticeable flight of
steps leading up to it, for the stairway is concealed within a passage,
thus unconsciously adding to that atmosphere of reserve in keeping
with its chaste character. The plan is square with chamfered corners,
each side being 186 feet long, so that the width of the façade is equal


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564
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
to the entire height of the building. Its elevation is divided approxi-
mately into two parts of equal height, the lower half consisting of the
rectangular ground storey, the upper half of the great dome and its
accompanying kiosks. Externally each façade of the lower rect-
angular portion is relieved by an arrangement of arched recesses,
and to the rich shadows within these voids the whole structure owes
much of its charm of effect. But its crowning glory is the great dome,
which hangs in the sky like a shapely white cloud, its soaring height
being mainly due to the tall drum at its base. The body of the dome
is spherical, so that it rests on this drum like a ball on a cup, but its
upper curve by means of a carefully calculated tangent gracefully
tapers off into a foliated crest. To give a finish to the whole com-
position as well as to draw the eye of the spectator imperceptibly
from undue concentration on the central structure, at each corner
of the terrace rises a slender minaret.
The interior arrangements of the mausoleum building consist of
a crypt below and a vaulted tomb-chamber above, with other rooms
one in each angle all connected by corridors, light to every part being
obtained by means of perforated grilles set in the arched recesses of
the exterior. At a height corresponding to the parapet of the façade
outside, the tomb chamber is ceiled over so that above this the whole
of the interior of the great dome becomes a hollow space, a notable
illustration of the system of double dome construction. As to the
scheme of decoration, both inside and out, this is everywhere in
keeping with the broad unity of the building and the chaste white
marble of which it is composed. Certain portions are enriched with
patterns carved in low relief, but the principal embellishment is
obtained by arabesques of inlaid coloured stones-pietra dura. Of
the former method the square borders of inscriptions around the
main archways are artistically designed and chiselled, and the dados
in the interior of conventional plant-forms are modelled with exquisite
feeling. But it is in the finished quality of the pietra dura that the
inimitable patience and skill of the Indian inlayer is most plainly
shown, as his share in the decorative effect ranges from the bold
scrollwork in the spandrels above the great arches to the minute
flowers on the cenotaphs and the perforated marble screen which
encloses these. This perforated marble screen is said to have replaced
a gold and jewelled railing, so that it is not part of the original
design, but if a later introduction it shows that the high character
of craftsmanship was maintained. The delicate carving of the marble
into a grille of graceful volutes and the enrichment of each scroll
with inlaid precious stones has produced a work of art of entrancing
beauty, but even this is surpassed by the pietra dura on the cenotaphs
themselves, which is cut with the fineness of a cameo. Diapers and
1 For specimens see plates 25-30, W. Sleeman, Rambles and Recollections,
1844, and Journal of Indian Art, 1885, p. 61.


## p. 565 (#605) ############################################

ARCHITECTURAL TECHNIQUE
565
borders of pendant flowers, sprays of foliage with lilies and other
floral forms either in detached repeats or contained within curved
panels, are evenly distributed over their marble surfaces. So sensi-
tive and yet so firm is the drawing that it resembles the spirited
sweep of a brush rather than the slow laborious cutting of a chisel.
In addition, however, to its artistic merit, the scientific thought
and technical skill expended in the construction of this monument
is remarkable. Particularly is this noticeable in the subtle overhang
of the great dome, which shows that the builders were conversant
with the principles of tension, stress and strain, so that this problem
presented no difficulties. The contrast in the character of the large
dome with the cupolas over the kiosks denotes that two different
traditions here meet in the same building. The main dome by
shape is plainly of Timurid extraction, its remote ancestor being the
Dome of the Rock at Jerusalem; on the other hand the cupolas with
their wide eaves are of indigenous origin, being derived from the
overlapping rings of masonry which formed the vaulted ceiling of
the Hindu temple. For the centering of the dome timber scaffolding
supplemented by brick was employed, as noted by Tavernier.
Although details are lacking, light is thrown on this aspect of the
work from an interesting source, for some of the miniature paintings
of the time depict in a lively manner the various methods then in
use including that of centering? (Figs. 24, 25). The design of the
minarets was suggested by those over the entrance to Akbar's tomb
at Sikandra, although there is a notable difference in their surface
treatment. In the minarets of the Taj the face joints are counter-
sunk, forming a kind of rustication not seen in any other part of the
structure, and so by a subtle contrast in texture aiding in their
detachment from the main building. In this manner by a combina-
tion of the finest art and the most expert construction the Mughul
craftsmen have produced in the Taj Mahall a monument which has
most nearly reached the utmost height of perfection. Added to this
the building owes not a little of its sensuous charm to the extraneous
effects of the atmosphere, and the variations in the light on its marble
surfaces. The marble when first won from the uninspiring mounds
of Makrana is itself of a superb texture—white with a delicate grey
grain. In the course of centuries, mellowed by the sun, and sand-
.
blasted by the red dust of the surrounding country driven into it by
the monsoon rains, it has acquired a patina, almost imperceptible
but sufficient to affect its colour values. The result is that the building
assumes at different times a variety of tints, from a cold grey at
dawn, shimmering white at noon, and suffused with a tender blush
rose in the afterglow, with a wide range of half-tones in between.
1 Book 1, p. 111.
2 Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, Indian Section, No. 1898
(I. S. ), 861117, etc.


