No More Learning

One of the chief treasures preserved in this city is a superb ivory
throne, a work of the fifth century, with panels carved with subjects
from the Old and New Testaments. This is almost certainly an Alex-
andrian work. Somewhat similar panels, preserved at Cambridge and
in other museums, suggest that more than one of such thrones had been
made.
In Rome there are several remnants from the age of Justinian, chief
amongst which are the choir enclosures of S. Clemente. At Milan, on
the north side of S. Lorenzo, is a beautiful chapel with mosaics in
apsidal recesses. One is of Christ and the Apostles, which is executed
in a very grey scheme of colour, largely black and white, with some
blue and green; the nimbus of Christ is white. Although so simple
these mosaics are most beautiful. At Naples there is a baptistery with
very fine but fragmentary mosaics, which date perhaps from the end of
the fifth century.
Byzantine mosaic decoration was one of the noblest art-forms ever
developed. Enormous areas were covered by perfectly coherent and
co-ordinated schemes of pictorial teaching, and a solemn majesty was
unerringly attained; while the splendour of the gold backgrounds
suffused the whole with a glowing atmosphere.
The types of Christian imagery which are found in the Byzantine
mosaics of the fifth and sixth centuries were probably drawn from Egyptian
Christian sources. It has been suggested that these types may have
originated in Palestine, and that the paintings and mosaics of the great
churches built there by Constantine largely influenced the schemes of
imagery in the rest of Christendom may not be doubted. It is improbable,
however, that Palestine was a school of iconographical invention; whereas
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Early art in books
549
Egypt seems to have been a glowing hearth of pictorial activity from
the Hellenistic age onwards.
Early Christian iconography must have been developed at an active
Hellenistic centre. Jerusalem was hardly this, and Palestinian art
for the most part must have been an offshoot of that of Alexandria,
It is probable that painted rolls and books were the chief sources,
from which the types to become familiar in paintings and mosaics were
spread abroad.
The codex form of book, which seems at an early time to have
become specially associated with Christian literature, was almost
certainly an Egyptian innovation. According to Sir Maunde Thompson,
codices of vellum, of the third century and earlier, have been found in
Egypt, and this form of MS. “ was gradually thrusting its way into use
in the first centuries of our era. . . . The book form was favoured by the
early Christians. In the fourth century the struggle between the roll
and the codex was finished. ” Some fine book-bindings, which may even
be as early as the sixth century, have lately been found in Egypt. The
noble Codex Alexandrinus of the fifth century, now in the British
Museum, is an Egyptian book. So also, almost certainly, is the once
beautiful, but now almost destroyed, pictured book of Genesis called the
Cotton Bible. The writing of this volume is very like that of the
Codex Alexandrinus and of a great number of papyrus fragments. It
also seems to date from the fifth century, and furthermore its pictures
have some affinities with others in an Alexandrian chronicle of the
world on papyrus, which has been published by Strzygowski, while they
have a closer likeness to other painted books which have been judged to
have been produced in Alexandria, such as illuminated volumes of
Dioscorides and of Cosmas the traveller, and a roll of Joshua. Many
points in the miniatures with which the Cotton Genesis was crowded
bear out this view of its origin. Thus, two of those relating to Joseph
in Egypt shew a group of pyramids in the background; a third had
well-drawn camels ; and another the burial of a body wrapped like a
mummy. It has been proved by Dr Tikkanen of Helsingfors that this
MS. or a duplicate of it, was used by the mosaic workers at St Mark's,
Venice, at the end of the twelfth century, for the designs from early
Bible history which fill the domes of the narthex. Twenty-six of those
relating to the Creation were accurately enlarged copies of as many
miniatures from the now terribly injured book, and these subjects,
designs of great dignity and grace, can consequently be restored. Other
pictures in the volume which relate to Lot, Abraham and Joshua, were
again very similar to the series of mosaics executed in Sta Maria
Maggiore in Rome about A. D. 440, and, indeed, the types found in the
Cotton Genesis seem to have had an almost canonical importance.
Their influence can be traced far down in the Middle Ages, and even the
Biblical pictures of Raphael still retained some reminiscence of them. One
CH. XXI.


