Imagination
cannot fathom sucl
an object; the belly of Chaos never held the like.
an object; the belly of Chaos never held the like.
Thomas Carlyle
'
"The peculiar grace of the Italian tongue favoured the
choice and noble arrangement of these words, which more-
over were accompanied with lively gestures, wherewith that
nation can add such a charm to spoken words.
"I took my leave, not without emotion. They all gave
me their hands; the children showed me out; and as I went
down stairs, they jumped to the balcony of the kitchen-
window, which projected over the street; called after me,
threw me salutes, and repeated, that I must in no wise forget
to come back. I saw them still on the balcony, when I
turned the corner. " 1
Poor old Felicita, and must thy pious prayers, thy motherly
blessings, and so many tears shed by those old eyes, be all in
vain! To thyself, in any case, they were blessed. --As for
the Signora Capitummino, with her three fatherless children,
shall we not hope at least, that the fourteen gold Ounces were
paid, by a sure hand, and so her heavy burden, for some space,
lightened a little? Alas, no, it would seem; owing to
accidents, not even that! 2
Count Cagliostro, all this while, is rapidly proceeding with
his Fifth Act; the red coppery splendour darkens more
and more into final gloom. Some boiling muddleheads of a
dupeable sort there still are in England: Popish-Riot Lord
George, for instance, will walk with him to Count Barthelemy's
or D'Adhemar's; and, in bad French and worse rhetoric,
abuse the Queen of France: but what does it profit? Lord
George must one day (after noise enough) revisit Newgate
for it; and in the meanwhile, hard words pay no scores.
Apothecary Swinton begins to get wearisome; French spies
look ominously in; Egyptian Pills are slack of sale; the old
vulturous Attorney-host anew scents carrion, is bestirring
itself anew: Count Cagliostro, in the May of 1787, must once
more leave England. But whither? Ah, whither! At Bale,
at Bienne, over Switzerland, the game is up. At Aix in
Savoy, there are baths, but no gudgeons in them: at Turin,
his Majesty of Sardinia meets you with an order to begone
'on the instant. A like fate from the Emperor Joseph at
Roveredo;--before the Liber memorialis de Caleostro dum
esset Roboretti could extend to many pages! Count Front-of-
1 Goethe's Werke (Italidnische Reise), xxviii. 146. * Ibid.
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? 300 Carlyle's Essays
brass begins confessing himself to priests: yet "at Trent
paints a new hieroglyphic Screen,"--touching last flicker of
a light that once burnt so high! He pawns diamond buckles;
wanders necessitous hither and thither; repents, unrepents;
knows not what to do. For Destiny has her nets round him;
they are straitening, straitening; too soon he will be ginned!
Driven out from Trent, what shall he make of the new
hieroglyphic Screen, what of himself? The wayworn Grand-
Cophtess has begun to blab family secrets; she longs to be
in Rome, by her mother's hearth, by her mother's grave; in
any nook, where so much as the shadow of refuge waits her.
To the desperate Count Front-of-brass all places are nearly
alike: urged by female babble, he will go to Rome, then;
why not? On a May-day, of the year 1789 (when such glori-
ous work had just begun in France, to him all forbidden! ),
he enters the Eternal City; it was his doom-summons that
called him thither. On the 29th of next December, the Holy
Inquisition, long watchful enough, detects him founding some
feeble moneyless ghost of an Egyptian Lodge; "picks him
off," as the military say, and locks him hard and fast in the
Castle of St. Angelo:
Lasciate ogni speranza, voi che 'ntrate!
Count Cagliostro did not lose all hope: nevertheless a few
words will now suffice for him. In vain, with his mouth of
pinchbeck and his front of brass, does he heap chimera on
chimera; demand religious Books (which are freely given
him); demand clean Linen, and an interview with his Wife
(which are refused him); assert now that the Egyptian
Masonry is a divine system, accommodated to erring and
gullible men, which the Holy Father, when he knows it, will
patronise; anon that there are some four millions of Free-
masons, spread over Europe, all sworn to exterminate Priest
and King, wherever met with: in vain! they will not acquit
him, as misunderstood Theophilanthropist; will not emit
him, in Pope's pay, as renegade Masonic Spy: "he can't get
out. " Donna Lorenza languishes, invisible to him, in a
neighbouring cell; begins at length to confess I Whereupon
he too, in torrents, will emit confessions and forestall her:
these the Inquisition pocket and sift (whence this Life of
Balsamo); but will not let him out. In fine, after some
eighteen months of the weariest hounding, doubling, worrying
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? Count Cagliostro 301
and standing at bay, His Holiness gives sentence: The
Manuscript of Egyptian Masonry is to be burnt by hand of
the common Hangman, and all that intermeddle with such
Masonry are accursed; Giuseppe Balsamo, justly forfeited
of life for being a Freemason, shall nevertheless in mercy be
forgiven; instructed in the duties of penitence, and even
kept safe thenceforth and till death,--in ward of Holy Church.
Ill-starred Acharat, must it so end with thee? This was in
April 1791.
He addressed (how vainly! ) an appeal to the French
Constituent Assembly. As was said, in Heaven, in Earth,
or in Hell there was no Assembly that could well take his
part. For four years more, spent one knows not how,--
most probably in the furor of edacity, with insufficient
cookery, and the stupor of indigestion,--the curtain lazily
falls. There rotted and gave way the cordage of a tough
heart. One summer morning of the year 1795, the Body of
Cagliostro is still found in the prison of St. Leo; but Cagli-
ostro's Self has escaped,--whither no man yet knows. The
brow of brass, behold how it has got all unlacquered; these
pinchbeck lips can lie no more: Cagliostro's work is ended,
and now only his account to present. As the Scherif of
Mecca said, " Nature's unfortunate child, adieu! "
Such, according to our comprehension thereof, is the rise,
progress, grandeur and decadence of the Quack of Quacks.
Does the reader ask, What good was in it; Why occupy his
time and ours with the biography of such a miscreant? We
answer, It was stated on the very threshold of this matter,
in the loftiest terms, by Herr Sauerteig, that the Lives of all
Eminent Persons, miscreant or creant, ought to be written.
Thus has not the very Devil his Life, deservedly written not
by Daniel Defoe only, but by quite other hands than Daniel's?
For the rest, the Thing represented on these pages is no Sham,
but a Reality; thou hast it, O reader, as we have it: Nature
was pleased to produce even such a man, even so, not other-
wise; and the Editor of this Magazine is here mainly to record,
in an adequate manner, what she, of her thousandfold mys-
terious richness and greatness, produces.
But the moral lesson? Where is the moral lesson?
Foolish reader, in every Reality, nay in every genuine Shadow
of a Reality (what we call Poem), there lie a hundred such,
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? 302 Carlyle's Essays
or a million such, according as thou hast the eye to read
them! Of which hundred or million lying here in the present
Reality, couldst not thou, for example, be advised to take
this one, to thee worth all the rest: "Behold, I too have
attained that immeasurable, mysterious glory of being alive;
to me also a Capability has been intrusted; shall I strive
to work it out, manlike, into Faithfulness, and Doing; or,
quacklike, into Eatableness, and Similitude of Doing? Or
why not rather, gigman-like, and following the ' respectable'
countless multitude,--into both? " The decision is of quite
infinite moment; see thou make it aright.
But in fine, look at this matter of Cagliostro, as at all
matters, with thy heart, with thy whole mind; no longer
merely squint at it with the poor side-glance of thy calculative
faculty. Look at it not logically only, but mystically. Thou
shalt in sober truth see it (as Sauerteig asserted) to be a
Pasquillant verse, of most inspired writing in its kind, in that
same " Grand Bible of Universal History; " wondrously and
even indispensably connected with the Heroic portions that
stand there; even as the all-showing Light is with the Dark-
ness wherein nothing can be seen; as the hideous taloned
roots are with the fair boughs, and their leaves and flowers and
fruit; both of which, and not one of which, make the Tree.
Think also whether thou hast known no Public Quacks, on
far higher scale than this, whom a Castle of St. Angelo never
could get hold of; and how, as Emperors, Chancellors (having
found much fitter machinery), they could run their Quack-
career; and make whole kingdoms, whole continents, into
one huge Egyptian Lodge, and squeeze supplies of money or
of blood from it at discretion? Also, whether thou even now
knowest not Private Quacks, innumerable as the sea-sands,
toiling as mere /fay-Cagliostros; imperfect, hybrid-quacks,
of whom Cagliostro is as the unattainable ideal and type-
specimen? Such is the world. Understand it, despise it,
love it; cheerfully hold on thy way through it, with thy eye
on higher load-stars!
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? THE NIGGER QUESTION
[Precursor to Latter-day Pamphlets]
[1849]
OCCASIONAL DISCOURSE ON THE NIGGER
QUESTION1
The following Occasional Discourse, delivered by we know not
whom, and of date seemingly above a year back, may perhaps
be welcome to here and there a speculative reader. It comes to
us,--no speaker named, no time or place assigned, no com-
mentary of any sort given,--in the handwriting of the so-called
"Doctor," properly " Absconded Reporter," Dr. Phelim M'Quirk,
whose singular powers of reporting, and also whose debts, ex-
travagancies and sorrowful insidious finance-operations, now
winded-up by a sudden disappearance, to the grief of many poor
tradespeople, are making too much noise in the police-offices at
present I Of M'Quirk's composition we by no means suppose it
to be; but from M'Quirk, as the last traceable source, it comes
to us;--offered, in fact, by his respectable unfortunate landlady,
desirous to make-up part of her losses in this way.