## p. 566 (#606) ############################################

666
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
And in the light of the moon another and entirely changed palette
is called into requisition. On some of these occasions, with the
flowers in the garden painting the foreground with their vivid
colourng, it seems as if the hand of nature and the hand of man had
united and done their utmost to produce a spectacle of supremely
moving beauty.
The mausoleum of Shah Jahan's queen, although apparently com-
plete in itself, was intended, however, as only one part of a more
comprehensive architectural scheme. On the opposite side of the
river, where is now the Mahtab Bagh, the emperor planned his own
tomb, a replica of the Taj but in black marble, the two monuments
to be connected by a bridge. Tavernier definitely states that "Shah
Jahan began to build his own tomb on the other side of the river,
but the war which he had with his son interrupted his plan, and
Aurangzib, who reigns at present, is not disposed to complete it”. ?
And in support of this contemporary record there is the testimony
of the cenotaphs themselves and their position in the tomb-chamber
of the Taj. Here Mumtaz Mahall lies proudly in the centre, a fairly
clear proof that the building was intended for her remains alone;
subsequently, and on one side, was inserted the cenotaph of the
emperor, evidently an afterthought because his own separate resting-
place never matured. That Aurangzib's unfilial actions and bigotry
generally were responsible for this project being abandoned there
seems little doubt, and owing to these personal failings humanity
has been deprived of an architectural composition which for romance,
imagination and magnificence would have had no equal. With this
emperor's accession to power the course of the building art under
the Mughuls came to an end. Aurangzib added a few structures,
some of them large and pretentious, to the long series of monuments
erected by this dynasty, but compared with those of his predecessors
they are decidedly inferior. The sudden decline of the art towards
the middle of the seventeenth century may be traced to several causes.
There is the obvious reason that at this time the Mughul empire itself
had begun to totter, and with it the cultural activities patronised by
the dynasty suffered neglect. Associated with this political and
artistic decadence was the personality of Aurangzib himself, whose
philistinism and narrowness of outlook were largely responsible for
the disintegration. On the other hand, the decline of the style may
have been due to the natural progress of events. Under Shah Jahan
the country had experienced a period of unrestrained production,
during which its exponents had reached the summit of achievement.
The usual sequence to such a condition is a marked reaction, of
which art history provides several notable instances, including among
others that of the great schools of painting in Europe of the seven-
teenth century, whose finest efforts were followed by an interval of
1 Tavernier, 1, 110, 111,


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AURANGABAD
567
profound exhaustion. And so it was with the architecture of the
Mughuls. It had endured its golden age, run its course, and even
before the reign of Aurangzib had begun to show signs of decadence.
The shallow elegance of some of Shah Jahan's later buildings, as
for example the Machhi Bhawan in Agra fort, is a forecast of what
was about to take place. Its energies dissipated by the very number
and grandeur of its conceptions, with nothing further possible, a
period of sterility was inevitable. It is questionable whether any
human power, even that of vigorous imperial patronage, could have
changed the course of destiny or prolonged its life another span.
One of the few large buildings of Aurangzib's reign, but one which
fully illustrate the change that was then taking place, is far removed,
however, from the majority of the Mughul monuments, as it is in
the Deccan. Near the town of Aurangabad, now in the Nizam's
dominions, this emperor caused to be erected in 1679 by “'Ata-ullah,
Chief Architect", the mausoleum of his wife Rabi'a-ud-Daurani.
A frank copy of the Taj Mahall, although approximately only half
its size, it shows in the thirty years that intervened the extent to
which taste had deteriorated and the style become impoverished.
With inadequate knowledge the architect had evidently endeavoured
to improve on the proportions of the Taj, and also to enrich it with
considerable superfluous ornament. The result, as would be expected,
is a very mediocre production, the relation of height to width being
unpleasing, leading to a loss of dignity and a congestion of the struc-
tures around the base of the dome. Almost every arch is demeaned
with miniature cusps, the cornices garnished by insipid mouldings,
and the surfaces are aggravated by spiritless arabesques. Those out-
standing qualities of simplicity and breadth which make the Taj so
profound and satisfying have been disregarded, and meaningless
efforts at embellishment have been applied all over the building.
But although the structure as a whole shows such marked evidences
of debasement, the same cannot be said of some of the applied art
with which it is decorated. The fine quality of some of the accessories
proves that good craftsmen were still available. The octagonal screen
of white marble enclosing the sarcophagus is carved in a perforated
pattern equal in workmanship to that of the previous reign, while
some of the designs in bas relief are exquisitely modelled. But the
finest ornament is in metal, some of the doors being of beaten brass
with bold floral panels and borders hammered and chiselled in
masterly fashion. The hand of the craftsman was still effective, it was
the spirit of the art that had declined.
Owing perhaps to being in one of the Mughul cities of Hindustan,
and not so distantly situated as the previous monument, fewer defects
are observable in the Badshahi mosque at Lahore. Its production
was the work of Fidai Khan Kula, Aurangzib's Master of Ordnance,
whose engineering experience enabled him to plan and erect a