## p. 550 (#596) ############################################

550
Mosaics and paintings
characteristic of the Cottonian MS. is the appearance in the miniatures
of impersonations of such ideas as the Seven Days of Creation, and the
Four Rivers of the Garden; the former being represented as seven
angels, and the latter as four reclining figures with urns. The Soul
breathed into man is depicted in the form of a winged Psyche. The
Creator is shewn as Christ, “by Whom all things were made. "
Another famous book of Genesis at Vienna, having pictures painted
below the text on pages of purple vellum, is almost certainly later than
the Cottonian book, and although there are obviously some links
between them, the Vienna designs seem to stand outside the Alexandrian
circle. Two other books on purple, which have much in common with
the Vienna book, are the codices of Rossano and Sinope. All three
may probably be dated about A. D. 500, and may have been painted at
Constantinople. The magnificent Dioscorides, which is dated c. 512, is
almost certainly an Alexandrian book. Its fine, clear drawings of
plants may be copied from a more classical original. The Joshua Roll
of the Vatican is probably sixth century and of Alexandrian origin.
Several of the mosaics at Ravenna have characteristics similar to the
miniatures in these Egyptian books, and it may be regarded as certain
that it was not only at St Mark's, Venice, that the designs for mosaics
were taken from such sources. Indeed, it must be more and more
recognised that such compositions were very often drawn out of authori-
ties almost as fixed as the texts which they illustrated. All religious
art, and Byzantine art especially, has in a large degree been the handing
on of a tradition. The outlines of these iconographical schemes must
have been suggested by theologians'. They were certainly not the result
of a free play of artistic fancy.
A number of figured textiles which have been found in Egypt are
also very interesting in regard to the treatment of their subjects. Some
are merely painted or dyed and others are woven and embroidered.
Three pieces of the dyed work in the Victoria and Albert Museum have
designs of the Annunciation, the Nativity and the Miracles of Christ.
These, again, are interesting as giving us versions of well-known types of
the subjects, and suggest that these designs also had their character
impressed upon them in Egypt. For instance, they closely resemble
others found on the ivory throne at Ravenna, and this similarity rein-
forces the argument in favour of that famous work having been made in
Alexandria, which was the great mart for objects in carved ivory? .
A favourite scheme of ornamentation on the Christian textiles found
in Egypt is the imitation of jewelling. Especially is this the case with
the Cross ; and the jewelled cross, which appears again and again in the
mosaics of Rome, Ravenna and Constantinople, would also seem to have
been an Egyptian invention. Recently many wall-paintings have been
1 As in some later Italian works, such as in the Spanish Chapel at Florence. See
Wood Green, J. , Sta Maria Novella, pp. 150 ff. 2 See Vol. 1. Chapter xxi.
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## p. 551 (#597) ############################################

The East, Rome and art
551
a
are.
exposed by excavation in Egypt and here, also, well-known types, like
the Majesty and the Ascension, have been found.
It has not been possible to speak of the quality of Byzantine art but
only of certain leading facts in its history. As a whole it was
wonderful movement of return to first principles in regard to structures
and to the free expression of feeling in what we call decoration. Roman
art was very largely official, grandiose, and a matter of formulas. The
Roman artist was as closely imprisoned in conventions as we ourselves
Then came a time and an influence which led the people to build
what they wanted only by the rules of common sense, and to draw for
decorative art fresh draughts from the springs of poetry.
So art was transformed and a great cycle of a thousand years was
entered on. Early Christian, Byzantine, Romanesque and Gothic are
all incidents in its mighty sweep, and before it was spent great cathedrals
had been built all over Europe.
Having followed, so far as our space will allow, the main stream of
Christian art while flowing through Constantinople and the East, we
must now try to trace the broader facts of its development in the
West.
It is not to be doubted that, until the eastern civilisation was checked
by the Arab conquests in the seventh century, its art had been the true
heir of the ages, and that the great upheaval put a stop to its proper
progress, and then threw it back in many broken eddies over western
Europe. In our first volume we saw that early Christian art was a phase
of Roman art modified by eastern ideas. In western Europe, for the early
Christian period, there were in the main three influences at work, in the
culture of which art is one aspect : the native stock, the Romano-
Christian tradition, and the steady, unceasing pressure of oriental ideas.
In mentioning the latter we do not try to beg any “Byzantine question. "
It would doubtless be true to say conversely that the West influenced
the East, but here and now we are only concerned with the West and
the action of external forces upon it.
In reaction against claims which have been urged for oriental in-
fluence in Christian art, Commendatore Rivoira has lately made a
powerful plea for a further consideration of the part played by Rome
and Italy as the main source of western Christian art, but he confessedly
does this rather in regard to structural architecture than to the pictorial
and plastic matters which form so great a part of any complete architec-
ture. Further, in regard to the structures, his contention in many cases
only avails to shew that those eastern customs, which some earlier
writers had thought came in with Byzantine art, had already been taken
over by Roman builders. And it must never be forgotten that Roman art
itself was only one branch of a widespread Hellenistic culture the prime
centre of which was Alexandria.
Quite recently a whole new phase of Roman art has been coming
CH, XXI.


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552
Provincial Roman art
into view, that is, the form of it which was developed rather in the pro-
vinces than in the capital. An enormous body of this Roman provincial
art has been revealed by French researches in North Africa, and the study
of local antiquities in Italy, France, Spain, South Germany, and even
Britain, shews how far this little-known art had developed or degenerated
from the standards of the Augustan age. This art is rude and redun-
dant, shewing a ferment of undisciplined ideas, and in it we may find many
of the germs of the Christian architecture of the West which, by a true
instinct, has been called Romanesque.
Probably the best centre in which to study provincial Roman art is
Trèves, where a perfectly arranged museum is crowded with smaller monu-
ments, while many large ones are still extant in the streets. Among the
latter are a magnificent basilica, now a church, a great city gate, the Porta
Nigra, and a ruined palace, usually called that of Augustus, although
apparently it must belong to the fourth century. The monuments in the
museum comprise a great number of important, richly sculptured, tombs,
some of which are of the sarcophagus form, while others are like small towers
crowned by a pyramid, with a sculptured finial at the apex, a form which
recalls many a Romanesque tower and spire built centuries later. They
themselves seem to derive from the mausoleum of Halicarnassus. The
sloping surfaces of the pyramidal coverings are roughly carved into leafage
arranged like scales, and the rest of these monuments is adorned with a
profusion of sculptured figures and pattern-work. The large plain sur-
faces are frequently covered by what, in later art, we should call diaper
patterns, that is, recurring arrangements of lozenges, octagons and
circles, combined so as to cover the field and with the interspaces filled
in with simply-carved leafage. This type of ornamentation is practically
unknown in classical Roman architecture. It was doubtless taken up
from the East, and it is the precursor of a kind of decoration, which
thenceforth was to be common for many centuries; indeed, the covering
of flat vertical surfaces with roughly cut patterns in low relief is typical
of the art of the “Dark Ages. " It may be noted that the surface
patterns, and even the figure sculptures, on the monuments of Trèves
were painted with bright colours, and hence it seems probable that the
elaborate braided and chequered ornamentation of our own Saxon crosses
was completed by colouring.
What we have found best illustrated at Trèves must have been charac-
teristic, in greater or lesser degree, of all the cities of western Europe 1.
Even in London, at the Guildhall and British Museums, there are
fragments which shew that a similar type of architecture prevailed here.
Amongst the stones are some which clearly belong to tombs with pyramidal
coverings like those mentioned above, and other stones, some of which
belong to small columns, have diaper pattern-work. These fragments
1 Even in Britain the lion dug up at Corbridge (Corstopitum) is a striking
example.
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## p. 553 (#599) ############################################

