The difference between the sum of these two parts and the fixed total (72 for men and 65 for women), not shown in the tables,
indicates
the number of "Neutral" ratings received by the individual on the categories in question.
Adorno-T-Authoritarian-Personality-Harper-Bros-1950
.
it seems on looking back that I have always done that.
.
.
.
"
The -absence of proper orientation toward social and psychological dy- namics in the typical high scorer may be linked to a general tendency toward autistic thinking in goal behavior as contrasted with the somewhat more realistic attitude that might be expected to be present in the typical low scorer (Category 62). Though not significantly differentiating between the two extreme groups of interviewees, this category shows a distinct trend in the direction that we expected (2I positive as compared with I2 negative instances in men, and I9 positive as compared with I2 negative instances in women). The trend is particularly evident in the vocational choices and economic expectations of our subjects.
The somewhat adolescent and fantastic, glamour-seeking character of the vocational ambitions of high-scoring subjects is illustrated by the following records:
F66: "If you're good, you can get up to ambassador. I think there have been
? PERSONALITY ORGANIZATION SEEN THROUGH INTERVIEWS 467
some women ambassadors. Or maybe there were only women ministers. I made the choice about three years ago. I just heard some friends of mine talking about it, and it sounded interesting. (Why vocational choice? ) Well, salary had a little to do with it. I think if I could really put myself to it, I could do it. If I really wanted to and had nothing else to stand in the way. The times have much to do with my choice. I would like to know why they do what they do. "
F34: Subject wants to be a journalist. This is purely utilitarian. She likes journal- ism, but her real desire is to do creative writing. She has imagined herself as a great actress. "But my acting is purely amateur stuff. I was always active in school dramatics as well as high school journalism. The family used to laugh because I was always play-acting. I always said I'd earn my living at either acting or writing. . . . "
5. SUGGESTIBILITY
Submission to authority and lack of independence and of critical judg- ment tend to lead the high scorer toward being suggestible and gullible, as contrasted with the greater autonomy of the low scorer (Category 6I). Again, the difference is significant at the I per cent level for both men and women. The social implications of a tendency on the part of the gullible person to fall easy prey to unsound and destructive political propaganda are obvious. The high scorer's dependence, in his personal life, upon author- ity, conventionalized values, church dogma, public opinion, and prestige figures, and the low scorer's relative independence of, and occasional rebel- lion against, these authorities have been pointed out so often throughout this volume that no further comment seems necessary.
The present chapter will be summarized together with a general synopsis of the interview results at the conclusion of the chapter which follows.
? CHAPTER XIII
COMPREHENSIVE SCORES AND SUMMARY OF INTERVIEW RESULTS Else Frenkel-Brunswik
A. THE DISCRIMINATORY POWERS OF THE MAJOR AREAS STUDIED
1. VERIFICA TION OF ANTICIP A TED TREND BY CA TEGQRIES
In the preceding four chapters (IX to XII), the technique of interviewing was described, and specific results of interviews with eighty subjects scor- ing extremely high or extremely low on the overt anti-Semitism or Ethno- centrism scales were presented and discussed in terms of the approximately ninety rating categories of the Scoring Manual used to classify the records of the subjects.
As shown in the tables of these chapters, a sizable proportion of the cate- gories differentiated high scorers from low scorers to a statistically sig- nificant degree in the direction anticipated for either or both sexes. The vast majority of the remaining categories showed at least a trend in the expected direction. For men, there are only three out of the eighty-six categories for which the number of "positive" and "negative" instances is equal, and only one (Category 2 3c) which shows a slight trend in the direction op- posite to the one expected. As can be seen from Tables 3(X), 1(XI), and 2 (XI), to which the four exceptions are limited, the absolute number of rat- ings involved is very small in each case; the items involved deal with certain aspects of attitude toward siblings, sex, and people. For women there are two out of the ninety categories that show equality and four that show reversal, all six exceptions being confined to Tables 1(X), 2 (X), and 3(X), and deal- ing with aspects of the relationships to parents and siblings. In no case does the reversal approach statistical significance; nor does it appear in the case of any category that yielded less than 50 per cent "Neutral" ratings and was thus included in the list of those for which intensive evaluation was under- taken (72 for men and 65 for women, see end of Chapter IX).
468
? Based on categories presented in tables
20 men and 25 women
20 men and 15 women "low scorers"
Sums of Means '
en
1 ( X ) , 2 ( X ) , 3(X)
P a r e n t s ? a n d Childhood
Men 8. . . . . . 613 women 7. 47
L 37 3. 26
3. 11 1. 68
8. 42 5. 11
17. 10 12. 58
4. 47 4. 94
1(Xl)
Attitude toward Sex
Men 10. 57 Women 10. 43
0 "':: ,. . . .
2(Xl)
Attitude toward
M 3. 89 i1:l
3(Xl)
Attitude toward Men Present Self Women
13. 00 11. 33
2. 44 3. 56
2. 44 1. 11
13. 11 9. 67
26. 11 21. 00
4. 88 4. 67
~
4(XI)
Attitude toward Men Childhood Self Women
8. 50 8. 00
3. 75 5. 75
2. 25 12. 75 1. 00 8. 75
21. 25 16. 75
6. 00 6. 75
q r --l en
1(XII)
Dynamic Character Men Structure Women
11. 65 11. 75
2. 53 3. 59
3. 10 11. 35 1. 95 9. 12
23. 00 20. 87
5. 63 5. 54
2(XII)
Cognitive Personality Men Organization Women
14. 67 14. 67
3. 00 3. 50
3. 00 14. 00 1. 83 11. 00
28. 67 25. 67
6. 00 5. 33
All tables
All categories Men Women
10. 91 10. 38
2. 24 3. 34
2. 81 10. 59 1. 69 8. 10
21. 50 18. 48
5. 05
Dealing with
Sex "high scorers"
"! :! ositive?
? negative?
~
Men People Women
10. 67 10. 67
1. 67 2. 78
2. 22 1. 44
11. 67 8. 00
22. 33 18. 67
4. 22 <. . . . . . M
TABLE 1 (XIII}
COMPOSITE RATINGS (MEANS} FOR MAJOR AREAS OF STUDY FOR "HIGH" AND "LOW" SCORING GROUPS OF INTERVIEWEES
Means o f High(H) and Low(L) ratings received by
! ! .
L
H
. k
a;: > ~
2. 86 1. 86
2. 57 2. 29
5. 86 9. 00
16. 43 19. 43
5. 43
4. 14 z
+ 5. 03 0\
--l
i1:l
M
en
\0
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
Thus there are no "negative validities" in the evaluation of the interviews. This result is not surprising in view of the fact that the categories of the Scoring Manual were derived from previous empirical evidence, including a preliminary inspection of the interview material; even so, the fact that the subsequent "blind" rating procedure supported most of the hypotheses with which the evaluation began is strong evidence of their validity.
2. COMPOSITE RATINGS FOR SEVEN MAJOR AREAS
Considering the almost universally confirmatory trend of the results just discussed, the computation of average ratings for larger groups of categories seems justified. The results of this procedure are presented in Table 1 (XIII) in the same manner as in the preceding tables except for the fact that indica- tion of statistical significance is here omitted.
As can be seen by an inspection of the last two columns of the table, dif- ferentiation between high scorers and low scorers is consistently somewhat less clear-cut for women than for men. This may be due either to the un- equal size of the two samples of women interviewees, or to the fact, re- peatedly referred to above, that women were in the main interviewed at an earlier stage of the investigation than were men. It may also be that, in our culture at least, patterns of behavior and ideology are more coherent and consistent in men than they are in women.
Among all the areas studied, that of attitudes toward present self yields the most clear-cut differentiation between high scorers and low scorers. The ratio between "positive" (confirmatory) and "negative" instances is among the most favorable. At the same time, the absolute values of the positive in- stances are among the highest. This indicates, furthermore, that the number of "Neutral" ratings is relatively low for this area.
The categories pertaining to dynamic and, especially, cognitive personality organization likewise show excellent differentiation, a very high proportion of the differences being statistically significant.
Contrariwise, over-all results are least sharply defined in the area of attitude toward parents and siblings, for reasons outlined in Chapter X. This is in line with what was stated above concerning absence of reversal of the expected trend in the case of a few scattered categories pertaining to these topics. Even for this area, however, the ratio of positive to negative instances is, for the men, better than three to one, and thus the differentiation is quite satisfactory.