To absconded reporters who bilk their lodgings, we have of
course no account to give; but if the Speaker be of any eminence
or substantiality, and feel himself aggrieved by the transaction,
let him understand that such, and such only, is our connection
with him or his affairs. As the Colonial and Negro Question is
still alive, and likely to grow livelier for some time, we have
accepted the Article, at a cheap market-rate; and give it
publicity, without in the least committing ourselves to the
strange doctrines and notions shadowed forth in it. Doctrines
and notions which, we rather suspect, are pretty much in a
"minority of one," in the present era of the world! Here, sure
enough, are peculiar views of the Rights of Negroes; involving, it
is probable, peculiar ditto of innumerable other rights, duties,
expectations, wrongs and disappointments, much argued of, by
logic and by grape-shot, in these emancipated epochs of the
human mind! --Silence now, however; and let the Speaker him-
self enter.
My Philanthropic Friends,--It is my painful duty to address
some words to you, this evening, on the Rights of Negroes.
1First printed in Fraser's Magazine, December 1849; reprinted in
the form of a separate Pamphlet, London, 1853.
3<<>3
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? 304 Carlyle's Essays
Taking, as we hope we do, an extensive survey of social
affairs, which we find all in a state of the frightfulest embroil-
ment, and as it were of inextricable final bankruptcy, just at
present; and being desirous to adjust ourselves in that huge
upbreak, and unutterable welter of tumbling ruins, and to
see well that our grand proposed Association of Associations,
the Universal Abolition-of-Pain Association, which is
meant to be the consummate golden flower and summary
of modern Philanthropisms all in one, do not issue as a
universal "Sluggard - and - Scoundrel Protection Society,"
--we have judged that, before constituting ourselves, it would
be very proper to commune earnestly with one another, and
discourse together on the leading elements of our great
Problem, which surely is one of the greatest. With this
view the Council has decided, both that the Negro Question,
as lying at the bottom, was to be the first handled, and if
possible the first settled; and then also, what was of much
more questionable wisdom, that--that, in short, I was to be
Speaker on the occasion. An honourable duty; yet, as
I said, a painful one! --Well, you shall hear what I have to
say on the matter; and probably you wilj not in the least
like it.
West-Indian affairs, as we all know, and as some of us
know to our cost, are in a rather troublous condition this
good while. In regard to West-Indian affairs, however, Lord
John Russell is able to comfort us with one fact, indisputable
where so many are dubious, That the Negroes are all very
happy and doing well. A fact very comfortable indeed.
West-Indian Whites, it is admitted, are far enough from
happy; West-Indian Colonies not unlike sinking wholly into
ruin: at home too, the British Whites are rather badly off;
several millions of them hanging on the verge of continual
famine; and in single towns, many thousands of them very
sore put to it,at this time,not to live "well" oras a man should,
in any sense temporal or spiritual, but to live at all:--these,
again, are uncomfortable facts; and they are extremely
extensive and important ones. But, thank Heaven, our
interesting Black population,--equalling almost in number
of heads one of the Ridings of Yorkshire, and in worth (in
quantity of intellect, faculty, docility, energy, and available
human valour and value) perhaps one of the streets of Seven
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? The Nigger Question 305
Dials,--are all doing remarkably well. "Sweet blighted
lilies,"--as the American epitaph on the Nigger child has
^it,--sweet blighted lilies, they are holding-up their heads
fcgain! How pleasant, in the universal bankruptcy abroad,
land dim dreary stagnancy at home, as if for England too
[there remained nothing but to suppress Chartist riots, banish
united Irishmen, vote the supplies, and wait with arms
crossed till black Anarchy and Social Death devoured us
ilso, as it has done the others; how pleasant to have always
this fact to fall-back upon: Our beautiful Black darlings are
at last happy; with little labour except to the teeth, which
;urely, in those excellent horse-jaws of theirs, will not fail!
Exeter Hall, my philanthropic friends, has had its way in
jhis matter. The Twenty Millions, a mere trifle despatched
,<<ith a single dash of the pen, are paid; and far over the sea,
we^lave a few black persons rendered extremely "free"
indeed. Sitting yonder with their beautiful muzzles up to
the ears in pumpkins, imbibing sweet pulps and juices; the
grinder and incisor teeth ready for ever new work, and the
pumpkins cheap as grass in those rich climates: while the
sugar-crops rot round them uncut, because labour cannot
hired, so cheap are the pumpkins;--and at home we are
but required to rasp from the breakfast-loaves of our own
English labourers some slight "differential sugar-duties,"
2nd lend a poor half-million or a few poor millions now and
then, to keep that beautiful state of matters going on. A
state of matters lovely to contemplate, in these emancipated
epochs of the human mind; which has earned us not only
the praises of Exeter Hall, and loud long-eared hallelujahs of
. audatory psalmody from the Friends of Freedom everywhere,
Hit lasting favour (it is hoped) from the Heavenly Powers
themselves;--and which may, at least, justly appeal to the
Heavenly Powers, and ask them, If ever in terrestrial pro-
cure they saw the match of it? Certainly in the past
? history of the human species it has no parallel: nor, one hopes,
will it have in the future. [Some emotion in the audience;
vhich the Chairman suppressed. ]
Sunk in deep froth-oceans of" Benevolence," " Fraternity,"
v' Emancipation-principle," "Christian Philanthropy," and
other most amiable-looking, but most baseless, and in the
end baleful and all-bewildering jargon,--sad product of a
sceptical Eighteenth Century, and of poor human hearts left
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? 306
Carlyle's Essays
destitute of any earnest guidance, and disbelieving that then
ever was any, Christian or Heathen, and reduced to believc
in rosepink Sentimentalism alone, and to cultivate the sainc
under its Christian, Antichristian, Broad-brimmed, Brutus-
headed, and other forms,--has not the human species gone
strange roads, during that period? And poor Exeter Hall,
cultivating the Broad-brimmed form of Christian Sentimen-
talism, and long talking and bleating and braying in that
strain, has it not worked-out results'? Our West-Indiai
Legislatings, with their spoutings, anti-spoutings, and inter-
minable jangle and babble; our Twenty millions down or
the nail for Blacks of our own; Thirty gradual millions more,
and many brave British lives to boot, in watching Blacks
of other people's; and now at last our ruined sugar-estates,
differential sugar-duties, " immigration loan," and beautifu'
Blacks sitting there up to the ears in pumpkins, and dolenf!
'Whites sitting here without potatoes to eat: never till now.
I think, did the sun look-down on such a jumble of human
nonsenses;--of which, with the two hot nights of the Missing-
Despatch Debate,1 God grant that the measure might now
at last be full! But no, it is not yet full; we have a long
way to travel back, and terrible flounderings to make, and is,
fact an immense load of nonsense to dislodge from our poor
heads, and manifold cobwebs to rend from our poor eyes,
before we get into the road again, and can begin to act a*
serious men that have work to do in this Universe, and no
longer as windy sentimentalists that merely have speeches
to deliver and despatches to write. 0 Heaven, in West*
Indian matters, and in all manner of matters, it is so with
us: the more is the sorrow! --
The West Indies, it appears, are short of labour; as indeed1
is very conceivable in those circumstances. Where a Black
man, by working about half-an-hour a-day (such is the
calculation), can supply himself, by aid of sun and soil, with
as much pumpkin as will suffice, he is likely to be a little stiff
to raise into hard work! Supply and demand, which, science
says, should be brought to bear on him, have an uphill task
1 Does any reader now remember it? A cloudy reminiscence of
some such thing, and of noise in the Newspapers upon it, remains with
us,--fast hastening to abolition for everybody. (Note of 1849. )--This
Missing-Despatch Debate, what on earth was it? (Note of 1853. )
1
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? The Nigger Question 307
? f it with such a man. Strong sun supplies itself gratis,
ich soil in those unpeopled or half-peopled regions almost
;ratis; these are his "supply;" and half-an-hour a-day,
lirected upon these, will produce pumpkin, which is his
'demand. " The fortunate Black man, very swiftly does he
ettle his account with supply and demand:--not so swiftly
he less fortunate White man of those tropical localities.
bad case, his, just now. He himself cannot work; and his
jlack neighbour, rich in pumpkin, is in no haste to help him.
Junk to the ears in pumpkin, imbibing saccharine juices, and
nuch at his ease in the Creation, he can listen to the less
brtunate white man's " demand " and take his own time in
supplying it. Higher wages, massa; higher, for your cane-
:rop cannot wait; still higher,--till no conceivable opulence
if cane-crop will cover such wages. In Demerara, as I read
in the Blue-book of last year, the cane-crop, far and wide,
stands rotting; the fortunate black gentlemen, strong in
their pumpkins, having all struck till the "demand" rise
a little. Sweet blighted lilies, now getting-up their heads
again!
Science, however, has a remedy still. Since the demand
is so pressing, and the supply so inadequate (equal in fact to
nothing in some places, as appears), increase the supply;
bring more Blacks into the labour-market, then will the rate
tall, says science. Not the least surprising part of our West-
Indian policy is this recipe of "immigration;" of keeping-
down the labour-market in those islands by importing new
'Africans to labour and live there. If the Africans that are'
already there could be made to lay-down their pumpkins, and
labour for their living, there are already Africans enough. If
;the new Africans, after labouring a little, take to pumpkins
like the others, what remedy is there? To bring-in new and
ever new Africans, say you, till pumpkins themselves grow
dear; till the country is crowded with Africans; and black
men there, like white men here, are forced by hunger to
labour for their living? That will be a consummation. To
have " emancipated " the West Indies into a Black Ireland;
"free " indeed, but an Ireland, and Black! The world may
'yet see prodigies; and reality be stranger than a nightmare
dream.