Rome's influence on its conquerors
553
.
probably belonged to the tombs of the rich merchants of Londinium.
The coins of Roman Britain shew a similar likeness to those of Trèves,
which in the fourth century was the capital of the western section of
the Empire. In the museum at Sens are important remnants of a
façade, which was largely decorated with boldly designed vine foliage
of a curiously “Romanesque" character.
Romanised Europe was a soil well prepared for the upspringing of
Romanesque art, and many centres, down to the end of the twelfth
century, shew us how the old monuments were turned to for inspiration
and guidance. In some places there was hardly any interruption of
continuity ; in others the conquering peoples from the North (although
they entered into that which they could not properly understand or
use) could not help crude imitation when they themselves had to build.
The problem of architectural history is now less one of inquiry as to
sources than a question as to the vigour of building impulse. An ener-
getically expanding school always gathers from everything it may reach,
but a declining school does not know how to use even what it has.
When the Romanesque movement in architecture was under way, the
Roman background was searched, and at the same time the current
customs of the more powerful art of the East were drawn upon.
In the fifth century, western Europe had a vast system of splendid
roads linking up a great number of provincial Roman cities. Many of
them were burned and ruined, but few can have been destroyed. Even
in Britain these Roman cities were sights to wonder at, as the poem
on the ruins of Bath witnesses, and Bede tells us how the citizens
of Carlisle guided St Cuthbert round the city shewing him the walls
and a fountain of marvellous workmanship constructed formerly by the
Romans. In Rome itself the early Christian tradition was being continued,
and there, as at Ravenna and Milan, at Lyons and Arles, Byzantine
influences were all the time being absorbed and passed on to the
West.
The third strain in Romanesque art was the barbaric element in the
blood and traditions of the people. After the Roman and Byzantine influ-
ences, which came from the Church, had been absorbed and transformed,
the art began to put on more and more of a barbaric character. This
was especially the case in the West after the Danish irruptions. Some of
the stone carvings wrought in England during the tenth century were
extremely savage in their character.
A school of art, which should be of extraordinary interest to us, is
that which arose in Northumbria in the second half of the seventh century,
but was soon to disappear. There is ample documentary record of the
culture of the time when Wilfrid and Benedict Biscop built churches and
formed monastic libraries, and when Bede wrote his famous history.
Some remnants of Wilfrid's churches yet remain, and Bede tells us how
they were decorated by paintings forming a consistent series of Biblical
CH. XXI.