An explanation of the differences in discriininatory power among the various major areas covered by the ratings of interviews may be in the fol- lowing. An adequate survey of the early family situation requires a great deal more specific information than could be obtained in our necessarily circumscribed interviews, and this made for the large proportion of "Neutral"
? SUMMARY OF INTERVIEW RESULTS
ratings. Such aspects as cognitive organization and attitude toward self, on the other hand, may be inferred from expressions in a greater variety of fields, and thus the likelihood of insufficient information is reduced. Over and above this, the very nature of such formal variables permits the subject himself to choose from among a variety of "alternate" manifestations, many of them encompassed in a single rating category. This principle of shifting expres- sion of identical motivational tendencies is apt to give an advantage to mo- tivational categories regardless of how complete the specific information on any particular aspect of life may be. It is for the same reason that the value of generalized, synoptic ratings, as contrasted with specific or situationally limited quantification, was so much stressed at the beginning of the discus- sion of the problems connected with the evaluation of interviews (Chapter IX; see also 3I, 32, 34, 36).
B. V ALIDITY OF OVER-ALL SCORES AND RA TINGS OF THE INTERVIEWS
1. INDIVIDUAL COMPOSITE SCORE BASED ON ALL AREAS OF RA TING
Composite ratings, covering the entire range of the areas of rating, were also obtained for each individual interviewee. In a sense, these composite rat- ings define what may be called the "score" of the subject on the interview. (It was with a view to this final score that the manual was designated as the Interview Scoring Manual in spite of the fact that for each of the constituent categories ratings rather than scores were obtained. ) Since, as was pointed out in the preceding section, there were no reversals of the expected dis- criminatory trend on any of the categories yielding less than 50 per cent "Neutral" ratings, all of these categories were included in the final score. These scores are shown, for all the So subjects interviewed, in Tables I (IX) and 2 (IX). The score itself is given in two parts, defined by the sums of the "High" and of the "Low" ratings received by the individual.
The difference between the sum of these two parts and the fixed total (72 for men and 65 for women), not shown in the tables, indicates the number of "Neutral" ratings received by the individual on the categories in question.
The column referring to composite standing shows the letter H or L, de- pending on the preponderance of the High or the Low score in the preced- ing pair of columns. 1
Means of the quantitative data are shown in the bottom rows of the tables. The ranges of the number of "high" and "low" interview scores for each of the four groups can be read directly from the two tables.
1 Concerning the use of capital and lower-case symbols and other technical data perti- nent to this section see Chapter IX, Section F, 3.
? 472 THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
2. OVER-ALL INTUITIVE RA TING
AND ITS AGREEMENT WITH THE COMPOSITE SCORE
The last column in Tables r (IX) and 2 (IX) adds what was briefly men- tioned in Chapter IX as the intuitive rating of the interviewee. This is based on an informal synopsis and estimate after the blind interview-rating pro- cedure had been completed, and it was made without the rater's making explicit to himself the quantitative results in terms of specific ratings on the single categories.
Composite scores and intuitive ratings agree very highly with one another. There is only one subject, F72, among the So interviewees for whom there is a discrepancy between the two values. In her case the composite score
(H) is correct; the over-all intuitive rating (L) is incorrect.
3. AGREEMENT WITH THE QUESTIONNAIRE RESULTS
It will be noted that while there is consistency as to "low" vs. "high" standing in the A-S and E columns of Tables I (IX) and 2 (IX)-this standing having been the very criterion of selection of the interviewees-the subse- quent columns show a good deal of inconsistency. This inconsistency reaches major proportions in such cases as F2z or F39, both overt low scorers who nonetheless score among the highest on the interview, with respect to both the composite score and the synoptic over-all ratings. Similar instances of opposition, though not all as striking ones, can be found among the high scorers. Various other kinds of inconsistency of trend may be noted upon inspection of the tables.
The general agreement between various columns in Tables I (IX) and 2 (IX) containing letter indices may be expressed conveniently in terms of percentage. "Percentage agreement" is then defined as the percentage of equal-letter combinations (HH or LL) in any pair of columns considered. The figures on percentage agreement could easily be transformed into tetra- choric correlation coefficients.
The defining criterion of selection, extremely high vs. extremely low standing on the overt anti-Semitism or Ethnocentrism scale, shows a per- centage agreement of about 85 with both the over-all intuitive ratings and the composite standing on the interview. (This figure is an average of an agreement of about 95 per cent achieved by the rater whose material hap- pened to include the most complete interviews, and of an agreement of 75 per cent achieved by the other of the two raters whose data were more frag- mentary. )
Since composite ratings agree with intuitive ratings almost completely (see above), the figures for the agreement of overt ethnocentrism with the intuitive ratings are practically identical with those mentioned above for
composite ratings.
? SUMMARY OF INTERVIEW RESULTS
473
Intuitive as well as composite interview ratings show slightly less agree- ment with standing on the F and the PEC scales, but even here the figures are between 75 and So per cent.
C. SUMMARY OF THE PERSONALITY P A TTERNS DERIVED FROM THE INTERVIEWS
1. INTRODUCTION
The results of the "blind" ratings of the interviews, as discussed in the present and in the preceding four chapters, have shown that individuals ex- tremely high on overt ethnic prejudice tend to differ with respect to a great variety of personality traits from those extremely low on prejudice. Some of the personality traits discussed were also measured by other techniques, especially the questionnaire. The results obtained by the various methods independently are very similar. However, rating by categories describes and substantiates in a more systematic, organized, and controlled way the im- pressions formed about the personality differences between high scorers and low scorers in the course of intensive study of individual cases.
It has to be emphasized, of course, that these differences are based on an analysis of group trends within statistical samples and do not imply that every individual will exhibit most or even a large proportion of the features belonging to either the "high" or the "low" syndrome, as the case may be. As can be seen from Tables r (IX) and 2 (IX), certain individuals seem to possess a relatively large number of either "high" or "low" features while others seem to have features of both patterns, with a relatively slight prev- alence of one or the other. It should thus be kept in mind that the summary which follows deals with composite pictures of these patterns, abstracted from the study of groups, rather than with individual cases. Were we to lay greater stress on concrete personalities, the most frequent syndromes or combinations of trends within single individuals would have to be determined as an intermediate step, leading to the definition of subtypes within the prejudiced and the unprejudiced patterns. Some remarks pointing in this direction will be made in the following summary. The typology, as such, of the ethnically prejudiced, will be taken up more systematically in Chap- ter XIX.
The results are furthermore limited to trends found in individuals with extreme standing on the prejudice scale. How far the relations would hold for those with middle scores on prejudice has to be left open, since such in- dividuals were not included in the present intensive investigation by means of interviews.
Finally, it remains for future investigation to ascertain how far the inter- relationships found are interculturally valid or whether they are restricted
? 474
THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
to certain specific cultures or subcultures, such as the one from which our sample of subjects has been drawn; namely, an urban and suburban popula- tion on the West Coast of the United States.
In an attempt to summarize the social and psychological factors which, within our limited framework, have been found to be related to prejudice, we will proceed in the following manner: First, the aspects and "themes" of the personality structure of the high scorer as differentiated from the low scorer will be described in a synoptic fashion. Next, hypotheses concerning the genetic aspects of these two distinct patterns will be put forward. And finally, an attempt will be made to relate both patterns to the over-all cul- tural pattern.
2. REPRESSION VS. A W ARENESS
In summarizing differences in the personality structure of our two groups, we may best start with the findings discussed in the preceding chapter under the heading of "defense mechanisms. " Regardless of whether the specific topic was that of ambivalence, or aggression, or passivity, or some other related feature of personality dynamics, the outstanding finding was that the extremely unprejudiced individual tends to manifest a greater readiness to become aware of unacceptable tendencies and impulses in himself. The prejudiced individual, on the other hand, is more apt not to face these tend- encies openly and thus to fail in integrating them satisfactorily with the con- scious image he has of himself. The resultant break between the conscious and the unconscious layers in the personality of the high scorers, as com- pared with the greater fluidity of transition and of intercommunication be- tween the different personality strata in the low scorers, appears to have the greatest implications for their respective personality patterns.
3. EXTERNALIZA TION VS. INTERNALIZA TION
Among the tendencies which the typical high scorer attempts to keep in a repressed state (but which nonetheless find indirect expression in the inter- view) are mainly fear, weakness, passivity, sex impulses, and aggressive feeling against authoritative figures, especially the parents. Among the rigid defenses against these tendencies there is, above all, the mechanism of projec- tion, by which much of what cannot be accepted as part of one's own ego is externalized. Thus it is not oneself but others that are seen as hostile and threatening. Or else one's own weakness leads to an exaggerated condemna- tion of everything that is weak; one's own weakness is thus fought outside instead of inside. At the same time there is a compensatory-and therefore often compulsive-drive for power, strength, success, and self-determination.