Our own white or sallow Ireland, sluttishly starving from
age to age on its act-of-parliament " freedom," was hitherto
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? 308 Carlyle's Essays
the flower of mismanagement among the nations: but wha
will this be to a Negro Ireland, with pumpkins themselve
fallen scarce like potatoes!
Imagination cannot fathom sucl
an object; the belly of Chaos never held the like. Thehuma:
mind, in its wide wanderings, has not dreamt yet of such;
"freedom" as that will be. Towards that, if Exeter Hal
and science of supply-and-demand are to continue our guide
in the matter, we are daily travelling, and even struggling
with loans of half - a - million and suchlike, to accelerat
ourselves.
Truly, my philanthropic friends, Exeter-Hall Philanthrop
is wonderful. And the Social Science,--not a " gay science,
but a rueful,--which finds the secret of this Universe i
"supply and demand," and reduces the duty of huma
governors to that of letting men alone, is also wonderfu
Not a " gay science," I should say, like some we have heard o'i
no, a dreary, desolate, and indeed quite abject and distressin
one; what we might call, by way of eminence, the disma
science. These two, Exeter-Hall Philanthropy and the Dis
mal Science, led by any sacred cause of Black Emancipation
or the like, to fall in love and make a wedding of it,--wii
give birth to progenies and prodigies; dark extensive moon
calves, unnamable abortions, wide-coiled monstrosities, suo
as the world has not seen hitherto! [Increased emotion
again suppressed by the Chairman. ]'
In fact, it will behove us of this English nation to overhau
our West-Indian procedure from top to bottom, and ascertaii
a little better what it is that Fact and Nature demand of u;
and what only Exeter Hall wedded to the Dismal Scieno
demands. To the former set of demands we will endeavour
at our peril,--and worse peril than our purse's, at our soul'
peril,--to give all obedience. To the latter we will ver
frequently demur, and try if we cannot stop short where the;
contradict the former,--and especially before arriving at th
black throat of ruin, whither they appear to be leading us
Alas, in many other provinces besides the West Indian, tha
unhappy wedlock of Philanthropic Liberalism and the Disma
Science has engendered such all-enveloping delusions, of th1
moon-calf sort, and wrought huge woe for us, and for the poo
civilised world, in these days! And sore will be the battlf
with said moon-calves; and terrible the struggle to returr
out of our delusions, floating rapidly on which, not the West
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? The Nigger Question 309
Indies alone, but Europe generally, is nearing the Niagara
Falls. [Here various persons, in an agitated manner, with an
%ir of indignation, left the room ; especially one very tall gentle-
nan in white trousers, whose boots creaked much. The Presi-
dent, in a resolved voice, with a look of official rigour, whatever
his own private feelings might be, enjoined " Silence, Silence! "
The meeting again sat motionless. ]
My philanthropic friends, can you discern no fixed head-
lands in this wide-weltering deluge, of benevolent twaddle
rnd revolutionary grape-shot, that has burst-forth on us; no
jure bearings at all? Fact and Nature, it seems to me, say
1 few words to us, if happily we have still an ear for Fact and
Nature. Let us listen a little and try.
And first, with regard to the West Indies, it may be laid-
Jown as a principle, which no eloquence in Exeter Hall, or
Westminster Hall, or elsewhere, can invalidate or hide, except
[or a short time only, That no Black man who will not work
iccording to what ability the gods have given him for working,
ias the smallest right to eat pumpkin, or to any fraction of
and that will grow pumpkin, however plentiful such land
nay be; but has an indisputable and perpetual right to be
impelled, by the real proprietors of said land, to do com-
petent work for his living. This is the everlasting duty of all
nen, black or white, who are born into this world. To do
X>mpetent work, to labour honestly according to the ability
>>iven them; for that and for no other purpose was each one of
is sent into this world; and woe is to every man who, by
Hend or by foe, is prevented from fulfilling this the end of
lis being. That is the " unhappy " lot: lot equally unhappy
mnnot otherwise be provided for man. Whatsoever prohibits
Dr prevents a man from this his sacred appointment to labour
vhile he lives on earth,--that, I say, is the man's deadliest
;nemy; and all men are called upon to do what is in their
power or opportunity towards delivering him from that. If
it be his own indolence that prevents and prohibits him,
then his own indolence is the enemy he must be delivered
from: and the first "right" he has,--poor indolent block-
bead, black or white,--is, That every wwprohibited man,
whatsoever wiser, more industrious person may be passing
that way, shall endeavour to "emancipate" him from his
indolence, and by some wise means, as I said, compel him,
since inducing will not serve, to do the work he is fit for.
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? 310 Carlylc's Essays
Induce him, if you can: yes, sure enough, by all means try
what inducement will do; and indeed every coachman and
carman knows that secret, without our preaching, and applies
it to his very horses as the true method:--but if your Nigger
will not be induced? In that case, it is full certain, he must
be compelled; should and must; and the tacit prayer he
makes (unconsciously he, poor blockhead,) to you, and to me,
and to all the world who are wiser than himself, is " Compel
me! " For indeed he must, or else do and suffer worse-
he as well as we. It were better the work did come out of
him! It was the meaning of the gods with him and with us,
that his gift should turn to use in this Creation, and not lie
poisoning the thoroughfares, as a rotten mass of idleness,
agreeable to neither heaven nor earth. For idleness does, in
all cases, inevitably rot, and become putrescent;--and I sa\
deliberately, the very Devil is in it.
None of you, my friends, have been in Demerara lately, I
apprehend? May none of you go till matters mend there a
little! Under the sky there are uglier sights than perhaps
were seen hitherto! Dead corpses, the rotting body of a
brother man, whom fate or unjust men have killed, this is not
a pleasant spectacle; but what say you to the dead soul of
a man,--in a body which still pretends to be vigorously alive,
and can drink rum? An idle White gentleman is not pleasant
to me; though I confess the real work for him is not easy te
find, in these our epochs; and perhaps he is seeking, poor
soul, and may find at last. But what say you to an idle
Black gentleman, with his rum-bottle in his hand (for a littli
additional pumpkin you can have red-herrings and rum,
in Demerara),--rum-bottle in his hand, no breeches on his
body, pumpkin at discretion, and the fruitfulest region of the
earth going back to jungle round him? Such things the sun
looks-down upon in our fine times; and I, for one, would
rather have no hand in them.
Yes, this is the eternal law of Nature for a man, my bene-
ficent Exeter-Hall friends; this, that he shall be permitted,
encouraged, and if need be, compelled to do what work the
Maker of him has intended by the making of him for this
world! Not that he should eat pumpkin with never sucb
felicity in the West-India Islands is, or can be, the blessedness
of our Black friend; but that he should do useful work there,
according as the gifts have been bestowed on him fox that-
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? The Nigger Question
? And his own happiness, and that of others round him, will
alone be possible by his and their getting into such a relation
that this can be permitted him, and in case of need, that this
? can be compelled him. I beg you to understand this; for
you seem to have a little forgotten it, and there lie a thousand
inferences in it, not quite useless for Exeter Hall, at present.
. The idle Black man in the West Indies had, not long since,
the right, and will again under better form, if it please Heaven,
have the right (actually the first "right of man" for an
indolent person) to be compelled to work as he was fit, and to
do the Maker's will who had constructed him with such and
such capabilities, and prefigurements of capability. And I
incessantly pray Heaven, all men, the whitest alike and the
blackest, the richest and the poorest, in other regions of the
'world, had attained precisely the same right, the divine
right of being compelled (if "permitted" will not answer)
to do what work they are appointed for, and not to go idle
another minute, in a life which is so short, and where idleness
so soon runs to putrescence! Alas, we had then a perfect
world; and the Millennium, and true "Organisation of
Labour," and reign of complete blessedness, for all workers
and men, had then arrived,--which in these our own poor
districts of the Planet, as we all lament to know, it is very
far from having yet done. [More withdrawals; but the rest
sitting with increased attention. ]
Do I, then, hate the Negro? No; except when the soul is
killed out of him, I decidedly like poor Quashee; and find
him a pretty kind of man. With a pennyworth of oil, you can
make a handsome glossy thing of Quashee, when the soul
is not killed in him! A swift, supple fellow; a merry-hearted,
grinning, dancing, singing, affectionate kind of creature, with
a great deal of melody and amenability in his composition.
This certainly is a notable fact: The black African, alone of
wild-men, can live among men civilised. While all manner
of Caribs and others pine into annihilation in presence of the
pale faces, he contrives to continue; does not die of sullen
irreconcilable rage, of rum, of brutish laziness and darkness,
,and fated incompatibility with his new place; but lives and
multiplies, and evidently means to abide among us, if we can
find the right regulation for him. We shall have to find
it; we are now engaged in the search; and have at least
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? 312 Carlyle's Essays
discovered that of two methods, the old Demerara method,
and the new Demerara method, neither will answer.
Alas, my friends, I understand well your rage against the
poor Negro's slavery; what said rage proceeds from; and
have a perfect sympathy with it, and even know it by experi-
ence. Can the oppressor of my black fellow-man be of any
use to me, in particular? Am I gratified in my mind by the
ill-usage of any two- or four-legged thing; of any horse 01
any dog? Not so, I assure you. In me too the natural
sources of human rage exist more or less, and the capability
of flying out into "fiery wrath against oppression," and of
signing petitions; both of which things can be done very
cheap. Good heavens, if signing petitions would do it, if
hopping to Rome on one leg would do it, think you it were
long undone!