## p. 554 (#600) ############################################

554
Roman influence in England
types and story. These paintings were brought from Rome, and the
fortunate discovery of the painted walls of Sta Maria Antiqua in that
city, which were decorated by Greek artists just at the time that Benedict
Biscop was making his collection, suggests very clearly what these
pictures must have been like. It cannot be doubted that they were
of eastern origin. Many works of art, which we still fortunately possess,
have been attributed to the same age, but some of them are so remark-
able as compared with other works of that time on the Continent that
Commendatore Rivoira and Professor Cook of Yale have argued with
great detail that they could not have been produced at that time. At
Ruthwell and Bewcastle, on either side of the Scottish border, are the
shafts of two tall standing crosses elaborately sculptured with figures and
pattern-work, with long inscriptions in runes, and, in the case of
Ruthwell, with Latin inscriptions as well.
inscriptions as well. Rivoira, approaching the
question from the Italian point of view, and with a wide knowledge of
European art, would assign them to the twelfth century, and Professor
Cook argues that they were probably erected by King David of Scotland
about 11401.
These noble cross shafts, however, are only the most famous of a large
class of monuments of more or less the same type, which must belong to
about the same period. If they have to be dated in the twelfth century, the
Irish crosses also, as is recognised by the critics just named, cannot be
earlier. Such a scheme in all its implications would make a tremendous
alteration in British archaeology. On the other hand, the early dates of
some of the Saxon works are so firmly established that they cannot even
be attacked. Such are large numbers of early Saxon coins, some of which
bear devices analogous to the decorations of the crosses, while others,
like the coins of Offa, have fine heads. Others, again, like a coin of
Peada, have runes of similar form to those on the crosses. If a selection
of such coins was published in comparison with the crosses, much that
has been said as to the improbability of the early date of these would
have to be ruled out. We also possess the splendid illuminated text
written and decorated at Lindisfarne very early in the eighth century,
with its braided ornamentation, symbols of the four evangelists, and
other designs which closely resemble the ornament and symbols on the
crosses. There is also the noble Codex Amiatinus, once owned by Abbot
Ceolfrid, and taken with him as a present for the Pope when he left
England for Rome in 716, which has some points of resemblance. It has
further been shewn that the Latin inscriptions, which describe the sculp-
tures on the Ruthwell Cross, are in an alphabet of a semi-Irish character
resembling the letters of the Lindisfarne book, while the runic inscrip-
tion of this cross contains a version of the old English poem on the
Dream of the Holy Rood, which Dr Bradley attributes to the authorship
of Caedmon. Another monument, the date of which has not been
1 See Baldwin Brown, G. , The Arts in Early England, Vol. v. 1921.
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The English crosses
555
attacked, is the shrine of St Cuthbert now at Durham, which is recorded
to have been made in 698. Some designs incised on it, which include
figures of Christ, angels, and apostles, together with symbols of the
ev gelists, a cross and inscriptions, are again singularly like the designs
found
upon the two great cross shafts. The runes on the Bewcastle
cross formed a memorial inscription, which is terribly decayed, and
doubt is cast on the readings, first made in 1856, by which it appeared
that it was set up to Alchfrid, son of Oswy, about the year 670. On
the other hand, the name Cyneburh, which was the name of Alchfrid's
wife, has often been read by many independent observers, including
Kemble, in 1840. Even the presence of the name Alchfrid is admitted
by Viator, the Runic scholar, but Professor Cook claims that the form
is feminine and cannot apply to Alchfrid. Thus the question stands for
the moment, but when, by comparative illustration, it has been shewn
that the objection to the early date of the art of these wonderful monu-
ments must fall to the ground, then we may anticipate that much of the
opposition to the interpretation of the runes will also disappear. At the
least the certain name of Cyneburh will be given its due weight. The
present writer has no doubt at all that these crosses were set up by a
powerful Northumbrian ruler in the seventh century. Professor Cook even
expresses a doubt as to whether these shafts were parts of crosses at all,
which to English scholars will seem like doubting whether a torn volume
was ever a book: His work, however, is valuable as stating the case
for the extremist reaction. In regard to the sculptures on the Ruthwell
cross, it has been shewn that they have affinities with the subjects on the
Byzantine ivory throne at Ravenna, which was probably made in Alex-
andria, and with some Coptic works. Now the second half of the
seventh century was exactly the time when Rome itself had become
almost completely Byzantinised. The church of Sta Maria Antiqua, before
mentioned, belongs to this time. It is no accident that it was just at
this moment that a Greek from Tarsus, Theodore by name, became
Archbishop of Canterbury. The sculptures on the Ruthwell cross in-
clude the Crucifixion, the Annunciation, Christ healing the blind man,
Christ and the Magdalene, and the Visitation on one side; on the other,
the flight into Egypt, SS. Paul and Anthony the hermits, breaking bread
in the desert, Christ worshipped by “beasts and dragons,” St John
Baptist, and the symbols of the evangelists. A third cross shaft, hardly
less remarkable, that of Acca, now at Durham, is accepted by Rivoira
as being of the eighth century. It is difficult for an English student
to understand why two should be taken away and the other left.
Saxon works of a different kind, but not less noteworthy, are the
silver Ormside cup, the celebrated Alfred jewel and the vestments of
Bishop Frithstan, now at Durham, which were embroidered at Winchester
about the year 912. It may be remembered that William of Malmes-
bury says that the daughters of Edward the Elder were skilful needle-
CH. XXI.


## p. 556 (#602) ############################################

556
Irish art
women, and it is not unlikely that these exquisite works came from this
royal school of art. It may be pointed out that one of the designs on
the Durham embroideries is the Right Hand of God. Now this same
device also appears on the Wessex coinage of Edward the Elder, and on
the sculptured Rood of Romsey Abbey, which probably filled the central
space on the west front of the church with figures of the Virgin and St
John on either hand of the Crucified Figure, above which the Hand
appears. A similar group, much defaced, may still be seen on the
west front of the little church at Hedbourne Worthy, close to
Winchester.
Anglo-Celtic art has been very much neglected, but in Great Britain
and Ireland we have an enormous number of sculptured monuments
which certainly have high interest for the history of art in Europe
during the dark ages. It may seem an extravagant claim, but if the
productions of the Anglian school are recognised, it will appear to be,
at its Northumbrian centre especially, the first Teutonic school of
Christian art. This is allowed for literature ; poems like Caedmon's were
not written in Gaul, but it has hardly even been suggested for sculpture,
metalwork, and other crafts. It is agreed that the later school formed
by Charlemagne became the centre for west European culture; yet, after
all, Charlemagne gathered up the Northumbrian traditions, and Alcuin
was but a follower of Wilfrid and Ceolfrid.
The Irish crosses are less competent in execution than the finest of
the Anglian works, and the same is true of other forms of Irish art.
The large number and the good preservation of the Irish crosses, however,
give them considerable importance. On them we find sculptures which
carry on the early Christian tradition in a very remarkable way. The
a
designs must, for the most part, have been copied from quite early painted
books of Eastern origin, and from ivories and other small works. The
subjects are of the Crucifixion, and of Christ the Judge, with many scenes
from the life and miracles of Christ, together with “ types " from the Old
Testament. Favourite types of Christ are the offering of Isaac, and
David protecting the sheep by slaying the lion. Over the Crucifixion
of a cross at Monasterboice is Moses with his uplifted arms supported
by two companions. The life of David as a type of Christ is given in
several scenes on some of the crosses. Another subject which occurs
very frequently is the meeting of SS. Anthony and Paul in the desert.
The ideals were clearly monastic, and those who had the crosses set up
looked reverently back to the hermits of the Egyptian desert.
Much in Carolingian Romanesque art was directly derived from
the Roman monuments; indeed, it must have been thought by Charle-
magne and his Court that Roman architecture was being continued just
as the Empire was being resumed. Romanesque, we may say, is “Holy
Roman architecture. " A letter of Einhard's exists, which was sent
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## p.
557 (#603) ############################################