Repression and externalization of the instinctual tendencies mentioned reduces their manageability and the possibility of their control by the indi- vidual, since it is now the external world to which the feared qualities of the
? SUMMARY OF INTERVIEW RESULTS
475
unconscious are ascribed. As long as social conditions are conducive to and furnish acceptable outlets for compensatory tendencies, a relative mental balance within the individual may well be achieved in this manner.
Another aspect of externalization may be found in a tendency toward avoidance of introspection and of insight in general, thus rendering the content of consciousness relatively narrow. Since the energy of the person is in this case largely devoted either to keeping instinctual tendencies out of consciousness or to striving for external success and status, there appears to be relatively little left for genuine libidinization of one's interpersonal rela- tionships, or of one's work, as ends in themselves. The comparatively im- poverished potentialities for interpersonal relationships may exhibit them- selves either in a relatively restricted, conventional, but dependable approach to people, as found primarily in the more conservative subgroup of the high scorers, or in a ruthless, manipulative approach, as found in the more de- linquent subgroup.
There also seems to be relatively little enjoyment of sensuality or of pas- sive pleasures such as affection, companionship, or art and music on the part of the typical high scorer. Instead of these internalized pleasures, there is an inclination toward mobility and activity, and a striving for material benefits.
The composite picture of the low scorer, on the other hand, not only reveals greater readiness to accept and to face one's impulses and weaknesses, but also to ruminate about them. While for the high scorer possible loss of energy is connected with his tendency toward rigid repressions, the low scorer is apt to waste energies by indulging in often unfruitful introspec- tion and by placing the blame for mishaps too much upon himself. In con- trast to the high scorer's tendency toward externalization, the typical low scorer is prone to internalize in an excessive manner, and this in turn may lead to open anxiety, feelings of guilt, and other neurotic features.
The positive aspects of this latter kind of orientation are a more closely knit integration within the individual and a more internalized and more in- tensive, though not conflict-free relation to others. The low scorer also tends to be oriented, more than is the high scorer, toward real achievement, toward intellectual or aesthetic goals, and toward the realization of socially productive values. His greater capacity for intensive interpersonal relation- ships goes hand in hand with greater self-sufficiency. He struggles for the establishment of inner harmony and self-actualization, whereas the high scorer is concentrated on an effort to adjust to the outside world and to gain power and success within it.
One of the results of greater internalization is the generally more creative and imaginative approach of the low scorer both in the cognitive and in the emotional sphere, as compared with a more constricted, conventional, and stereotypical approach in the high scorer.
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
4. CONVENTIONALISM VS. GENUINENESS
Conformity is one of the major expressions of lack of an internal focus in the high scorer. One of the outstanding characteristics to be found in both the conservatively inclined, as well as in the delinquent subvariety of the high scorer (see Chapter XXI), is the adoption of conventional values and~
'rules. High scorers generally seem to need external support-whether this be offered by authorities or by public opinion-in order to find some assur- ance concerning what is right and what is wrong.
Conformity to externalized values in the extremely prejudiced can be observed in a variety of spheres of life. One of the earliest expressions of this conventionality is to be found, probably, in the high scorer's attitude toward his parents. It is one of stereotypical admiration, with little ability to express criticism or resentment. There are many indications that there actually is often considerable underlying hostility toward the parents which-though not always expressed-prevents the development of a truly affectionate rela- tionship.
The greater genuineness of the low scorer is evident in his attitude toward the parents. His is an equalitarian conception of the parent-child relation- ship. This makes it possible for him to express criticism and resentment openly, and at the same time to have a more positive and affectionate rela- tion with the parents. The descriptions of the parents given by the low scorers have an aspect of spontaneity: they depict real people with all their inherent assets and shortcomings.
External criteria, especially social status, are the yardsticks by which the high scorer tends to appraise people in general and the ground on which he either admires and accepts, or rejects them. Such values form the basis of a hierarchical order in which the powerful are seen at the top and the weak at the bottom. This may well be an over-all tendency in modern culture which, however, the high scorer displays to an exaggerated degree. The typical low scorer, on the other hand, seems to have developed for himself an image of other people which includes congeniality even with outgroups rather than conceiving of them mainly as a threat or danger. Feeling more secure, he searches in his relations with other people primarily for a realization of posi- tive and individualized values rather than being oriented primarily to- ward getting support and help from the powerful as is the typical high scorer.
The high scorers' conception of the sex roles is likewise highly conven- tionalized. The high-scoring man tends to think of himself as active, deter- mined, energetic, independent, rough, and successful in the competitive struggle. There is no room in this ego-ideal for passivity and softness, and thus strong defenses are erected against these attitudes in general, the effect being that only their opposites are established in consciousness. Nonetheless,
? SUMMARY OF INTERVIEW RESULTS
477
inclinations toward dependency and a far-reaching passivity are evident in the interviews of high-scoring men although these remain unaccepted and ego-alien.
The role of the woman, as seen by the high-scoring man, is one of pas- sivity and subservience. She is an object of solicitude on the part of the man. The hierarchical idea involved corresponds to the well-known conven- tional cliche and at the same time offers the high-scoring man the much- needed opportunity of asserting his superiority. There is, however, ample evidence that the high-scoring man wants to be on the receiving end in his relation to women; from them he wants material benefits and support more than he wants pure affection, for it would be difficult for him to accept the latter. There is relatively little genuine affective involvement in his non- marital sex relations, and of his wife he tends to require the conventional prerequisites of a good housewife. On the whole, sex is for him in the service of status, be this masculine status as achieved by pointing toward conquests, or be it social status as achieved by marrying the "right kind" of woman.
Low-scoring men, on the other hand, tend to look primarily for com- panionship, friendship, and sensuality in their relations to the other sex. They are able openly to take and to give nurturance and succorance in their rela- tions with women. In fact, we often find a rather insatiable search for love and complete acceptance by the woman in low-scoring men, and this is often a source of open ambivalence toward her. Passivity and softness is thus an accepted part of the ego-ideal of the low-scoring man, who at the same time is often more capable of giving real protection and support in return. All degrees of expressiveness, ranging from extreme sexual inhibition, due to an overly developed and powerful superego, to a conscious tendency toward impulse-riddenness, may be found among low-scoring subjects.
The extremely unprejudiced woman likewise looks primarily for mutual interests and affection in her choice of a mate. As the low-scoring man shows greater readiness than does the high scorer to accept feminine features in himself, so the low-scoring woman tends not to repress but rather to accept and to sublimate her masculine tendencies by pursuing so-called masculine interests and activities. Though this often leads to open competition with, and envy of, men, there is at the same time more understanding and more genuine liking for them. There is more evidence of an open conflict about the feminine role, and at the same time evidence of more clearly focused heterosexuality and of more intensive maternal feelings.
The high-scoring woman, on the other hand, clings to a self-image of con- ventional femininity defined by subservience to, and adulation of, men. At the same time there is evidence of an exploitive and hostile attitude toward men, expressed only indirectly in the interviews and shown quite directly in the stories of the Thematic Apperception Test (see Chapter XIV). Since the high-scoring woman tends to renounce inclinations toward interests con-
? THE AUTHORIT ARIAN PERSONALITY
sidered masculine in our culture, and since the home does not provide her with satisfactory forms of expression, her underlying bitterness often assumes deviously destructive forms. One way in which such a negative attitude is manifested is in her exaggerated demands on men as providers; another is the living out of her thwarted ambitions through the medium of the man. Again it may be that it is the general cultural plight of the woman that finds an exaggerated release in the high-scoring woman; indeed, low-scoring women seem by no means untouched by the difficult situation imposed upon them by our civilization. But whereas the high-scoring woman tends to give pref- erence to the ideal of a restricted rather than a vaguely defined role for women, the low-scoring woman is more apt to take on the conflict and to face it openly.
As was anticipated above, the element of conventionality in the concep- tion of sex roles is only part of a more general conventional self-image found to be characteristic of the high scorers. Good manners, attainment of success and status, self-control, and poise are some of the further requirements. De- viations from this ego-ideal are usually considered as inexplicable "break- throughs" of forces that lie beyond the responsibility of the individual, such as external stress, heredity, etc.