Frightful things are continually told us of Negro slavery,
of the hardships, bodily and spiritual, suffered by slaves.
Much exaggerated, and mere exceptional cases, say the
opponents. Exceptional cases, I answer; yes, and universa)
ones! On the whole, hardships, and even oppressions and
injustices are not unknown in this world; I myself have
suffered such, and have not you? It is said, Man, of what-
ever colour, is born to such, even as the sparks fly upwards!
For in fact labour, and this is properly what we call hardship,
misery, etc. (meaning mere ugly labour not yet done), labouz
is not joyous but grievous; and we have a good deal of it to
do among us here. We have, simply, to carry the whole
world and its businesses upon our backs, we poor unitejj
Human Species; to carry it, and shove it forward, from daj
to day, somehow or other, among us, or else be ground to
powder under it, one and all. No light task, let me tell you.
even if each did his part honestly, which each doesn't
any means. No, only the noble lift willingly with their
whole strength, at the general burden; and in such a crowd,
after all your drillings, regulatings, and attempts at equitable
distribution, and compulsion, what deceptions are still prac
ticable, what errors are inevitable! Many cunning ignoble
fellows shirk the labour altogether; and instead of faithfully
lifting at the immeasurable universal handbarrow with its
thousand-million handles, contrive to get on some ledge of it,
and be lifted!
What a story we have heard about all that, not from vague
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? The Nigger Question
rumour since yesterday, but from inspired prophets, speakers
and seers, ever since speech began! How the giant willing
spirit, among white masters, and in the best-regulated families,
is so often not loaded only but overloaded, crushed-down like
an Enceladus; and, all his life, has to have armies of pigmies
building tabernacles on his chest; marching composedly over
his neck, as if it were a highway; and much amazed if, when
they run their straw spear into his nostril, he is betrayed into
sudden sneezing, and oversets some of them. [Some laughter,
the speaker himself looking terribly serious. ] My friends, I a
have come to the sad conclusion that slavery, whether
established by law, or by law abrogated, exists very exten-
sively in this world, in and out of the West Indies; and, in
fact, that you cannot abolish slavery by act of parliament, but
* can only abolish the name of it, which is very little!
In the West Indies itself, if you chance to abolish Slavery
to Men, and in return establish Slavery to the Devil (as we
see in Demerara), what good is it? To save men's bodies, and
fill them with pumpkins and rum, is a poor task for human
benevolence, if you have to kill their soul, what soul there
was, in the business! Slavery is not so easy to be abolished;
I it will long continue, in spite of acts of parliament. And
shall I tell you whicb is the one intolerable sort of slavery;
the slavery over which the very gods weep? That sort is not
rif est in the West Indies; but, with all its sad fruits, prevails
in nobler countries. It is the slavery of the strong to the
weak; of the great and noble-minded to the small and mean!
. The slavery of Wisdom to Folly. When Folly all " emanci- v.
pated," and become supreme, armed with ballot-boxes,
universal suffrages, and appealing to what Dismal Sciences,
Statistics, Constitutional Philosophies, and other Fool
Gospels it has got devised for itself, can say to Wisdom: "Be
silent, or thou shalt repent it! Suppress thyself, I advise
thee; canst thou not contrive to cease, then? " ,That also,
in some anarchic-constitutional epochs, has been seen. When,
"of high and noble objects, there remained, in the market-
place of human things, at length none; and he that could not
make guineas his pursuit, and the applause of flunkies his
? reward, found himself in such a minority as seldom was before.
Minority, I know, there always was: but there are degrees
of it, down to minority of one,--down to suppression of the
unfortunate minority, and reducing it to zero, that the flunky
H 704 x
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? 314 Carlyle's Essays
world may have peace from it henceforth. The flunky-world
has peace; and descends, manipulating its ballot-boxes,
Coppock suffrages, and divine constitutional apparatus;
quoting its Dismal Sciences, Statistics, and other satisfactory
Gospels and Talmuds,--into the throat of the Devil; not
bothered by the importunate minority on the road. Did
you never hear of " Crucify him! Crucify him! " That was
a considerable feat in the suppressing of minorities; and is
still talked-of on Sundays,--with very little understanding,
when I last heard of it. My friends, my friends, I fear we
are a stupid people; and stuffed with such delusions, above
all with such immense hypocrisies and self-delusions, from
our birth upwards, as no people were before; God help us!
--Emancipated? Yes, indeed, we are emancipated out of
several things, and into several things. No man, wise or
foolish, any longer can control you for good or for evil.
Foolish Tomkins, foolish Jobson, cannot now singly oppress
you: but if the Universal Company of the Tomkinses and
Jobsons, as by law established, can more than ever? If,
on all highways and byways, that lead to other than a
Tomkins-Jobson winning-post, you meet, at the second step,
the big, dumb, universal genius of Chaos, and are so placidly
yet peremptorily taught, " Halt here! " There is properly
but one slavery in the world. One slavery, in which all
other slaveries and miseries that afflict the earth are included;
compared with which the worst West-Indian, white, or black,
or yellow slaveries are a small matter. One slavery over
which the very gods weep. Other slaveries, women and.
children and stump-orators weep over; but this is for men
and gods! [Sensation; some, however, took snuff. ]
If precisely the Wisest Man were at the top of society, and
the next-wisest next, and so on till we reached the Demerara"
Nigger (from whom downwards, through the horse, etc. ,
there is no question hitherto), then were this a perfect world,
the extreme maximum of wisdom produced in it. That is
how you might produce your maximum, would some god
assist. And I can tell you also how the minimum were
producible. Let no man in particular be put at the top; let
all men be accounted equally wise and worthy, and the notion
get abroad that anybody or nobody will do well enough at
the top; that money (to which may be added success in
stump-oratory) is the real symbol of wisdom, and supply-
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? The Nigger Question 315
and-demand the all-sufficient substitute for command and
obedience among two-legged animals of the unfeathered
class: accomplish all those remarkable convictions in your
thinking department; and then in your practical, as is fit,
decide by count of heads, the vote of a Demerara Nigger equal
and no more to that of a Chancellor Bacon: this, I perceive,
will (so soon as it is fairly under way, and all obstructions
left behihd) give the minimum of wisdom in your proceedings.
Thus were your minimum producible,--with no God needed
to assist, nor any Demon even, except the general Demon of
Ignavia (Unvalour), lazy Indifference to the production or
non-production of such things, which runs in our own blood.
Were it beautiful, think you? Folly in such millionfold
majority, at length peaceably supreme in this earth. Advanc-
ing on you as the huge buffalo-phalanx does in the Western
Deserts; or as, on a smaller scale, those bristly creatures did
in the Country of the Gadarenes. Rushing, namely, in wild
stampede (the Devil being in them, some small fry having
stung them), boundless,--one wing on that edge of your
horizon, the other wing on that, and rearward whole tides
and oceans of them:--so could Folly rush; the enlightened
public one huge Gadarenes-swinery, tail cocked, snout in
airrwith joyful animating short squeak; fast and ever faster;
down steep places,--to the sea of Tiberias, and the bottom-
less cloacas of Nature: quenched there, since nowhere sooner.
My friends, such sight is too sublime, if you are out in it, and
are not of it! --
Well, except by Mastership and Servantship, there is no
conceivable deliverance from Tyranny and Slavery. Cosmos
is not Chaos, simply by this one quality, That it is governed.
Where wisdom, even approximately, can contrive to govern,
all is right, or is ever striving to become so; where folly is
"emancipated," and gets to govern, as it soon will, all is
wrong. That is the sad fact; and in other places than
Demerara, and in regard to other interests than those of
sugar-making, we sorrowfully experience the same.
I have to complain that, in these days, the relation of
master to servant, and of superior to inferior, in all stages of it,
is fallen sadly out of joint. As may well be, when the very
highest stage and form of it, which should be the summary of
all and the keystone of all, is got to such a pass. Kings them-
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? 316 Carlyle's Essays
selves are grown sham-kings; and their subjects very natur-
ally are sham-subjects; with mere lip-homage, insincere to
their sham-kings;--sincere chiefly when they get into the
streets (as is now our desperate case generally in Europe) to
shoot them down as nuisances. Royalty is terribly gone;
and loyalty in consequence has had to go. No man rever-
ences another; at the best, each man slaps the other good-
humouredly on the shoulder, with, " Hail, fellow; well met:"
--at the worst (which is sure enough to follow such unreason-
able good-humour, in a world like ours) clutches him by the
throat, with, "Tyrannous son of perdition, shall I endure
thee, then, and thy injustices forever? " We are not yet got
to the worst extreme, we here in these Isles; but we are well
half-way towards it, I often think.
Certainly, by any ballot-box, Jesus Christ goes just as far
as Judas Iscariot; and with reason, according to the New
Gospels, Talmuds and Dismal Sciences of these days. Judas
looks him in the face; asks proudly, "Am not I as good
as thou? Better, perhaps! " slapping his breeches-pocket,
in which is audible the cheerful jingle of thirty pieces of
silver. "Thirty of them here, thou cowering pauper! "
My philanthropic friends, if there be a state of matters under
the stars which deserves the name of damnable and damned,
this I perceive is it! Alas, I know well whence it came, and
how it could not help coming;--and I continually pray the
gods its errand were done, and it had begun to go its ways
again. Vain hope, at least for a century to come! And
there will be such a sediment of Egyptian mud to sweep
away, and to fish all human things out of again, once this
most sad though salutary deluge is well over, as the human
species seldom had before. Patience, patience!