Beginnings of Romanesque
557
a
a
of Vitruvius, and it is significant that the earliest existing text of
Vitruvius, the Harley MS. in the British Museum, is also Carolingian.
The doorway of Charles the Great's church at Aix-la-Chapelle, recently
exposed, has a large architrave of classical form. This doorway might
well be a work of the fourth century A. D. , and so might some of the bronze
doors, and the pine-cone fountain. The mouldings of the interior had
classical forms, and old Corinthian capitals, which were probably brought
from Italy, were re-used in the arches of the gallery storey. Of course
there was no thought of any archaeological distinction between what was
Roman and what was Byzantine; the great fact was that barbarism
took up the arts of civilisation, and it must have been thought that
Rome was being renewed by the efforts of Charlemagne. This Caro-
lingian Renaissance gives us an invaluable example of a conscious building
up
of a school of art.
In Italy many buildings, like the baptistery at Florence, shew a
deliberate attempt to be classical. In France, also, we meet with the
same intention. At Langres, once a Roman town, the fine cathedral
church (twelfth century) is wonderfully Roman in many particulars.
The buttresses between the chapels at the east end are in the form of
Auted Corinthian pilasters. In the interior the nave arches rise from
similar fluted pilasters with Corinthian capitals; the triforium has fluted
pilasters rising to a horizontal string moulding; beneath is a bold band
of scroll carving of a classical type; and many of the columns have the
classical entasis. At Bourges, another Roman town, the elaborate
doorways of the north porch have finely carved lintels of scroll work
and foliage, which must have been practically copied from a Roman
original. At Autun the direct influence of the Roman gateway, which
is still standing, can be traced in the details of the cathedral. At
Arles, St Gilles, Le Puy, and in dozens of other places a similar trans-
ference from Roman prototypes is apparent in Romanesque architecture.
The Romanesque type of tower, with a low, square spire, with scale
ornaments cut into the sloping surfaces, must largely derive from the
late Roman tombs like those of Trèves above described. Even Roman
methods of construction, like concreted rubble walling, small facing
stones, and courses of tiles set in arches, persisted until the eleventh and
twelfth centuries.
The second great strain in Romanesque art was formed by the
constant inflow of eastern ideas and decorative objects, as well as of
monks and artists. After Justinian reconquered Italy, fragments of the
land remained dependencies of the Eastern Empire until the eighth cen-
tury. In Rome itself during this time Art became almost completely
Byzantinised. There are several beautiful Byzantine capitals and slabs
in Rome which were imported from Constantinople, and the round church
of St Theodore on the Palatine belongs to this time. Even a brick-
stamp of Pope John (A. D. 705) is inscribed with Greek letters.
CH. XXI.