Low scorers, on the other hand, are worried, in their self-evaluation, about attainment of goals in the realm of achievement, about the realization of so- cially constructive values, about success or failure in friendship, and about guilt resulting from aggression and ambivalence.
5. POWER VS. LOVE-ORIENT A TION
The orientation toward conventional values in the high scorers as com- pared with orientation toward more intrinsic and basic values in the low scorers was found to extend over different areas of life. Related to con- ventionalism is the tendency toward admiration of, and search for, power, likewise more pronounced in the typical high scorer.
The comparative lack of ability for affectionate and individualized inter- personal relations, together with the conception of a threatening and dan- gerous environment, must be seen as underlying the prejudiced individual's striving for the attainment of power, either directly or by having the power- ful on his side. In this vein, weakness is considered dangerous since it may lead to being "devoured" by the strong (see Simmel, II r), or at least to deprivation or starvation, dangers only too readily anticipated by the high scorer.
In this context we often find a frame of mind best characterized as "over-_ realism," a tendency to utilize everything and everybody as means to an end. Needless to say, such overrealism seems but rarely to lead to a real attain- ment of the goals involved and thus to ultimate satisfaction; it often involves strained interpersonal relations and possible or actual retaliation, of which
? SUMMARY OF INTERVIEW RESULTS
479
there is much fear. The conflict ar. ising between an unaccepted and un- recognized dependency on others for things and benefits, on the one hand, and the hostility stemming from distrust, envy, and feelings of being thwarted, on the other, cannot be resolved.
It is especially the prejudiced man who-as mentioned before-often con- siders ruthless opportunism as an essential attribute of masculinity. As a reaction to his fear of his passivity and dependency, he develops a propensity for power and success as the only measures of his value.
Modern authors have repeatedly stressed the fact that status as a meas- ure of one's worth is a general phenomenon in American civilization. Assuming that this is the case, there still is a difference between the picture of the composite high scorer and of the composite low scorer in this respect. Whereas the striving for status and power, in their purely external aspects, seems to be the major concern of the extremely prejudiced, the riQprejudiced individual-though as a rule by no means disinterested in status-still has a greater variety of other resources and pleasures at his disposal.
The search for affection and love in one's personal relationships is an important determinant of the behavior of the typical low scorer. To develop a satisfactory relation to one's mate and to friends is considered essential for happiness. In fact, much thought-often of an obsessional intensity-seems to be devoted to the striving for such ideal bonds, and to anxiety over the actual or potential failure of this striving. If successfully established, such intense relations constitute one of the most important sources of gratifica- tion. At the same time, the often insatiable wish for being fully accepted and loved leads to frustration and open ambivalence for the object of attachment. Thus it is that low scorers often manifest painful emotional dependence on others; this is a further way in which they may become maladjusted.
Not only contact with other people but also work tends to become more libidinized in the low scorers than in the high scorers. Though far from being indifferent to recognition, low scorers place comparatively little em- phasis on their activities as means to an end; rather, these activities tend to become a source of pleasure and satisfaction in their own right, or else the emphasis lies on their social implications. Activity contributing to the reali- zation of what may be called liberal values may also become important to the low scorer. Finally, interest and liking for art, music, literature, and philosophy are more often found in the low scorer. It may be considered that such interests contribute substantially to the greater resourcefulness, and to the comparative diversion from power and status, that is characteristic of the low scorer.
6. RIGIDITY VS. FLEXIBILITY. PROBLEMS OF ADJUSTMENT
One of the most pervasive formal aspects of the personality organization of the extremely prejudiced individual is his rigidity. This must be seen as a
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
consequence of the features discussed so far. In order to keep unacceptable tendencies and impulses out of consciousness, rigid defenses have to be main- tained. Any loosening of the absoluteness of these defenses involves the danger of a breaking through of the repressed tendencies. Impulses and in- clinations repressed too severely, too suddenly, or too early in life do not lose their dynamic strength, however. On the contrary, abrupt or unsuccess- ful repression prevents rather than helps in their control and mastery. An ego thus weakened is more in danger of becoming completely overwhelmed by the repressed forces. Greater rigidity of defenses is necessary to cope with such increased threat. In this vicious circle, impulses are not prevented from breaking out in uncontrolled ways. Basically unmodified iqstinctual impulses lurk everywhere beneath the surface, narrowing considerably the content of the ego so that it must be kept constantly on the lookout. Rational control extends to a small sector of the personality only. As long as situational conditions of life draw on this sector only, and as long as our culture provides socially acceptable outlets for suppressed impulses, smooth functioning and fair adjustment can be achieved within the given framework.
But it must be kept in mind that the adjustment of the typical high scorer depends on conditions that are comparatively narrowly circumscribed. The idea of a sharp ingroup-outgroup dichotomy provided by our culture makes it possible for the high scorer to suppress the feared awareness of his hostility against the prestige figures, on which he is dependent, by displacing it onto weak outgroups from whom no retaliation need be feared. This mechanism enables him, furthermore, to remain relatively unaware of his own psycho- logical weaknesses, since he now may feel superior to the socially weaker groups. Among other things, fear of one's own immoral tendencies can be alleviated by exaggerating and condemning the immorality of others, par- ticularly outgroups.
As far as positive goals are concerned, the relative lack of individuation is compensated for by taking over conventional cliches and values. Rigid adherence to substitutes and crutches of this kind is found in various spheres of life. However, the tendency toward externalization, if kept within bounds, may often be in harmony with a healthy concern for external goals. With- out such a tendency toward externalization, the individual might frequently go down in a competitive society.
In order to keep the balance under these conditions, a simple, firm, often stereotypical, cognitive structure is required. There is no place for ambiv- alence or ambiguities. Every attempt is made to eliminate them, but they remain as potentials which might interfere at any time. In the course of these attempts a subtle but profound distortion of reality has to take place, precipi- tated by the fact that stereotypical categorizations can never do justice to all the aspects of reality. As long as such distortions remain part and parcel of the cultural inventory, the removal of prejudice from the potentially
? SUMMARY OF INTERVIEW RESULTS
fascist person may well endanger his psychological balance. The social im- plications of such a step have therefore to be carefully anticipated and pre- ventive measures to be devised in advance.
The avoidance of ambiguities and the rigidity of mental sets in the eth- nically prejudiced also becomes evident in the handling of perceptual and other cognitive materials free of immediate social and emotional implica- tions (37; 98). The tendency to impose preconceived and often stereotypical categories upon experience may thus be envisaged as a more general trait in subjects scoring extremely high on Ethnocentrism. It must be reiterated, however, that there is a distinct sub-type among extreme low scorers in whom liberal ideology becomes a cliche that may include an undue glorifi- cation of the underdog, and who at the same time shows signs of rigidity in his personality makeup. On the other hand, it is primarily the conserva- tive type of high scorer who displays rigidity, while the skillful manipula- tor among the high scorers is often characterized by a great deal of flexibility
(see Chapter XIX). On the whole, however, it is in the low scorer that we find the more flexible emotional and cognitive adjustment; this is also re- flected in his greater reluctance to "reify" concepts, in his more pronounced appreciation of the complexity of social and personal relations, as well as in his more profound sympathy with the psychological and social sciences studying these relations.
Whereas the extremely prejudiced person often exhibits a rigid form of superficial adjustment, interspersed with some measure of psychotic mech- anisms stemming from the necessity of distorting reality, the extremely unprejudiced individual gives evidence of a more flexible kind of adjustment, although this goes with neurotic trends in a number of cases. An extreme tendency toward internalization can often be seen in the low scorer's preoc- cupation with his feelings and impulses, however unpleasant they may turn out to be. Far from escaping his emotional ambivalences and his feelings of inferiority, of guilt, and of anxiety, he even tends to dwell on them. This is not to say that he is free from self-deception. Dwelling on his feelings is often morbid and far removed from real insight. But the conscious consideration and comparative acceptance of instinctual impulses-especially in childhood -may well prevent the development of overly rigid defenses and disguises. Mechanisms of projection and displacement would thus be reduced to man- ageable proportions as far as cognitive mastery of reality is concerned.
Although the average unprejudiced individual in our culture is perhaps not free of some neurotic tendencies, it is in this same group that the rela- tively rare case of an individual, very well adjusted and mature, may also be found. It is only when conflicts, shortcomings, and unacceptable impulses are frankly faced that their mastery may be furthered to the point of perfec- tion and the maximum potential for dealing adequately with varying con- ditions may be achieved. Temporarily, however, such frankness may well
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
lead to increased anxieties and depressions, and some contestants may, for better or for worse, be left by the way.