"The peculiar grace of the Italian tongue favoured the
choice and noble arrangement of these words, which more-
over were accompanied with lively gestures, wherewith that
nation can add such a charm to spoken words.
"I took my leave, not without emotion. They all gave
me their hands; the children showed me out; and as I went
down stairs, they jumped to the balcony of the kitchen-
window, which projected over the street; called after me,
threw me salutes, and repeated, that I must in no wise forget
to come back. I saw them still on the balcony, when I
turned the corner. " 1
Poor old Felicita, and must thy pious prayers, thy motherly
blessings, and so many tears shed by those old eyes, be all in
vain! To thyself, in any case, they were blessed. --As for
the Signora Capitummino, with her three fatherless children,
shall we not hope at least, that the fourteen gold Ounces were
paid, by a sure hand, and so her heavy burden, for some space,
lightened a little? Alas, no, it would seem; owing to
accidents, not even that! 2
Count Cagliostro, all this while, is rapidly proceeding with
his Fifth Act; the red coppery splendour darkens more
and more into final gloom. Some boiling muddleheads of a
dupeable sort there still are in England: Popish-Riot Lord
George, for instance, will walk with him to Count Barthelemy's
or D'Adhemar's; and, in bad French and worse rhetoric,
abuse the Queen of France: but what does it profit? Lord
George must one day (after noise enough) revisit Newgate
for it; and in the meanwhile, hard words pay no scores.
Apothecary Swinton begins to get wearisome; French spies
look ominously in; Egyptian Pills are slack of sale; the old
vulturous Attorney-host anew scents carrion, is bestirring
itself anew: Count Cagliostro, in the May of 1787, must once
more leave England. But whither? Ah, whither! At Bale,
at Bienne, over Switzerland, the game is up. At Aix in
Savoy, there are baths, but no gudgeons in them: at Turin,
his Majesty of Sardinia meets you with an order to begone
'on the instant. A like fate from the Emperor Joseph at
Roveredo;--before the Liber memorialis de Caleostro dum
esset Roboretti could extend to many pages! Count Front-of-
1 Goethe's Werke (Italidnische Reise), xxviii. 146. * Ibid.
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? 300 Carlyle's Essays
brass begins confessing himself to priests: yet "at Trent
paints a new hieroglyphic Screen,"--touching last flicker of
a light that once burnt so high! He pawns diamond buckles;
wanders necessitous hither and thither; repents, unrepents;
knows not what to do. For Destiny has her nets round him;
they are straitening, straitening; too soon he will be ginned!
Driven out from Trent, what shall he make of the new
hieroglyphic Screen, what of himself? The wayworn Grand-
Cophtess has begun to blab family secrets; she longs to be
in Rome, by her mother's hearth, by her mother's grave; in
any nook, where so much as the shadow of refuge waits her.
To the desperate Count Front-of-brass all places are nearly
alike: urged by female babble, he will go to Rome, then;
why not? On a May-day, of the year 1789 (when such glori-
ous work had just begun in France, to him all forbidden! ),
he enters the Eternal City; it was his doom-summons that
called him thither. On the 29th of next December, the Holy
Inquisition, long watchful enough, detects him founding some
feeble moneyless ghost of an Egyptian Lodge; "picks him
off," as the military say, and locks him hard and fast in the
Castle of St. Angelo:
Lasciate ogni speranza, voi che 'ntrate!
Count Cagliostro did not lose all hope: nevertheless a few
words will now suffice for him. In vain, with his mouth of
pinchbeck and his front of brass, does he heap chimera on
chimera; demand religious Books (which are freely given
him); demand clean Linen, and an interview with his Wife
(which are refused him); assert now that the Egyptian
Masonry is a divine system, accommodated to erring and
gullible men, which the Holy Father, when he knows it, will
patronise; anon that there are some four millions of Free-
masons, spread over Europe, all sworn to exterminate Priest
and King, wherever met with: in vain! they will not acquit
him, as misunderstood Theophilanthropist; will not emit
him, in Pope's pay, as renegade Masonic Spy: "he can't get
out. " Donna Lorenza languishes, invisible to him, in a
neighbouring cell; begins at length to confess I Whereupon
he too, in torrents, will emit confessions and forestall her:
these the Inquisition pocket and sift (whence this Life of
Balsamo); but will not let him out. In fine, after some
eighteen months of the weariest hounding, doubling, worrying
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? Count Cagliostro 301
and standing at bay, His Holiness gives sentence: The
Manuscript of Egyptian Masonry is to be burnt by hand of
the common Hangman, and all that intermeddle with such
Masonry are accursed; Giuseppe Balsamo, justly forfeited
of life for being a Freemason, shall nevertheless in mercy be
forgiven; instructed in the duties of penitence, and even
kept safe thenceforth and till death,--in ward of Holy Church.
Ill-starred Acharat, must it so end with thee? This was in
April 1791.
He addressed (how vainly! ) an appeal to the French
Constituent Assembly. As was said, in Heaven, in Earth,
or in Hell there was no Assembly that could well take his
part. For four years more, spent one knows not how,--
most probably in the furor of edacity, with insufficient
cookery, and the stupor of indigestion,--the curtain lazily
falls. There rotted and gave way the cordage of a tough
heart. One summer morning of the year 1795, the Body of
Cagliostro is still found in the prison of St. Leo; but Cagli-
ostro's Self has escaped,--whither no man yet knows. The
brow of brass, behold how it has got all unlacquered; these
pinchbeck lips can lie no more: Cagliostro's work is ended,
and now only his account to present. As the Scherif of
Mecca said, " Nature's unfortunate child, adieu! "
Such, according to our comprehension thereof, is the rise,
progress, grandeur and decadence of the Quack of Quacks.
Does the reader ask, What good was in it; Why occupy his
time and ours with the biography of such a miscreant? We
answer, It was stated on the very threshold of this matter,
in the loftiest terms, by Herr Sauerteig, that the Lives of all
Eminent Persons, miscreant or creant, ought to be written.
Thus has not the very Devil his Life, deservedly written not
by Daniel Defoe only, but by quite other hands than Daniel's?
For the rest, the Thing represented on these pages is no Sham,
but a Reality; thou hast it, O reader, as we have it: Nature
was pleased to produce even such a man, even so, not other-
wise; and the Editor of this Magazine is here mainly to record,
in an adequate manner, what she, of her thousandfold mys-
terious richness and greatness, produces.
But the moral lesson? Where is the moral lesson?
Foolish reader, in every Reality, nay in every genuine Shadow
of a Reality (what we call Poem), there lie a hundred such,
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? 302 Carlyle's Essays
or a million such, according as thou hast the eye to read
them! Of which hundred or million lying here in the present
Reality, couldst not thou, for example, be advised to take
this one, to thee worth all the rest: "Behold, I too have
attained that immeasurable, mysterious glory of being alive;
to me also a Capability has been intrusted; shall I strive
to work it out, manlike, into Faithfulness, and Doing; or,
quacklike, into Eatableness, and Similitude of Doing? Or
why not rather, gigman-like, and following the ' respectable'
countless multitude,--into both? " The decision is of quite
infinite moment; see thou make it aright.
But in fine, look at this matter of Cagliostro, as at all
matters, with thy heart, with thy whole mind; no longer
merely squint at it with the poor side-glance of thy calculative
faculty. Look at it not logically only, but mystically. Thou
shalt in sober truth see it (as Sauerteig asserted) to be a
Pasquillant verse, of most inspired writing in its kind, in that
same " Grand Bible of Universal History; " wondrously and
even indispensably connected with the Heroic portions that
stand there; even as the all-showing Light is with the Dark-
ness wherein nothing can be seen; as the hideous taloned
roots are with the fair boughs, and their leaves and flowers and
fruit; both of which, and not one of which, make the Tree.
Think also whether thou hast known no Public Quacks, on
far higher scale than this, whom a Castle of St. Angelo never
could get hold of; and how, as Emperors, Chancellors (having
found much fitter machinery), they could run their Quack-
career; and make whole kingdoms, whole continents, into
one huge Egyptian Lodge, and squeeze supplies of money or
of blood from it at discretion? Also, whether thou even now
knowest not Private Quacks, innumerable as the sea-sands,
toiling as mere /fay-Cagliostros; imperfect, hybrid-quacks,
of whom Cagliostro is as the unattainable ideal and type-
specimen? Such is the world. Understand it, despise it,
love it; cheerfully hold on thy way through it, with thy eye
on higher load-stars!
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? THE NIGGER QUESTION
[Precursor to Latter-day Pamphlets]
[1849]
OCCASIONAL DISCOURSE ON THE NIGGER
QUESTION1
The following Occasional Discourse, delivered by we know not
whom, and of date seemingly above a year back, may perhaps
be welcome to here and there a speculative reader. It comes to
us,--no speaker named, no time or place assigned, no com-
mentary of any sort given,--in the handwriting of the so-called
"Doctor," properly " Absconded Reporter," Dr. Phelim M'Quirk,
whose singular powers of reporting, and also whose debts, ex-
travagancies and sorrowful insidious finance-operations, now
winded-up by a sudden disappearance, to the grief of many poor
tradespeople, are making too much noise in the police-offices at
present I Of M'Quirk's composition we by no means suppose it
to be; but from M'Quirk, as the last traceable source, it comes
to us;--offered, in fact, by his respectable unfortunate landlady,
desirous to make-up part of her losses in this way.