## p. 558 (#604) ############################################

558
Sta Maria Antiqua
The monument which most clearly witnesses to the presence of the
East in the West is the church of Sta Maria Antiqua, excavated about
twenty years ago out of the débris at the foot of the Palatine Hill. It is in
the Forum, on the right in going to the Coliseum. It was an old
Roman building, which was transformed into a church early in the
seventh century, being a large, high hall having lateral chambers formed
into chapels. The walls were partly covered with a plating of marble,
and all the rest was adorned with paintings, which, for the most part,
are still in good condition. The paintings are inscribed mostly in Greek
with some Latin. A stone of the ambo had a bilingual inscription :
John Servant of the Theotokos. The art-types are obviously eastern,
and the saints depicted are both eastern and western. There are
paintings of the Crucifixion, the Majesty, the enthroned Virgin and
Child, the Annunciation, Nativity, Daniel in the Lions' Den, and many
others. In the apse of the chapel is a large figure of Christ between
two six-winged tetramorphs. The background of this subject is divided
into an upper portion painted black, and a lower part divided vertically
into four parts alternately red and green. The Crucifixion is very like
another in a Syrian book now at Florence. On either hand of the Cross
are the two soldiers, by one of whom is inscribed Longinus. On the Syrian
Gospel, which was written in 586 by the monk Rabula, the similar figure
of the soldier is named Aorinoc. The resemblances are altogether so
remarkable that it cannot be doubted that this very Syrian MS. or a
similar one was the direct source for the wall painting. It has been
already pointed out by Mr Dalton that a curious pattern which is found
at Sta Maria Antiqua, like a row of overlapping coins, occurs again also
in the Codex of Rossano, another book which is possibly of Syrian
origin, and it occurs again in a Syrian book at Paris. The coincidences are
so striking that it becomes evident that some oriental books must have
been directly used as the sources for the designs in the church. It has
often been pointed out that the mosaics of Sta Maria Maggiore must
have been drawn from some book of Genesis painted in the East.
Several of the mosaics in Ravenna follow a similar canon, and so again
do some fragmentary Genesis pictures in Sta Maria Antiqua itself.
Further, it has been proved by Tikkanen, as before mentioned, that the
Genesis mosaics at St Mark's, Venice, were accurately copied from the
Cotton Genesis, a book which almost certainly was painted in Alexandria
in the fifth century. In these instances we get examples of what was
happening all the time. Books from the East, especially ancient books,
were regarded as authorities; sacred designs were not made up at will,
but were handed forward as traditions. Doubts have been raised by
Ainalov as to whether the important Crucifixion picture of Rabula's
Gospel is not much later than the rest of the book, but the finding of
it repeated at Sta Maria Antiqua proves that it is probably at least as old
as the painting there. Other fragmentary paintings suggest that there
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Romanesque among the Teutons
559
was a series of subjects drawn from the New Testament with their
" types” from the Old Testament set against them. Now Bede tells us
categorically that a series of pictures representing such types was brought
from Rome by Benedict Biscop to adorn his monastery. Thus paintings,
embodying theological conceptions, originated in the East and were
carried to Northumbria. Already in the Rossano book Christ appears
as the Good Samaritan, who aids the traveller and carries him to the inn.
This is a conception which is fully worked out in the superb late twelfth
century stained glass window at Sens. In the painted book of Cosmas
the Indian traveller, a sixth century Alexandrian work, there are several
pairs of types, thus the Sacrifice of Isaac, the escape of Jonah from the
Whale, and the Translation of Elijah, typify the Crucifixion, Resurrec-
tion and the Ascension of Christ. All these types reappear on the
sculptures of the Irish crosse Of course such "types" are found in
the catacomb paintings, but in these the idea had not been systematised.
From the time of Charlemagne until the generation in which Gothic
architecture was to emerge, Germany led in the arts. This is less
obvious in architecture, but when the arts are considered as a whole it
must be admitted. The carved ivories of the Carolingian school form
a magnificent series, and the metal-work, enamels and manuscripts are
as noteworthy. If we regard all the splendid works of art wrought in
North Italy, Germany, North France and England, we may see that the
Romanesque was an essentially Teutonic movement. The Gothic
arose in France when the people had been sufficiently saturated with the
new Romance spirit. The Romanesque looked back to Rome and By-
zantium, the Gothic faced forward to the new world. The French
kingdom was born while Gothic architecture was being formed.
Until the beginning of the twelfth century the centres of Romanesque
art were in the neighbourhood of the lower Rhine and in Lombardy.
The most advanced piece of figure art wrought early in the twelfth
century is the noble bronze font now at Liège, the work of an artist of
Huy. This has completely shaken off barbarism, it is clear and sweet
in expression, the sort of thing we should like to call modern if modern
people could rise to it. A study of the bronze works at Hildesheim,
wrought under the direction of the great Bishop Bernward, shews that
the bronze workers of Huy derived their traditions from the artists of
Hildesheim, as those doubtless followed the men who worked for Charle-
magne at Aix two centuries earlier still.
At Hildesheim the doors
and the celebrated bronze column were made about the
1075. On
the square base of the latter are little figures of the four rivers of
Paradise. This may remind us of the bronze pine cone at Aix which
has the names of the rivers of Eden inscribed on its four sides. The
four rivers occur again on a most beautiful bronze font of the thirteenth
century in the cathedral. Again, on the bronze column there is a group
of people listening to Christ, which is plainly the prototype of another
year
CH. XXI.


## p. 560 (#606) ############################################

560
Architecture after Charlemagne
group on the Liège font. Thus the traditions of the bronze workers
were handed on to Dinant, which in turn inherited from Huy and
became the chief European centre for bronze working.
It is impossible here to give a separate account of the many
Romanesque schools of art, or even of architecture, which flourished
between the Carolingian Renaissance and the emergence of Gothic art
in the twelfth century. In Italy, Germany, and France there was
constant effort and practically continuous development towards one un-
foreseen end, the formation of the highly specialised type of art which
we call Gothic. All three countries contributed valuable ideas to the
commonwealth of art and continuously reacted on one another. The
master impulse in architecture was that by which the builders set them-
selves to explore the possibilities of vaulting and the interaction between
vaulting and planning. This may have been brought about in part by
the desire to guard against fire, but it was fed by the gradual spread of
Byzantine customs over the West.
In western Europe during the Carolingian age the churches were
planned in various forms. The central type of plan, varieties of which
are the circle, the polygon and the equal-armed cross, is represented by
the Palatine chapel at Aix-la-Chapelle. St Germigny, near Orleans,
is a square with apses projecting on every side. The large abbey church
of St Croix, Quimperlé, of the eleventh century, is circular with square
projections in the four directions.
Simple churches of this fashion were built in England. At Hexham
one of these was built by Wilfrid, and King Alfred built another at
Athelney. Several later Saxon churches had a big tower forming the
body of the structure with an apse opening from its east side and another
extension towards the west; such “tower churches" must have been simpli-
fications of the central type. The close association of the central tower,
the western version of the Byzantine dome, with the idea of the church has
not been fully worked out, but it led to a general insistence on the central
tower, or lantern, in Romanesque churches. Beneath these towers, at the
crossing of the central span and the transepts, the choirs were placed.
The monk Reginald, one of the Durham chroniclers, describes the
“White Church” (the cathedral) at Durham built by Bishop Aldhun in
1099 thus: “There were in the White Church, in which St Cuthbert had
first rested, two stone towers, as those who saw them have told us, standing
high into the air, the one containing the choir, the other standing at the
west end of the church, which was of wonderful size. They carried brazen
pinnacles set up on top, which aroused both the amazement of all men
and great admiration. ” The still earlier abbey church at Ramsey, built
about 970, was cruciform with a central tower, and at the west end a
smaller tower. Again, when in the description of the Confessor's church
at Westminster we are told that the domus principalis arae was of great
height, it possibly means the choir with the lantern tower, and that the