7. SOME GENETIC ASPECTS
When we consider the childhood situation of the most prejudiced sub- jects, we find reports of a tendency toward rigid discipline on the part of the parents, with affection which is conditional rather than unconditional, i.
The -absence of proper orientation toward social and psychological dy- namics in the typical high scorer may be linked to a general tendency toward autistic thinking in goal behavior as contrasted with the somewhat more realistic attitude that might be expected to be present in the typical low scorer (Category 62). Though not significantly differentiating between the two extreme groups of interviewees, this category shows a distinct trend in the direction that we expected (2I positive as compared with I2 negative instances in men, and I9 positive as compared with I2 negative instances in women). The trend is particularly evident in the vocational choices and economic expectations of our subjects.
The somewhat adolescent and fantastic, glamour-seeking character of the vocational ambitions of high-scoring subjects is illustrated by the following records:
F66: "If you're good, you can get up to ambassador. I think there have been
? PERSONALITY ORGANIZATION SEEN THROUGH INTERVIEWS 467
some women ambassadors. Or maybe there were only women ministers. I made the choice about three years ago. I just heard some friends of mine talking about it, and it sounded interesting. (Why vocational choice? ) Well, salary had a little to do with it. I think if I could really put myself to it, I could do it. If I really wanted to and had nothing else to stand in the way. The times have much to do with my choice. I would like to know why they do what they do. "
F34: Subject wants to be a journalist. This is purely utilitarian. She likes journal- ism, but her real desire is to do creative writing. She has imagined herself as a great actress. "But my acting is purely amateur stuff. I was always active in school dramatics as well as high school journalism. The family used to laugh because I was always play-acting. I always said I'd earn my living at either acting or writing. . . . "
5. SUGGESTIBILITY
Submission to authority and lack of independence and of critical judg- ment tend to lead the high scorer toward being suggestible and gullible, as contrasted with the greater autonomy of the low scorer (Category 6I). Again, the difference is significant at the I per cent level for both men and women. The social implications of a tendency on the part of the gullible person to fall easy prey to unsound and destructive political propaganda are obvious. The high scorer's dependence, in his personal life, upon author- ity, conventionalized values, church dogma, public opinion, and prestige figures, and the low scorer's relative independence of, and occasional rebel- lion against, these authorities have been pointed out so often throughout this volume that no further comment seems necessary.
The present chapter will be summarized together with a general synopsis of the interview results at the conclusion of the chapter which follows.
? CHAPTER XIII
COMPREHENSIVE SCORES AND SUMMARY OF INTERVIEW RESULTS Else Frenkel-Brunswik
A. THE DISCRIMINATORY POWERS OF THE MAJOR AREAS STUDIED
1. VERIFICA TION OF ANTICIP A TED TREND BY CA TEGQRIES
In the preceding four chapters (IX to XII), the technique of interviewing was described, and specific results of interviews with eighty subjects scor- ing extremely high or extremely low on the overt anti-Semitism or Ethno- centrism scales were presented and discussed in terms of the approximately ninety rating categories of the Scoring Manual used to classify the records of the subjects.
As shown in the tables of these chapters, a sizable proportion of the cate- gories differentiated high scorers from low scorers to a statistically sig- nificant degree in the direction anticipated for either or both sexes. The vast majority of the remaining categories showed at least a trend in the expected direction. For men, there are only three out of the eighty-six categories for which the number of "positive" and "negative" instances is equal, and only one (Category 2 3c) which shows a slight trend in the direction op- posite to the one expected. As can be seen from Tables 3(X), 1(XI), and 2 (XI), to which the four exceptions are limited, the absolute number of rat- ings involved is very small in each case; the items involved deal with certain aspects of attitude toward siblings, sex, and people. For women there are two out of the ninety categories that show equality and four that show reversal, all six exceptions being confined to Tables 1(X), 2 (X), and 3(X), and deal- ing with aspects of the relationships to parents and siblings. In no case does the reversal approach statistical significance; nor does it appear in the case of any category that yielded less than 50 per cent "Neutral" ratings and was thus included in the list of those for which intensive evaluation was under- taken (72 for men and 65 for women, see end of Chapter IX).
468
? Based on categories presented in tables
20 men and 25 women
20 men and 15 women "low scorers"
Sums of Means '
en
1 ( X ) , 2 ( X ) , 3(X)
P a r e n t s ? a n d Childhood
Men 8. . . . . . 613 women 7. 47
L 37 3. 26
3. 11 1. 68
8. 42 5. 11
17. 10 12. 58
4. 47 4. 94
1(Xl)
Attitude toward Sex
Men 10. 57 Women 10. 43
0 "':: ,. . . .
2(Xl)
Attitude toward
M 3. 89 i1:l
3(Xl)
Attitude toward Men Present Self Women
13. 00 11. 33
2. 44 3. 56
2. 44 1. 11
13. 11 9. 67
26. 11 21. 00
4. 88 4. 67
~
4(XI)
Attitude toward Men Childhood Self Women
8. 50 8. 00
3. 75 5. 75
2. 25 12. 75 1. 00 8. 75
21. 25 16. 75
6. 00 6. 75
q r --l en
1(XII)
Dynamic Character Men Structure Women
11. 65 11. 75
2. 53 3. 59
3. 10 11. 35 1. 95 9. 12
23. 00 20. 87
5. 63 5. 54
2(XII)
Cognitive Personality Men Organization Women
14. 67 14. 67
3. 00 3. 50
3. 00 14. 00 1. 83 11. 00
28. 67 25. 67
6. 00 5. 33
All tables
All categories Men Women
10. 91 10. 38
2. 24 3. 34
2. 81 10. 59 1. 69 8. 10
21. 50 18. 48
5. 05
Dealing with
Sex "high scorers"
"! :! ositive?
? negative?
~
Men People Women
10. 67 10. 67
1. 67 2. 78
2. 22 1. 44
11. 67 8. 00
22. 33 18. 67
4. 22 <. . . . . . M
TABLE 1 (XIII}
COMPOSITE RATINGS (MEANS} FOR MAJOR AREAS OF STUDY FOR "HIGH" AND "LOW" SCORING GROUPS OF INTERVIEWEES
Means o f High(H) and Low(L) ratings received by
! ! .
L
H
. k
a;: > ~
2. 86 1. 86
2. 57 2. 29
5. 86 9. 00
16. 43 19. 43
5. 43
4. 14 z
+ 5. 03 0\
--l
i1:l
M
en
\0
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
Thus there are no "negative validities" in the evaluation of the interviews. This result is not surprising in view of the fact that the categories of the Scoring Manual were derived from previous empirical evidence, including a preliminary inspection of the interview material; even so, the fact that the subsequent "blind" rating procedure supported most of the hypotheses with which the evaluation began is strong evidence of their validity.
2. COMPOSITE RATINGS FOR SEVEN MAJOR AREAS
Considering the almost universally confirmatory trend of the results just discussed, the computation of average ratings for larger groups of categories seems justified. The results of this procedure are presented in Table 1 (XIII) in the same manner as in the preceding tables except for the fact that indica- tion of statistical significance is here omitted.
As can be seen by an inspection of the last two columns of the table, dif- ferentiation between high scorers and low scorers is consistently somewhat less clear-cut for women than for men. This may be due either to the un- equal size of the two samples of women interviewees, or to the fact, re- peatedly referred to above, that women were in the main interviewed at an earlier stage of the investigation than were men. It may also be that, in our culture at least, patterns of behavior and ideology are more coherent and consistent in men than they are in women.
Among all the areas studied, that of attitudes toward present self yields the most clear-cut differentiation between high scorers and low scorers. The ratio between "positive" (confirmatory) and "negative" instances is among the most favorable. At the same time, the absolute values of the positive in- stances are among the highest. This indicates, furthermore, that the number of "Neutral" ratings is relatively low for this area.
The categories pertaining to dynamic and, especially, cognitive personality organization likewise show excellent differentiation, a very high proportion of the differences being statistically significant.
Contrariwise, over-all results are least sharply defined in the area of attitude toward parents and siblings, for reasons outlined in Chapter X. This is in line with what was stated above concerning absence of reversal of the expected trend in the case of a few scattered categories pertaining to these topics. Even for this area, however, the ratio of positive to negative instances is, for the men, better than three to one, and thus the differentiation is quite satisfactory.