To absconded reporters who bilk their lodgings, we have of
course no account to give; but if the Speaker be of any eminence
or substantiality, and feel himself aggrieved by the transaction,
let him understand that such, and such only, is our connection
with him or his affairs. As the Colonial and Negro Question is
still alive, and likely to grow livelier for some time, we have
accepted the Article, at a cheap market-rate; and give it
publicity, without in the least committing ourselves to the
strange doctrines and notions shadowed forth in it. Doctrines
and notions which, we rather suspect, are pretty much in a
"minority of one," in the present era of the world! Here, sure
enough, are peculiar views of the Rights of Negroes; involving, it
is probable, peculiar ditto of innumerable other rights, duties,
expectations, wrongs and disappointments, much argued of, by
logic and by grape-shot, in these emancipated epochs of the
human mind! --Silence now, however; and let the Speaker him-
self enter.
My Philanthropic Friends,--It is my painful duty to address
some words to you, this evening, on the Rights of Negroes.
1First printed in Fraser's Magazine, December 1849; reprinted in
the form of a separate Pamphlet, London, 1853.
3<<>3
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? 304 Carlyle's Essays
Taking, as we hope we do, an extensive survey of social
affairs, which we find all in a state of the frightfulest embroil-
ment, and as it were of inextricable final bankruptcy, just at
present; and being desirous to adjust ourselves in that huge
upbreak, and unutterable welter of tumbling ruins, and to
see well that our grand proposed Association of Associations,
the Universal Abolition-of-Pain Association, which is
meant to be the consummate golden flower and summary
of modern Philanthropisms all in one, do not issue as a
universal "Sluggard - and - Scoundrel Protection Society,"
--we have judged that, before constituting ourselves, it would
be very proper to commune earnestly with one another, and
discourse together on the leading elements of our great
Problem, which surely is one of the greatest. With this
view the Council has decided, both that the Negro Question,
as lying at the bottom, was to be the first handled, and if
possible the first settled; and then also, what was of much
more questionable wisdom, that--that, in short, I was to be
Speaker on the occasion. An honourable duty; yet, as
I said, a painful one! --Well, you shall hear what I have to
say on the matter; and probably you wilj not in the least
like it.
West-Indian affairs, as we all know, and as some of us
know to our cost, are in a rather troublous condition this
good while. In regard to West-Indian affairs, however, Lord
John Russell is able to comfort us with one fact, indisputable
where so many are dubious, That the Negroes are all very
happy and doing well. A fact very comfortable indeed.
West-Indian Whites, it is admitted, are far enough from
happy; West-Indian Colonies not unlike sinking wholly into
ruin: at home too, the British Whites are rather badly off;
several millions of them hanging on the verge of continual
famine; and in single towns, many thousands of them very
sore put to it,at this time,not to live "well" oras a man should,
in any sense temporal or spiritual, but to live at all:--these,
again, are uncomfortable facts; and they are extremely
extensive and important ones. But, thank Heaven, our
interesting Black population,--equalling almost in number
of heads one of the Ridings of Yorkshire, and in worth (in
quantity of intellect, faculty, docility, energy, and available
human valour and value) perhaps one of the streets of Seven
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? The Nigger Question 305
Dials,--are all doing remarkably well. "Sweet blighted
lilies,"--as the American epitaph on the Nigger child has
^it,--sweet blighted lilies, they are holding-up their heads
fcgain! How pleasant, in the universal bankruptcy abroad,
land dim dreary stagnancy at home, as if for England too
[there remained nothing but to suppress Chartist riots, banish
united Irishmen, vote the supplies, and wait with arms
crossed till black Anarchy and Social Death devoured us
ilso, as it has done the others; how pleasant to have always
this fact to fall-back upon: Our beautiful Black darlings are
at last happy; with little labour except to the teeth, which
;urely, in those excellent horse-jaws of theirs, will not fail!
Exeter Hall, my philanthropic friends, has had its way in
jhis matter. The Twenty Millions, a mere trifle despatched
,<<ith a single dash of the pen, are paid; and far over the sea,
we^lave a few black persons rendered extremely "free"
indeed. Sitting yonder with their beautiful muzzles up to
the ears in pumpkins, imbibing sweet pulps and juices; the
grinder and incisor teeth ready for ever new work, and the
pumpkins cheap as grass in those rich climates: while the
sugar-crops rot round them uncut, because labour cannot
hired, so cheap are the pumpkins;--and at home we are
but required to rasp from the breakfast-loaves of our own
English labourers some slight "differential sugar-duties,"
2nd lend a poor half-million or a few poor millions now and
then, to keep that beautiful state of matters going on. A
state of matters lovely to contemplate, in these emancipated
epochs of the human mind; which has earned us not only
the praises of Exeter Hall, and loud long-eared hallelujahs of
. audatory psalmody from the Friends of Freedom everywhere,
Hit lasting favour (it is hoped) from the Heavenly Powers
themselves;--and which may, at least, justly appeal to the
Heavenly Powers, and ask them, If ever in terrestrial pro-
cure they saw the match of it? Certainly in the past
? history of the human species it has no parallel: nor, one hopes,
will it have in the future. [Some emotion in the audience;
vhich the Chairman suppressed. ]
Sunk in deep froth-oceans of" Benevolence," " Fraternity,"
v' Emancipation-principle," "Christian Philanthropy," and
other most amiable-looking, but most baseless, and in the
end baleful and all-bewildering jargon,--sad product of a
sceptical Eighteenth Century, and of poor human hearts left
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? 306
Carlyle's Essays
destitute of any earnest guidance, and disbelieving that then
ever was any, Christian or Heathen, and reduced to believc
in rosepink Sentimentalism alone, and to cultivate the sainc
under its Christian, Antichristian, Broad-brimmed, Brutus-
headed, and other forms,--has not the human species gone
strange roads, during that period? And poor Exeter Hall,
cultivating the Broad-brimmed form of Christian Sentimen-
talism, and long talking and bleating and braying in that
strain, has it not worked-out results'? Our West-Indiai
Legislatings, with their spoutings, anti-spoutings, and inter-
minable jangle and babble; our Twenty millions down or
the nail for Blacks of our own; Thirty gradual millions more,
and many brave British lives to boot, in watching Blacks
of other people's; and now at last our ruined sugar-estates,
differential sugar-duties, " immigration loan," and beautifu'
Blacks sitting there up to the ears in pumpkins, and dolenf!
'Whites sitting here without potatoes to eat: never till now.
I think, did the sun look-down on such a jumble of human
nonsenses;--of which, with the two hot nights of the Missing-
Despatch Debate,1 God grant that the measure might now
at last be full! But no, it is not yet full; we have a long
way to travel back, and terrible flounderings to make, and is,
fact an immense load of nonsense to dislodge from our poor
heads, and manifold cobwebs to rend from our poor eyes,
before we get into the road again, and can begin to act a*
serious men that have work to do in this Universe, and no
longer as windy sentimentalists that merely have speeches
to deliver and despatches to write. 0 Heaven, in West*
Indian matters, and in all manner of matters, it is so with
us: the more is the sorrow! --
The West Indies, it appears, are short of labour; as indeed1
is very conceivable in those circumstances. Where a Black
man, by working about half-an-hour a-day (such is the
calculation), can supply himself, by aid of sun and soil, with
as much pumpkin as will suffice, he is likely to be a little stiff
to raise into hard work! Supply and demand, which, science
says, should be brought to bear on him, have an uphill task
1 Does any reader now remember it? A cloudy reminiscence of
some such thing, and of noise in the Newspapers upon it, remains with
us,--fast hastening to abolition for everybody. (Note of 1849. )--This
Missing-Despatch Debate, what on earth was it? (Note of 1853. )
1
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? The Nigger Question 307
? f it with such a man. Strong sun supplies itself gratis,
ich soil in those unpeopled or half-peopled regions almost
;ratis; these are his "supply;" and half-an-hour a-day,
lirected upon these, will produce pumpkin, which is his
'demand. " The fortunate Black man, very swiftly does he
ettle his account with supply and demand:--not so swiftly
he less fortunate White man of those tropical localities.
bad case, his, just now. He himself cannot work; and his
jlack neighbour, rich in pumpkin, is in no haste to help him.
Junk to the ears in pumpkin, imbibing saccharine juices, and
nuch at his ease in the Creation, he can listen to the less
brtunate white man's " demand " and take his own time in
supplying it. Higher wages, massa; higher, for your cane-
:rop cannot wait; still higher,--till no conceivable opulence
if cane-crop will cover such wages. In Demerara, as I read
in the Blue-book of last year, the cane-crop, far and wide,
stands rotting; the fortunate black gentlemen, strong in
their pumpkins, having all struck till the "demand" rise
a little. Sweet blighted lilies, now getting-up their heads
again!
Science, however, has a remedy still. Since the demand
is so pressing, and the supply so inadequate (equal in fact to
nothing in some places, as appears), increase the supply;
bring more Blacks into the labour-market, then will the rate
tall, says science. Not the least surprising part of our West-
Indian policy is this recipe of "immigration;" of keeping-
down the labour-market in those islands by importing new
'Africans to labour and live there. If the Africans that are'
already there could be made to lay-down their pumpkins, and
labour for their living, there are already Africans enough. If
;the new Africans, after labouring a little, take to pumpkins
like the others, what remedy is there? To bring-in new and
ever new Africans, say you, till pumpkins themselves grow
dear; till the country is crowded with Africans; and black
men there, like white men here, are forced by hunger to
labour for their living? That will be a consummation. To
have " emancipated " the West Indies into a Black Ireland;
"free " indeed, but an Ireland, and Black! The world may
'yet see prodigies; and reality be stranger than a nightmare
dream.