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Plans of churches
561
actual site of the altar in the apse of the eastern limb was considered as
attached to this dominating central feature. In some later Romanesque
churches in France, as at Issoire, Clermont, and elsewhere, parts of the
transept on either side of the lantern tower are lifted above the general
body of the work, thus adding to the importance of the central structure.
A central tower seems a more or less obvious arrangement, as a matter
of design, where it rises at the centre of a cruciform plan, and it has
sometimes been explained as a device for simplifying the intersection of
the roofs. Several Norman churches, however, like the one at Iffley,
have a tower rising over the choir of a long, simple, unaisled church, a
little to the east of the middle of its length. Here again the tower is as
typically the church as the hall is the house.
The central type of plan persisted also in palace chapels. Charle-
magne's chapel was repeated at the palace of Nimeguen near the mouth
of the Rhine. The palace of Goslar has a chapel with a plan resembling
that of St Germigny mentioned above. William of Malmesbury has a
curious note to the effect that a cathedral church built at Hereford at
the end of the eleventh century was copied from the church at Aix.
In the forest of Loches is a royal chapel, built in the reign of Henry II,
which is circular in form. At the palace of Woodstock was another cir-
cular chapel, and a Norman chapel at Ludlow castle, which still exists,
is also of this form. The English circular and polygonal chapter-houses
of cathedrals, of which that at Worcester is a Norman example, must
either have been adopted from such circular chapels or from the baptis-
teries of some of the old Saxon cathedrals. There seems to have been
such a baptistery at Canterbury, and we are told that it was used for
meetings as well as for its primary purpose.
The transepts of a church were an obvious means of enlarging the
interior space, and as they gave a symbolic form to the plan they became
normal parts of Romanesque structure. Sometimes they were of single
span, at others they had one or two aisles, and from their eastern sides
projected chapels, usually apses. Another type of Carolingian plan had
apses at both ends of the main span. A ninth century drawing for the
plan of the monastery at St Gall is of this form. And this arrangement
was for long a favourite one in Germany. It doubtless conformed to
ritual requirements. In England the Saxon cathedral at Canterbury
and the abbey church at Ramsbury were of this type.
A plan which persisted longer was one with three parallel apses at
the east end, the larger apse terminating the central space being Hanked
by two others at the end of the side aisles. This form of church early
became the usual one in Normandy. The abbey church at Bernay,
built c. 920, had transepts, and three parallel apses to the east. This
plan was again repeated in the great abbey church at Jumièges, which
was itself copied by Edward the Confessor for his fine new church in the
Norman manner, built at Westminster from about 1050. Some remnants
C. MED. H. VOL. III. CH, XXI.
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## p. 562 (#608) ############################################

562
Galleries, porches and crypts
of it which still exist are enough to shew that the plan was a very accu-
rate copy of its prototype, so much so, that it appears that Norman
workmen must have been brought here to do it. The same tradition
was followed at Durham, Lincoln, and many other important churches.
Both Westminster and Jumièges had vestibules and triforium storeys ;
these were old customary features which tended to disappear. Charle-
magne's church at Aix has a fine vaulted gallery over the aisle which
surrounds the central space: and we are told of the Confessor's church
at Westminster that there were, both above and below, chapels dedi-
cated to the saints. In such cases the triforium evidently fulfilled a
function. Later it became a mere formal survival, although the triforium
of the later church at Westminster was probably used for the great con-
gregations at coronations. Many of the German Romanesque churches
have structural galleries at the sides of the choir, and many Norman
churches had galleries at the ends of the transepts. At Canterbury,
Lincoln and Christ Church the transepts seem to have had upper storeys
over their whole extent, forming chapels. Vestibules mentioned above
must represent the narthex of Eastern churches. The church of St
Remi at Rheims had in the tenth century a vaulted work which occupied
nearly half the nave. Immense vaulted porches still exist at Vézelay,
St Benoît-sur-Loire and other places, and the tradition of a western
porch has left its mark on some of the English Romanesque churches, as
Ely and Lincoln. In Germany the western bay was usually carried up
higher than the nave roof between two western towers, making thus an
impressive west end externally.
Quite generally crypts were also constructed beneath the choirs of
Romanesque churches ; deriving from the early confessio beneath the
altar, they frequently became of great size. Often, in the German and
Lombard churches, they were but little buried in the ground, but the
eastern limbs of the churches were raised high above them, and
approached by many steps. This arrangement is often very dignified
and impressive. A great seven-branched candlestick usually stood in the
middle of the platform beyond the steps. Many of the German Roman-
esque churches had rounded ends to the transepts as well as to the
eastern limb, the crossing being thus surrounded by three apsidal projec-
tions. This is a well-known Byzantine type, and St Mary in the Capitol
at Cologne, is an early and noble example in the West; Tournai
cathedral is another. This form of plan was handed on to the early
Gothic of North France, at Noyon and Soissons, and it persisted long in
Germany. The thirteenth century church at Marburg has similar semi-
octagonal apses in three directions, a short nave, no longer than the
transepts, and a chapel at each of the four re-entering angles. It is prac-
tically a church of the central type, and is certainly a very beautiful plan.
Another very beautiful scheme of planning is found in a church at
Angers, which has a wide vaulted nave extended and supported by a