An explanation of the differences in discriininatory power among the various major areas covered by the ratings of interviews may be in the fol- lowing. An adequate survey of the early family situation requires a great deal more specific information than could be obtained in our necessarily circumscribed interviews, and this made for the large proportion of "Neutral"
? SUMMARY OF INTERVIEW RESULTS
ratings. Such aspects as cognitive organization and attitude toward self, on the other hand, may be inferred from expressions in a greater variety of fields, and thus the likelihood of insufficient information is reduced. Over and above this, the very nature of such formal variables permits the subject himself to choose from among a variety of "alternate" manifestations, many of them encompassed in a single rating category. This principle of shifting expres- sion of identical motivational tendencies is apt to give an advantage to mo- tivational categories regardless of how complete the specific information on any particular aspect of life may be. It is for the same reason that the value of generalized, synoptic ratings, as contrasted with specific or situationally limited quantification, was so much stressed at the beginning of the discus- sion of the problems connected with the evaluation of interviews (Chapter IX; see also 3I, 32, 34, 36).
B. V ALIDITY OF OVER-ALL SCORES AND RA TINGS OF THE INTERVIEWS
1. INDIVIDUAL COMPOSITE SCORE BASED ON ALL AREAS OF RA TING
Composite ratings, covering the entire range of the areas of rating, were also obtained for each individual interviewee. In a sense, these composite rat- ings define what may be called the "score" of the subject on the interview. (It was with a view to this final score that the manual was designated as the Interview Scoring Manual in spite of the fact that for each of the constituent categories ratings rather than scores were obtained. ) Since, as was pointed out in the preceding section, there were no reversals of the expected dis- criminatory trend on any of the categories yielding less than 50 per cent "Neutral" ratings, all of these categories were included in the final score. These scores are shown, for all the So subjects interviewed, in Tables I (IX) and 2 (IX). The score itself is given in two parts, defined by the sums of the "High" and of the "Low" ratings received by the individual.
The difference between the sum of these two parts and the fixed total (72 for men and 65 for women), not shown in the tables, indicates the number of "Neutral" ratings received by the individual on the categories in question.
The column referring to composite standing shows the letter H or L, de- pending on the preponderance of the High or the Low score in the preced- ing pair of columns. 1
Means of the quantitative data are shown in the bottom rows of the tables. The ranges of the number of "high" and "low" interview scores for each of the four groups can be read directly from the two tables.
1 Concerning the use of capital and lower-case symbols and other technical data perti- nent to this section see Chapter IX, Section F, 3.
? 472 THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
2. OVER-ALL INTUITIVE RA TING
AND ITS AGREEMENT WITH THE COMPOSITE SCORE
The last column in Tables r (IX) and 2 (IX) adds what was briefly men- tioned in Chapter IX as the intuitive rating of the interviewee. This is based on an informal synopsis and estimate after the blind interview-rating pro- cedure had been completed, and it was made without the rater's making explicit to himself the quantitative results in terms of specific ratings on the single categories.
Composite scores and intuitive ratings agree very highly with one another. There is only one subject, F72, among the So interviewees for whom there is a discrepancy between the two values. In her case the composite score
(H) is correct; the over-all intuitive rating (L) is incorrect.
3. AGREEMENT WITH THE QUESTIONNAIRE RESULTS
It will be noted that while there is consistency as to "low" vs. "high" standing in the A-S and E columns of Tables I (IX) and 2 (IX)-this standing having been the very criterion of selection of the interviewees-the subse- quent columns show a good deal of inconsistency. This inconsistency reaches major proportions in such cases as F2z or F39, both overt low scorers who nonetheless score among the highest on the interview, with respect to both the composite score and the synoptic over-all ratings. Similar instances of opposition, though not all as striking ones, can be found among the high scorers. Various other kinds of inconsistency of trend may be noted upon inspection of the tables.
The general agreement between various columns in Tables I (IX) and 2 (IX) containing letter indices may be expressed conveniently in terms of percentage. "Percentage agreement" is then defined as the percentage of equal-letter combinations (HH or LL) in any pair of columns considered. The figures on percentage agreement could easily be transformed into tetra- choric correlation coefficients.
The defining criterion of selection, extremely high vs. extremely low standing on the overt anti-Semitism or Ethnocentrism scale, shows a per- centage agreement of about 85 with both the over-all intuitive ratings and the composite standing on the interview. (This figure is an average of an agreement of about 95 per cent achieved by the rater whose material hap- pened to include the most complete interviews, and of an agreement of 75 per cent achieved by the other of the two raters whose data were more frag- mentary. )
Since composite ratings agree with intuitive ratings almost completely (see above), the figures for the agreement of overt ethnocentrism with the intuitive ratings are practically identical with those mentioned above for
composite ratings.
? SUMMARY OF INTERVIEW RESULTS
473
Intuitive as well as composite interview ratings show slightly less agree- ment with standing on the F and the PEC scales, but even here the figures are between 75 and So per cent.
C. SUMMARY OF THE PERSONALITY P A TTERNS DERIVED FROM THE INTERVIEWS
1. INTRODUCTION
The results of the "blind" ratings of the interviews, as discussed in the present and in the preceding four chapters, have shown that individuals ex- tremely high on overt ethnic prejudice tend to differ with respect to a great variety of personality traits from those extremely low on prejudice. Some of the personality traits discussed were also measured by other techniques, especially the questionnaire. The results obtained by the various methods independently are very similar. However, rating by categories describes and substantiates in a more systematic, organized, and controlled way the im- pressions formed about the personality differences between high scorers and low scorers in the course of intensive study of individual cases.
It has to be emphasized, of course, that these differences are based on an analysis of group trends within statistical samples and do not imply that every individual will exhibit most or even a large proportion of the features belonging to either the "high" or the "low" syndrome, as the case may be. As can be seen from Tables r (IX) and 2 (IX), certain individuals seem to possess a relatively large number of either "high" or "low" features while others seem to have features of both patterns, with a relatively slight prev- alence of one or the other. It should thus be kept in mind that the summary which follows deals with composite pictures of these patterns, abstracted from the study of groups, rather than with individual cases. Were we to lay greater stress on concrete personalities, the most frequent syndromes or combinations of trends within single individuals would have to be determined as an intermediate step, leading to the definition of subtypes within the prejudiced and the unprejudiced patterns. Some remarks pointing in this direction will be made in the following summary. The typology, as such, of the ethnically prejudiced, will be taken up more systematically in Chap- ter XIX.
The results are furthermore limited to trends found in individuals with extreme standing on the prejudice scale. How far the relations would hold for those with middle scores on prejudice has to be left open, since such in- dividuals were not included in the present intensive investigation by means of interviews.
Finally, it remains for future investigation to ascertain how far the inter- relationships found are interculturally valid or whether they are restricted
? 474
THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
to certain specific cultures or subcultures, such as the one from which our sample of subjects has been drawn; namely, an urban and suburban popula- tion on the West Coast of the United States.
In an attempt to summarize the social and psychological factors which, within our limited framework, have been found to be related to prejudice, we will proceed in the following manner: First, the aspects and "themes" of the personality structure of the high scorer as differentiated from the low scorer will be described in a synoptic fashion. Next, hypotheses concerning the genetic aspects of these two distinct patterns will be put forward. And finally, an attempt will be made to relate both patterns to the over-all cul- tural pattern.
2. REPRESSION VS. A W ARENESS
In summarizing differences in the personality structure of our two groups, we may best start with the findings discussed in the preceding chapter under the heading of "defense mechanisms. " Regardless of whether the specific topic was that of ambivalence, or aggression, or passivity, or some other related feature of personality dynamics, the outstanding finding was that the extremely unprejudiced individual tends to manifest a greater readiness to become aware of unacceptable tendencies and impulses in himself. The prejudiced individual, on the other hand, is more apt not to face these tend- encies openly and thus to fail in integrating them satisfactorily with the con- scious image he has of himself. The resultant break between the conscious and the unconscious layers in the personality of the high scorers, as com- pared with the greater fluidity of transition and of intercommunication be- tween the different personality strata in the low scorers, appears to have the greatest implications for their respective personality patterns.
3. EXTERNALIZA TION VS. INTERNALIZA TION
Among the tendencies which the typical high scorer attempts to keep in a repressed state (but which nonetheless find indirect expression in the inter- view) are mainly fear, weakness, passivity, sex impulses, and aggressive feeling against authoritative figures, especially the parents. Among the rigid defenses against these tendencies there is, above all, the mechanism of projec- tion, by which much of what cannot be accepted as part of one's own ego is externalized. Thus it is not oneself but others that are seen as hostile and threatening. Or else one's own weakness leads to an exaggerated condemna- tion of everything that is weak; one's own weakness is thus fought outside instead of inside. At the same time there is a compensatory-and therefore often compulsive-drive for power, strength, success, and self-determination.