Our own white or sallow Ireland, sluttishly starving from
age to age on its act-of-parliament " freedom," was hitherto
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? 308 Carlyle's Essays
the flower of mismanagement among the nations: but wha
will this be to a Negro Ireland, with pumpkins themselve
fallen scarce like potatoes!
Imagination cannot fathom sucl
an object; the belly of Chaos never held the like. Thehuma:
mind, in its wide wanderings, has not dreamt yet of such;
"freedom" as that will be. Towards that, if Exeter Hal
and science of supply-and-demand are to continue our guide
in the matter, we are daily travelling, and even struggling
with loans of half - a - million and suchlike, to accelerat
ourselves.
Truly, my philanthropic friends, Exeter-Hall Philanthrop
is wonderful. And the Social Science,--not a " gay science,
but a rueful,--which finds the secret of this Universe i
"supply and demand," and reduces the duty of huma
governors to that of letting men alone, is also wonderfu
Not a " gay science," I should say, like some we have heard o'i
no, a dreary, desolate, and indeed quite abject and distressin
one; what we might call, by way of eminence, the disma
science. These two, Exeter-Hall Philanthropy and the Dis
mal Science, led by any sacred cause of Black Emancipation
or the like, to fall in love and make a wedding of it,--wii
give birth to progenies and prodigies; dark extensive moon
calves, unnamable abortions, wide-coiled monstrosities, suo
as the world has not seen hitherto! [Increased emotion
again suppressed by the Chairman. ]'
In fact, it will behove us of this English nation to overhau
our West-Indian procedure from top to bottom, and ascertaii
a little better what it is that Fact and Nature demand of u;
and what only Exeter Hall wedded to the Dismal Scieno
demands. To the former set of demands we will endeavour
at our peril,--and worse peril than our purse's, at our soul'
peril,--to give all obedience. To the latter we will ver
frequently demur, and try if we cannot stop short where the;
contradict the former,--and especially before arriving at th
black throat of ruin, whither they appear to be leading us
Alas, in many other provinces besides the West Indian, tha
unhappy wedlock of Philanthropic Liberalism and the Disma
Science has engendered such all-enveloping delusions, of th1
moon-calf sort, and wrought huge woe for us, and for the poo
civilised world, in these days! And sore will be the battlf
with said moon-calves; and terrible the struggle to returr
out of our delusions, floating rapidly on which, not the West
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? The Nigger Question 309
Indies alone, but Europe generally, is nearing the Niagara
Falls. [Here various persons, in an agitated manner, with an
%ir of indignation, left the room ; especially one very tall gentle-
nan in white trousers, whose boots creaked much. The Presi-
dent, in a resolved voice, with a look of official rigour, whatever
his own private feelings might be, enjoined " Silence, Silence! "
The meeting again sat motionless. ]
My philanthropic friends, can you discern no fixed head-
lands in this wide-weltering deluge, of benevolent twaddle
rnd revolutionary grape-shot, that has burst-forth on us; no
jure bearings at all? Fact and Nature, it seems to me, say
1 few words to us, if happily we have still an ear for Fact and
Nature. Let us listen a little and try.
And first, with regard to the West Indies, it may be laid-
Jown as a principle, which no eloquence in Exeter Hall, or
Westminster Hall, or elsewhere, can invalidate or hide, except
[or a short time only, That no Black man who will not work
iccording to what ability the gods have given him for working,
ias the smallest right to eat pumpkin, or to any fraction of
and that will grow pumpkin, however plentiful such land
nay be; but has an indisputable and perpetual right to be
impelled, by the real proprietors of said land, to do com-
petent work for his living. This is the everlasting duty of all
nen, black or white, who are born into this world. To do
X>mpetent work, to labour honestly according to the ability
>>iven them; for that and for no other purpose was each one of
is sent into this world; and woe is to every man who, by
Hend or by foe, is prevented from fulfilling this the end of
lis being. That is the " unhappy " lot: lot equally unhappy
mnnot otherwise be provided for man. Whatsoever prohibits
Dr prevents a man from this his sacred appointment to labour
vhile he lives on earth,--that, I say, is the man's deadliest
;nemy; and all men are called upon to do what is in their
power or opportunity towards delivering him from that. If
it be his own indolence that prevents and prohibits him,
then his own indolence is the enemy he must be delivered
from: and the first "right" he has,--poor indolent block-
bead, black or white,--is, That every wwprohibited man,
whatsoever wiser, more industrious person may be passing
that way, shall endeavour to "emancipate" him from his
indolence, and by some wise means, as I said, compel him,
since inducing will not serve, to do the work he is fit for.
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? 310 Carlylc's Essays
Induce him, if you can: yes, sure enough, by all means try
what inducement will do; and indeed every coachman and
carman knows that secret, without our preaching, and applies
it to his very horses as the true method:--but if your Nigger
will not be induced? In that case, it is full certain, he must
be compelled; should and must; and the tacit prayer he
makes (unconsciously he, poor blockhead,) to you, and to me,
and to all the world who are wiser than himself, is " Compel
me! " For indeed he must, or else do and suffer worse-
he as well as we. It were better the work did come out of
him! It was the meaning of the gods with him and with us,
that his gift should turn to use in this Creation, and not lie
poisoning the thoroughfares, as a rotten mass of idleness,
agreeable to neither heaven nor earth. For idleness does, in
all cases, inevitably rot, and become putrescent;--and I sa\
deliberately, the very Devil is in it.
None of you, my friends, have been in Demerara lately, I
apprehend? May none of you go till matters mend there a
little! Under the sky there are uglier sights than perhaps
were seen hitherto! Dead corpses, the rotting body of a
brother man, whom fate or unjust men have killed, this is not
a pleasant spectacle; but what say you to the dead soul of
a man,--in a body which still pretends to be vigorously alive,
and can drink rum? An idle White gentleman is not pleasant
to me; though I confess the real work for him is not easy te
find, in these our epochs; and perhaps he is seeking, poor
soul, and may find at last. But what say you to an idle
Black gentleman, with his rum-bottle in his hand (for a littli
additional pumpkin you can have red-herrings and rum,
in Demerara),--rum-bottle in his hand, no breeches on his
body, pumpkin at discretion, and the fruitfulest region of the
earth going back to jungle round him? Such things the sun
looks-down upon in our fine times; and I, for one, would
rather have no hand in them.
Yes, this is the eternal law of Nature for a man, my bene-
ficent Exeter-Hall friends; this, that he shall be permitted,
encouraged, and if need be, compelled to do what work the
Maker of him has intended by the making of him for this
world! Not that he should eat pumpkin with never sucb
felicity in the West-India Islands is, or can be, the blessedness
of our Black friend; but that he should do useful work there,
according as the gifts have been bestowed on him fox that-
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? The Nigger Question
? And his own happiness, and that of others round him, will
alone be possible by his and their getting into such a relation
that this can be permitted him, and in case of need, that this
? can be compelled him. I beg you to understand this; for
you seem to have a little forgotten it, and there lie a thousand
inferences in it, not quite useless for Exeter Hall, at present.
. The idle Black man in the West Indies had, not long since,
the right, and will again under better form, if it please Heaven,
have the right (actually the first "right of man" for an
indolent person) to be compelled to work as he was fit, and to
do the Maker's will who had constructed him with such and
such capabilities, and prefigurements of capability. And I
incessantly pray Heaven, all men, the whitest alike and the
blackest, the richest and the poorest, in other regions of the
'world, had attained precisely the same right, the divine
right of being compelled (if "permitted" will not answer)
to do what work they are appointed for, and not to go idle
another minute, in a life which is so short, and where idleness
so soon runs to putrescence! Alas, we had then a perfect
world; and the Millennium, and true "Organisation of
Labour," and reign of complete blessedness, for all workers
and men, had then arrived,--which in these our own poor
districts of the Planet, as we all lament to know, it is very
far from having yet done. [More withdrawals; but the rest
sitting with increased attention. ]
Do I, then, hate the Negro? No; except when the soul is
killed out of him, I decidedly like poor Quashee; and find
him a pretty kind of man. With a pennyworth of oil, you can
make a handsome glossy thing of Quashee, when the soul
is not killed in him! A swift, supple fellow; a merry-hearted,
grinning, dancing, singing, affectionate kind of creature, with
a great deal of melody and amenability in his composition.
This certainly is a notable fact: The black African, alone of
wild-men, can live among men civilised. While all manner
of Caribs and others pine into annihilation in presence of the
pale faces, he contrives to continue; does not die of sullen
irreconcilable rage, of rum, of brutish laziness and darkness,
,and fated incompatibility with his new place; but lives and
multiplies, and evidently means to abide among us, if we can
find the right regulation for him. We shall have to find
it; we are now engaged in the search; and have at least
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? 312 Carlyle's Essays
discovered that of two methods, the old Demerara method,
and the new Demerara method, neither will answer.
Alas, my friends, I understand well your rage against the
poor Negro's slavery; what said rage proceeds from; and
have a perfect sympathy with it, and even know it by experi-
ence. Can the oppressor of my black fellow-man be of any
use to me, in particular? Am I gratified in my mind by the
ill-usage of any two- or four-legged thing; of any horse 01
any dog? Not so, I assure you. In me too the natural
sources of human rage exist more or less, and the capability
of flying out into "fiery wrath against oppression," and of
signing petitions; both of which things can be done very
cheap. Good heavens, if signing petitions would do it, if
hopping to Rome on one leg would do it, think you it were
long undone!