## p. 563 (#609) ############################################

Apses, towers and vaults
563
series of large apsidal recesses or chapels along each side. This type is
again followed at Orvieto cathedral.
The most perfect plan for a great church would seem to be that in
which the central eastern apse is surrounded by an ambulatory from
which small circular-ended chapels open out-one, three, four, five or
seven. This is the plan which was adopted in the main line of progress
into Gothic, and it continued to be used right through the Middle Ages.
This fine scheme probably dates from Carolingian days, and three
important churches, at Tours, Dijon and Le Mans, were built in this
form at the end of the tenth century. Churches of the same type were
built in England, first for the abbey of St Augustine, Canterbury, and
the cathedrals of Winchester and Gloucester, during the last quarter of
the eleventh century. An apse was an essential member of a great church
during the Romanesque period. In its centre the bishop had his throne
lifted high above the altar as ruler of the assembly; this broken rem-
nants at Norwich still shew. The planning of a great church implied the
dealing with several common factors which might be variously combined,
The nave might be one, or three, or five spans wide ; there might be a
transept of one, two, or three spans, and the eastern limb might have a
simple apse, or parallel apses, or an ambulatory and a series of radiating
chapels. The position of towers was another factor to be considered.
Their positions were partly, doubtless, a matter of choice, but largely they
were conditioned by structural requirements. A great single tower at
the west end, as at Ely, will stop the thrusts of the inner arcading as
well as the more usual pair of towers. In French churches towers were
frequently put at the transepts also, and Winchester cathedral seems to
have been intended to have transeptal towers. In Germany towers are
often seen on either side of the apse. At Tournai four towers built
around the crossing against the transepts support the central lantern,
making a most impressive group of five spire-capped towers. At Exeter
two massive towers stand over small square transepts. A third great
controlling factor in the design of churches was that of vaulting. The
possibilities of rearing vaults were explored in all sorts of ways. All
three spans might have barrel vaults, or those over the aisles might be
quadrants rising higher against the nave than where they fell on the
aisle walls. The bays might be vaulted transversely, a favourite device
in Burgundy, or they might be covered by a combination of longitudinal
and transverse vaults interpenetrating and forming“ groined” vaults.
This last became the standard form for the vaults of churches in north-
western Europe, and the tradition was carried forward into Gothic.
The use of this scheme allowed of high windows in every bay, and con-
centrated the thrusts at intervals above the piers of the inner arcades.
One school of French Romanesque experimented with a series of domes
covering square compartments, and the curious church at Loches has its
nave covered by stone pyramidal erections like low pitched spires. It
OH. XXI.
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## p. 564 (#610) ############################################

564
Beginnings of Gothic
a
has hardly been realised how many of the greater “Norman” churches
in England were vaulted, especially their eastern limbs and transepts.
The eastern limb of the great abbey church of St Albans, begun about
ten years after the Conquest, was vaulted. Durham and Lincoln cathe-
drals were vaulted throughout, by the middle of the twelfth century.
The abbey churches of Gloucester, Pershore and Tewkesbury all seem to
have had vaulted choirs and transepts; so probably had Canterbury
cathedral, Winchester cathedral, St Paul's cathedral, Reading abbey
and Lewes priory churches and many others. Frequently the nave was
covered with a wooden ceiling while the eastern half of the church was
vaulted. At Peterborough such a ceiling, delightfully decorated with
bold pattern-work, still exists. This church and others had such ceilings
throughout. The “ glorious choir” at Canterbury had a specially famous
painted ceiling. It is noteworthy that even in quite small churches the
chancels were frequently covered with vaults, while the rest of the struc-
ture had wooden roofs.
Many modifications were made in the planning of great churches to
accommodate the vaults, and a remarkable contrivance became common
towards the end of the twelfth century for the purpose of supporting the
high central vaults. This was the flying buttress, a strong arch built in
the open air, rising from the lower walls of the aisles, and butting against
those of the clerestory. Such buttresses were greatly developed in
Gothic architecture, but their invention is due to Romanesque builders.
Another great invention, which was of primary importance for the
development of Gothic, seems to have been made towards the end of the
eleventh century. This was the method of erecting vaults by first
building a series of skeleton arches (ribs) diagonally across each bay,
and then covering this subdivided space with a lighter web of work. In
England the method was used at Durham, and this is the first well-
authenticated instance in the west of Europe. Other examples, which
are said to be earlier, are known in Italy.
The general movement, which was to pass over an invisible frontier
into what we call Gothic architecture, was characterised by a search for
more vigorous and clear solutions of structural problems, a gathering up
of the wall masses into piers and buttresses and the vaults into ribs.
The whole medieval process in architecture from, say, the time of
Charlemagne to the time of the Black Death, was an organic develop-
ment. One phase in the progress may be traced in the tendency to
break up piers and arches into a series of recessed orders or members;
that is, they widen by degrees in a step-like profile. This held the germ
of the change from a square pier set in the direction of the wall into one
placed diagonally. Such membering of arches and piers easily led to
sub-arching, that is, the including of two or more smaller arches under
a larger one; and this again was to lead up to the development of
tracery. The process also early shewed itself in a liking for alternation.


## p.