Repression and externalization of the instinctual tendencies mentioned reduces their manageability and the possibility of their control by the indi- vidual, since it is now the external world to which the feared qualities of the
? SUMMARY OF INTERVIEW RESULTS
475
unconscious are ascribed. As long as social conditions are conducive to and furnish acceptable outlets for compensatory tendencies, a relative mental balance within the individual may well be achieved in this manner.
Another aspect of externalization may be found in a tendency toward avoidance of introspection and of insight in general, thus rendering the content of consciousness relatively narrow. Since the energy of the person is in this case largely devoted either to keeping instinctual tendencies out of consciousness or to striving for external success and status, there appears to be relatively little left for genuine libidinization of one's interpersonal rela- tionships, or of one's work, as ends in themselves. The comparatively im- poverished potentialities for interpersonal relationships may exhibit them- selves either in a relatively restricted, conventional, but dependable approach to people, as found primarily in the more conservative subgroup of the high scorers, or in a ruthless, manipulative approach, as found in the more de- linquent subgroup.
There also seems to be relatively little enjoyment of sensuality or of pas- sive pleasures such as affection, companionship, or art and music on the part of the typical high scorer. Instead of these internalized pleasures, there is an inclination toward mobility and activity, and a striving for material benefits.
The composite picture of the low scorer, on the other hand, not only reveals greater readiness to accept and to face one's impulses and weaknesses, but also to ruminate about them. While for the high scorer possible loss of energy is connected with his tendency toward rigid repressions, the low scorer is apt to waste energies by indulging in often unfruitful introspec- tion and by placing the blame for mishaps too much upon himself. In con- trast to the high scorer's tendency toward externalization, the typical low scorer is prone to internalize in an excessive manner, and this in turn may lead to open anxiety, feelings of guilt, and other neurotic features.
The positive aspects of this latter kind of orientation are a more closely knit integration within the individual and a more internalized and more in- tensive, though not conflict-free relation to others. The low scorer also tends to be oriented, more than is the high scorer, toward real achievement, toward intellectual or aesthetic goals, and toward the realization of socially productive values. His greater capacity for intensive interpersonal relation- ships goes hand in hand with greater self-sufficiency. He struggles for the establishment of inner harmony and self-actualization, whereas the high scorer is concentrated on an effort to adjust to the outside world and to gain power and success within it.
One of the results of greater internalization is the generally more creative and imaginative approach of the low scorer both in the cognitive and in the emotional sphere, as compared with a more constricted, conventional, and stereotypical approach in the high scorer.
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
4. CONVENTIONALISM VS. GENUINENESS
Conformity is one of the major expressions of lack of an internal focus in the high scorer. One of the outstanding characteristics to be found in both the conservatively inclined, as well as in the delinquent subvariety of the high scorer (see Chapter XXI), is the adoption of conventional values and~
'rules. High scorers generally seem to need external support-whether this be offered by authorities or by public opinion-in order to find some assur- ance concerning what is right and what is wrong.
Conformity to externalized values in the extremely prejudiced can be observed in a variety of spheres of life. One of the earliest expressions of this conventionality is to be found, probably, in the high scorer's attitude toward his parents. It is one of stereotypical admiration, with little ability to express criticism or resentment. There are many indications that there actually is often considerable underlying hostility toward the parents which-though not always expressed-prevents the development of a truly affectionate rela- tionship.
The greater genuineness of the low scorer is evident in his attitude toward the parents. His is an equalitarian conception of the parent-child relation- ship. This makes it possible for him to express criticism and resentment openly, and at the same time to have a more positive and affectionate rela- tion with the parents. The descriptions of the parents given by the low scorers have an aspect of spontaneity: they depict real people with all their inherent assets and shortcomings.
External criteria, especially social status, are the yardsticks by which the high scorer tends to appraise people in general and the ground on which he either admires and accepts, or rejects them. Such values form the basis of a hierarchical order in which the powerful are seen at the top and the weak at the bottom. This may well be an over-all tendency in modern culture which, however, the high scorer displays to an exaggerated degree. The typical low scorer, on the other hand, seems to have developed for himself an image of other people which includes congeniality even with outgroups rather than conceiving of them mainly as a threat or danger. Feeling more secure, he searches in his relations with other people primarily for a realization of posi- tive and individualized values rather than being oriented primarily to- ward getting support and help from the powerful as is the typical high scorer.
The high scorers' conception of the sex roles is likewise highly conven- tionalized. The high-scoring man tends to think of himself as active, deter- mined, energetic, independent, rough, and successful in the competitive struggle. There is no room in this ego-ideal for passivity and softness, and thus strong defenses are erected against these attitudes in general, the effect being that only their opposites are established in consciousness. Nonetheless,
? SUMMARY OF INTERVIEW RESULTS
477
inclinations toward dependency and a far-reaching passivity are evident in the interviews of high-scoring men although these remain unaccepted and ego-alien.
The role of the woman, as seen by the high-scoring man, is one of pas- sivity and subservience. She is an object of solicitude on the part of the man. The hierarchical idea involved corresponds to the well-known conven- tional cliche and at the same time offers the high-scoring man the much- needed opportunity of asserting his superiority. There is, however, ample evidence that the high-scoring man wants to be on the receiving end in his relation to women; from them he wants material benefits and support more than he wants pure affection, for it would be difficult for him to accept the latter. There is relatively little genuine affective involvement in his non- marital sex relations, and of his wife he tends to require the conventional prerequisites of a good housewife. On the whole, sex is for him in the service of status, be this masculine status as achieved by pointing toward conquests, or be it social status as achieved by marrying the "right kind" of woman.
Low-scoring men, on the other hand, tend to look primarily for com- panionship, friendship, and sensuality in their relations to the other sex. They are able openly to take and to give nurturance and succorance in their rela- tions with women. In fact, we often find a rather insatiable search for love and complete acceptance by the woman in low-scoring men, and this is often a source of open ambivalence toward her. Passivity and softness is thus an accepted part of the ego-ideal of the low-scoring man, who at the same time is often more capable of giving real protection and support in return. All degrees of expressiveness, ranging from extreme sexual inhibition, due to an overly developed and powerful superego, to a conscious tendency toward impulse-riddenness, may be found among low-scoring subjects.
The extremely unprejudiced woman likewise looks primarily for mutual interests and affection in her choice of a mate. As the low-scoring man shows greater readiness than does the high scorer to accept feminine features in himself, so the low-scoring woman tends not to repress but rather to accept and to sublimate her masculine tendencies by pursuing so-called masculine interests and activities. Though this often leads to open competition with, and envy of, men, there is at the same time more understanding and more genuine liking for them. There is more evidence of an open conflict about the feminine role, and at the same time evidence of more clearly focused heterosexuality and of more intensive maternal feelings.
The high-scoring woman, on the other hand, clings to a self-image of con- ventional femininity defined by subservience to, and adulation of, men. At the same time there is evidence of an exploitive and hostile attitude toward men, expressed only indirectly in the interviews and shown quite directly in the stories of the Thematic Apperception Test (see Chapter XIV). Since the high-scoring woman tends to renounce inclinations toward interests con-
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sidered masculine in our culture, and since the home does not provide her with satisfactory forms of expression, her underlying bitterness often assumes deviously destructive forms. One way in which such a negative attitude is manifested is in her exaggerated demands on men as providers; another is the living out of her thwarted ambitions through the medium of the man. Again it may be that it is the general cultural plight of the woman that finds an exaggerated release in the high-scoring woman; indeed, low-scoring women seem by no means untouched by the difficult situation imposed upon them by our civilization. But whereas the high-scoring woman tends to give pref- erence to the ideal of a restricted rather than a vaguely defined role for women, the low-scoring woman is more apt to take on the conflict and to face it openly.
As was anticipated above, the element of conventionality in the concep- tion of sex roles is only part of a more general conventional self-image found to be characteristic of the high scorers. Good manners, attainment of success and status, self-control, and poise are some of the further requirements. De- viations from this ego-ideal are usually considered as inexplicable "break- throughs" of forces that lie beyond the responsibility of the individual, such as external stress, heredity, etc.
Low scorers, on the other hand, are worried, in their self-evaluation, about attainment of goals in the realm of achievement, about the realization of so- cially constructive values, about success or failure in friendship, and about guilt resulting from aggression and ambivalence.