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568
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
building of sound construction and great size. But even his technical
skill could not build to withstand the earthquake which in 1840
shattered its four minarets, the principal feature of the design. With-
out these the building loses much of its effect, but there is a certain
dignity in its broad quadrangle leading up to the facade of the
sanctuary, a scheme in red sandstone laced with marble. The three
bulbous domes are well-proportioned, and rise into a grand mass of
white marble above the western wall, which presents an almost
unbroken surface of masonry of imposing appearance. As a contrast
to the excess of decoration in the mausoleum referred to above this
mosque marks the other extreme; its ornamentation, although boldly
conceived, is sparingly introduced, so that the general impression it
conveys is uninteresting, the attempt at economy of detail defeating
its own purpose. Another and entirely opposite example of the
Mughul style, as manifested in the time of Aurangzib, is the mosque
at Benares, the minarets of which dominate the city with their slender
prettiness but entirely lack stability or strength. It illustrates with
the other buildings executed during this emperor's reign the incon-
sistent nature of the art and the extent to which it had fallen away
from its previous standard towards the end of the seventeenth century.
The final state of the style in the eighteenth century is seen in the
tomb of Safdar Jang, a large and pretentious structure erected in
Delhi as late as 1753. As it is situated a comparatively short distance
from the mausoleum of the emperor Humayun it is an easy matter
to compare the two monuments, the first and the last of their kind.
A period of nearly two hundred years separates the one from the
other, and the change that has taken place is illuminating. They
represent the extremes of their style, that of the emperor expressing
in every line its power and exultant vitality, and that "dew of the
morning" which marks the beginning of every new movement.
the other hand, the tomb of Safdar Jang seems to be striving by
artificial means to reproduce the original vigour, while in reality it
is enfeebled and decadent. Gone are the balanced proportions with
broad simple planes, and in their place is an ostentatious and affected
structure, each part embarrassed with repetitions of weak and taste-
less motifs. It was a final effort to recapture the old spirit of the
Mughul style as seen in the royal tombs when the dynasty was a
living force; but by this time the art had gone beyond any hope of
recall.
During this period, while the building art of the Mughuls was
pursuing its course in Hindustan, a somewhat independent develop-
ment of the style established itself in Sind, when that part of the
country was eventually incorporated in the empire under Akbar.
Lower Sind, where most of the buildings are found, lies in the direc-
tion of an art current which very early set in from the west, a stream
of no great strength but which persisted intermittently for several


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SIND
569
centuries. It brought with it first the influence of the Arab culture,
such as it was in so remote a possession, and afterwards that of Persia.
Buildings in brick therefore are characteristic of the towns of Sind,
a method of construction which continues all along the Indus and
beyond to Multan, encouraged by the alluvial formation of the
country. Such a monochromatic prospect which this vast plain
presents cries out for colour, so that it became the custom to decorate
all buildings with brilliant schemes of glazed tiles. This method of
ornamentation was probably first introduced by the Arabs, and was
revived later by intercourse with Persia at a time when that country
was enriching all its larger towns with brick buildings covered with
patterns in coloured faience. Sind tiles are, however, not copies of
the Persian model, nor are they similar even to those of the Punjab,
a much nearer neighbour. They have a special character which is
easily recognised. Most of the patterns are geometrical, and where
foliage is interposed it is of a strictly conventional order. In technique
a
the tiles are rarely square or rectangular but cut in geometrical
shapes corresponding to the details of the design. With such a long
tradition for brick and glaze it seems an anomaly to find in the town
of Tatta, once the old capital of lower Sind, a group of tombs con-
structed entirely of stone and carved in a style which suggests that
of Akbar's buildings at Fathpur Sikri. Most of these tombs appear
to have been erected when the country was first included within the
empire of the Mughuls under Mirza 'Isa Tarkhan, who was governor
of Tatta between A. D. 1627 and 1644. Some of the graves, however,
bear an earlier date, and it is therefore fairly evident that the influence
of Akbar's expansive building operations at the end of the sixteenth
century found an echo in this rather distant part of his dominions.
The most important of the tombs at Tatta is that of 'Isa Tarkhan
himself, a two-storeyed building standing on a raised platform in the
centre of an enclosed courtyard. Its chief architectural feature is a
double arcade surrounding the building, each pillar of which is a
monolith, those of the inner row, together with the interior walls,
being elaborately carved. The general character of the structure has
much of the temperament of Akbar's capital, and this especially
applies to the low relief patterns with which all the surfaces are
profusely adorned.