Frightful things are continually told us of Negro slavery,
of the hardships, bodily and spiritual, suffered by slaves.
Much exaggerated, and mere exceptional cases, say the
opponents. Exceptional cases, I answer; yes, and universa)
ones! On the whole, hardships, and even oppressions and
injustices are not unknown in this world; I myself have
suffered such, and have not you? It is said, Man, of what-
ever colour, is born to such, even as the sparks fly upwards!
For in fact labour, and this is properly what we call hardship,
misery, etc. (meaning mere ugly labour not yet done), labouz
is not joyous but grievous; and we have a good deal of it to
do among us here. We have, simply, to carry the whole
world and its businesses upon our backs, we poor unitejj
Human Species; to carry it, and shove it forward, from daj
to day, somehow or other, among us, or else be ground to
powder under it, one and all. No light task, let me tell you.
even if each did his part honestly, which each doesn't
any means. No, only the noble lift willingly with their
whole strength, at the general burden; and in such a crowd,
after all your drillings, regulatings, and attempts at equitable
distribution, and compulsion, what deceptions are still prac
ticable, what errors are inevitable! Many cunning ignoble
fellows shirk the labour altogether; and instead of faithfully
lifting at the immeasurable universal handbarrow with its
thousand-million handles, contrive to get on some ledge of it,
and be lifted!
What a story we have heard about all that, not from vague
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? The Nigger Question
rumour since yesterday, but from inspired prophets, speakers
and seers, ever since speech began! How the giant willing
spirit, among white masters, and in the best-regulated families,
is so often not loaded only but overloaded, crushed-down like
an Enceladus; and, all his life, has to have armies of pigmies
building tabernacles on his chest; marching composedly over
his neck, as if it were a highway; and much amazed if, when
they run their straw spear into his nostril, he is betrayed into
sudden sneezing, and oversets some of them. [Some laughter,
the speaker himself looking terribly serious. ] My friends, I a
have come to the sad conclusion that slavery, whether
established by law, or by law abrogated, exists very exten-
sively in this world, in and out of the West Indies; and, in
fact, that you cannot abolish slavery by act of parliament, but
* can only abolish the name of it, which is very little!
In the West Indies itself, if you chance to abolish Slavery
to Men, and in return establish Slavery to the Devil (as we
see in Demerara), what good is it? To save men's bodies, and
fill them with pumpkins and rum, is a poor task for human
benevolence, if you have to kill their soul, what soul there
was, in the business! Slavery is not so easy to be abolished;
I it will long continue, in spite of acts of parliament. And
shall I tell you whicb is the one intolerable sort of slavery;
the slavery over which the very gods weep? That sort is not
rif est in the West Indies; but, with all its sad fruits, prevails
in nobler countries. It is the slavery of the strong to the
weak; of the great and noble-minded to the small and mean!
. The slavery of Wisdom to Folly. When Folly all " emanci- v.
pated," and become supreme, armed with ballot-boxes,
universal suffrages, and appealing to what Dismal Sciences,
Statistics, Constitutional Philosophies, and other Fool
Gospels it has got devised for itself, can say to Wisdom: "Be
silent, or thou shalt repent it! Suppress thyself, I advise
thee; canst thou not contrive to cease, then? " ,That also,
in some anarchic-constitutional epochs, has been seen. When,
"of high and noble objects, there remained, in the market-
place of human things, at length none; and he that could not
make guineas his pursuit, and the applause of flunkies his
? reward, found himself in such a minority as seldom was before.
Minority, I know, there always was: but there are degrees
of it, down to minority of one,--down to suppression of the
unfortunate minority, and reducing it to zero, that the flunky
H 704 x
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? 314 Carlyle's Essays
world may have peace from it henceforth. The flunky-world
has peace; and descends, manipulating its ballot-boxes,
Coppock suffrages, and divine constitutional apparatus;
quoting its Dismal Sciences, Statistics, and other satisfactory
Gospels and Talmuds,--into the throat of the Devil; not
bothered by the importunate minority on the road. Did
you never hear of " Crucify him! Crucify him! " That was
a considerable feat in the suppressing of minorities; and is
still talked-of on Sundays,--with very little understanding,
when I last heard of it. My friends, my friends, I fear we
are a stupid people; and stuffed with such delusions, above
all with such immense hypocrisies and self-delusions, from
our birth upwards, as no people were before; God help us!
--Emancipated? Yes, indeed, we are emancipated out of
several things, and into several things. No man, wise or
foolish, any longer can control you for good or for evil.
Foolish Tomkins, foolish Jobson, cannot now singly oppress
you: but if the Universal Company of the Tomkinses and
Jobsons, as by law established, can more than ever? If,
on all highways and byways, that lead to other than a
Tomkins-Jobson winning-post, you meet, at the second step,
the big, dumb, universal genius of Chaos, and are so placidly
yet peremptorily taught, " Halt here! " There is properly
but one slavery in the world. One slavery, in which all
other slaveries and miseries that afflict the earth are included;
compared with which the worst West-Indian, white, or black,
or yellow slaveries are a small matter. One slavery over
which the very gods weep. Other slaveries, women and.
children and stump-orators weep over; but this is for men
and gods! [Sensation; some, however, took snuff. ]
If precisely the Wisest Man were at the top of society, and
the next-wisest next, and so on till we reached the Demerara"
Nigger (from whom downwards, through the horse, etc. ,
there is no question hitherto), then were this a perfect world,
the extreme maximum of wisdom produced in it. That is
how you might produce your maximum, would some god
assist. And I can tell you also how the minimum were
producible. Let no man in particular be put at the top; let
all men be accounted equally wise and worthy, and the notion
get abroad that anybody or nobody will do well enough at
the top; that money (to which may be added success in
stump-oratory) is the real symbol of wisdom, and supply-
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? The Nigger Question 315
and-demand the all-sufficient substitute for command and
obedience among two-legged animals of the unfeathered
class: accomplish all those remarkable convictions in your
thinking department; and then in your practical, as is fit,
decide by count of heads, the vote of a Demerara Nigger equal
and no more to that of a Chancellor Bacon: this, I perceive,
will (so soon as it is fairly under way, and all obstructions
left behihd) give the minimum of wisdom in your proceedings.
Thus were your minimum producible,--with no God needed
to assist, nor any Demon even, except the general Demon of
Ignavia (Unvalour), lazy Indifference to the production or
non-production of such things, which runs in our own blood.
Were it beautiful, think you? Folly in such millionfold
majority, at length peaceably supreme in this earth. Advanc-
ing on you as the huge buffalo-phalanx does in the Western
Deserts; or as, on a smaller scale, those bristly creatures did
in the Country of the Gadarenes. Rushing, namely, in wild
stampede (the Devil being in them, some small fry having
stung them), boundless,--one wing on that edge of your
horizon, the other wing on that, and rearward whole tides
and oceans of them:--so could Folly rush; the enlightened
public one huge Gadarenes-swinery, tail cocked, snout in
airrwith joyful animating short squeak; fast and ever faster;
down steep places,--to the sea of Tiberias, and the bottom-
less cloacas of Nature: quenched there, since nowhere sooner.
My friends, such sight is too sublime, if you are out in it, and
are not of it! --
Well, except by Mastership and Servantship, there is no
conceivable deliverance from Tyranny and Slavery. Cosmos
is not Chaos, simply by this one quality, That it is governed.
Where wisdom, even approximately, can contrive to govern,
all is right, or is ever striving to become so; where folly is
"emancipated," and gets to govern, as it soon will, all is
wrong. That is the sad fact; and in other places than
Demerara, and in regard to other interests than those of
sugar-making, we sorrowfully experience the same.
I have to complain that, in these days, the relation of
master to servant, and of superior to inferior, in all stages of it,
is fallen sadly out of joint. As may well be, when the very
highest stage and form of it, which should be the summary of
all and the keystone of all, is got to such a pass. Kings them-
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? 316 Carlyle's Essays
selves are grown sham-kings; and their subjects very natur-
ally are sham-subjects; with mere lip-homage, insincere to
their sham-kings;--sincere chiefly when they get into the
streets (as is now our desperate case generally in Europe) to
shoot them down as nuisances. Royalty is terribly gone;
and loyalty in consequence has had to go. No man rever-
ences another; at the best, each man slaps the other good-
humouredly on the shoulder, with, " Hail, fellow; well met:"
--at the worst (which is sure enough to follow such unreason-
able good-humour, in a world like ours) clutches him by the
throat, with, "Tyrannous son of perdition, shall I endure
thee, then, and thy injustices forever? " We are not yet got
to the worst extreme, we here in these Isles; but we are well
half-way towards it, I often think.
Certainly, by any ballot-box, Jesus Christ goes just as far
as Judas Iscariot; and with reason, according to the New
Gospels, Talmuds and Dismal Sciences of these days. Judas
looks him in the face; asks proudly, "Am not I as good
as thou? Better, perhaps! " slapping his breeches-pocket,
in which is audible the cheerful jingle of thirty pieces of
silver. "Thirty of them here, thou cowering pauper! "
My philanthropic friends, if there be a state of matters under
the stars which deserves the name of damnable and damned,
this I perceive is it! Alas, I know well whence it came, and
how it could not help coming;--and I continually pray the
gods its errand were done, and it had begun to go its ways
again. Vain hope, at least for a century to come! And
there will be such a sediment of Egyptian mud to sweep
away, and to fish all human things out of again, once this
most sad though salutary deluge is well over, as the human
species seldom had before. Patience, patience!