5. POWER VS. LOVE-ORIENT A TION
The orientation toward conventional values in the high scorers as com- pared with orientation toward more intrinsic and basic values in the low scorers was found to extend over different areas of life. Related to con- ventionalism is the tendency toward admiration of, and search for, power, likewise more pronounced in the typical high scorer.
The comparative lack of ability for affectionate and individualized inter- personal relations, together with the conception of a threatening and dan- gerous environment, must be seen as underlying the prejudiced individual's striving for the attainment of power, either directly or by having the power- ful on his side. In this vein, weakness is considered dangerous since it may lead to being "devoured" by the strong (see Simmel, II r), or at least to deprivation or starvation, dangers only too readily anticipated by the high scorer.
In this context we often find a frame of mind best characterized as "over-_ realism," a tendency to utilize everything and everybody as means to an end. Needless to say, such overrealism seems but rarely to lead to a real attain- ment of the goals involved and thus to ultimate satisfaction; it often involves strained interpersonal relations and possible or actual retaliation, of which
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there is much fear. The conflict ar. ising between an unaccepted and un- recognized dependency on others for things and benefits, on the one hand, and the hostility stemming from distrust, envy, and feelings of being thwarted, on the other, cannot be resolved.
It is especially the prejudiced man who-as mentioned before-often con- siders ruthless opportunism as an essential attribute of masculinity. As a reaction to his fear of his passivity and dependency, he develops a propensity for power and success as the only measures of his value.
Modern authors have repeatedly stressed the fact that status as a meas- ure of one's worth is a general phenomenon in American civilization. Assuming that this is the case, there still is a difference between the picture of the composite high scorer and of the composite low scorer in this respect. Whereas the striving for status and power, in their purely external aspects, seems to be the major concern of the extremely prejudiced, the riQprejudiced individual-though as a rule by no means disinterested in status-still has a greater variety of other resources and pleasures at his disposal.
The search for affection and love in one's personal relationships is an important determinant of the behavior of the typical low scorer. To develop a satisfactory relation to one's mate and to friends is considered essential for happiness. In fact, much thought-often of an obsessional intensity-seems to be devoted to the striving for such ideal bonds, and to anxiety over the actual or potential failure of this striving. If successfully established, such intense relations constitute one of the most important sources of gratifica- tion. At the same time, the often insatiable wish for being fully accepted and loved leads to frustration and open ambivalence for the object of attachment. Thus it is that low scorers often manifest painful emotional dependence on others; this is a further way in which they may become maladjusted.
Not only contact with other people but also work tends to become more libidinized in the low scorers than in the high scorers. Though far from being indifferent to recognition, low scorers place comparatively little em- phasis on their activities as means to an end; rather, these activities tend to become a source of pleasure and satisfaction in their own right, or else the emphasis lies on their social implications. Activity contributing to the reali- zation of what may be called liberal values may also become important to the low scorer. Finally, interest and liking for art, music, literature, and philosophy are more often found in the low scorer. It may be considered that such interests contribute substantially to the greater resourcefulness, and to the comparative diversion from power and status, that is characteristic of the low scorer.
6. RIGIDITY VS. FLEXIBILITY. PROBLEMS OF ADJUSTMENT
One of the most pervasive formal aspects of the personality organization of the extremely prejudiced individual is his rigidity. This must be seen as a
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consequence of the features discussed so far. In order to keep unacceptable tendencies and impulses out of consciousness, rigid defenses have to be main- tained. Any loosening of the absoluteness of these defenses involves the danger of a breaking through of the repressed tendencies. Impulses and in- clinations repressed too severely, too suddenly, or too early in life do not lose their dynamic strength, however. On the contrary, abrupt or unsuccess- ful repression prevents rather than helps in their control and mastery. An ego thus weakened is more in danger of becoming completely overwhelmed by the repressed forces. Greater rigidity of defenses is necessary to cope with such increased threat. In this vicious circle, impulses are not prevented from breaking out in uncontrolled ways. Basically unmodified iqstinctual impulses lurk everywhere beneath the surface, narrowing considerably the content of the ego so that it must be kept constantly on the lookout. Rational control extends to a small sector of the personality only. As long as situational conditions of life draw on this sector only, and as long as our culture provides socially acceptable outlets for suppressed impulses, smooth functioning and fair adjustment can be achieved within the given framework.
But it must be kept in mind that the adjustment of the typical high scorer depends on conditions that are comparatively narrowly circumscribed. The idea of a sharp ingroup-outgroup dichotomy provided by our culture makes it possible for the high scorer to suppress the feared awareness of his hostility against the prestige figures, on which he is dependent, by displacing it onto weak outgroups from whom no retaliation need be feared. This mechanism enables him, furthermore, to remain relatively unaware of his own psycho- logical weaknesses, since he now may feel superior to the socially weaker groups. Among other things, fear of one's own immoral tendencies can be alleviated by exaggerating and condemning the immorality of others, par- ticularly outgroups.
As far as positive goals are concerned, the relative lack of individuation is compensated for by taking over conventional cliches and values. Rigid adherence to substitutes and crutches of this kind is found in various spheres of life. However, the tendency toward externalization, if kept within bounds, may often be in harmony with a healthy concern for external goals. With- out such a tendency toward externalization, the individual might frequently go down in a competitive society.
In order to keep the balance under these conditions, a simple, firm, often stereotypical, cognitive structure is required. There is no place for ambiv- alence or ambiguities. Every attempt is made to eliminate them, but they remain as potentials which might interfere at any time. In the course of these attempts a subtle but profound distortion of reality has to take place, precipi- tated by the fact that stereotypical categorizations can never do justice to all the aspects of reality. As long as such distortions remain part and parcel of the cultural inventory, the removal of prejudice from the potentially
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fascist person may well endanger his psychological balance. The social im- plications of such a step have therefore to be carefully anticipated and pre- ventive measures to be devised in advance.
The avoidance of ambiguities and the rigidity of mental sets in the eth- nically prejudiced also becomes evident in the handling of perceptual and other cognitive materials free of immediate social and emotional implica- tions (37; 98). The tendency to impose preconceived and often stereotypical categories upon experience may thus be envisaged as a more general trait in subjects scoring extremely high on Ethnocentrism. It must be reiterated, however, that there is a distinct sub-type among extreme low scorers in whom liberal ideology becomes a cliche that may include an undue glorifi- cation of the underdog, and who at the same time shows signs of rigidity in his personality makeup. On the other hand, it is primarily the conserva- tive type of high scorer who displays rigidity, while the skillful manipula- tor among the high scorers is often characterized by a great deal of flexibility
(see Chapter XIX). On the whole, however, it is in the low scorer that we find the more flexible emotional and cognitive adjustment; this is also re- flected in his greater reluctance to "reify" concepts, in his more pronounced appreciation of the complexity of social and personal relations, as well as in his more profound sympathy with the psychological and social sciences studying these relations.
Whereas the extremely prejudiced person often exhibits a rigid form of superficial adjustment, interspersed with some measure of psychotic mech- anisms stemming from the necessity of distorting reality, the extremely unprejudiced individual gives evidence of a more flexible kind of adjustment, although this goes with neurotic trends in a number of cases. An extreme tendency toward internalization can often be seen in the low scorer's preoc- cupation with his feelings and impulses, however unpleasant they may turn out to be. Far from escaping his emotional ambivalences and his feelings of inferiority, of guilt, and of anxiety, he even tends to dwell on them. This is not to say that he is free from self-deception. Dwelling on his feelings is often morbid and far removed from real insight. But the conscious consideration and comparative acceptance of instinctual impulses-especially in childhood -may well prevent the development of overly rigid defenses and disguises. Mechanisms of projection and displacement would thus be reduced to man- ageable proportions as far as cognitive mastery of reality is concerned.
Although the average unprejudiced individual in our culture is perhaps not free of some neurotic tendencies, it is in this same group that the rela- tively rare case of an individual, very well adjusted and mature, may also be found. It is only when conflicts, shortcomings, and unacceptable impulses are frankly faced that their mastery may be furthered to the point of perfec- tion and the maximum potential for dealing adequately with varying con- ditions may be achieved. Temporarily, however, such frankness may well
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lead to increased anxieties and depressions, and some contestants may, for better or for worse, be left by the way.
7. SOME GENETIC ASPECTS
When we consider the childhood situation of the most prejudiced sub- jects, we find reports of a tendency toward rigid discipline on the part of the parents, with affection which is conditional rather than unconditional, i.
