ihe paper* of Rarwr In the Philosophi-
cal Transactions of the Roynl Society of London lor Ihe years
1700 and ITT I.
cal Transactions of the Roynl Society of London lor Ihe years
1700 and ITT I.
Charles - 1867 - Classical Dictionary
war that
was to be undertaken against Nabis, Alexander
ipoke against the Athenians, and also insinuated
that the Romans were acting fraudulently towards
Greece. (Lie, 34, 23. ) When, in B. C. 189, M. Ful-
vius Nobilior, after his victory over Antiochus, was
expected to march into . -Etolia, the . 'Etolians sent
envoys to Athens and Rhodes; and Alexander Isius,
together with Phaneas and Lycopus, were sent to
Rome to sue for peace. Alexander, now an old
man, was at the head of the embassy; but he and
his colleagues were made prisoners in Cephalenia
by the Epirots, for the purpose of extorting a heavy
ransom. Alexander, however, although he was
very wealthy, refused to pay it, and was, according-
'y, kept in captivity for some days, after which he
>>vas liberated, at the command of the Romans, with-
out any ransom. (Polybius, 33, 9. )--XVIII. Sur-
named Lychnus (Avxvoc), a Greek rhetorician and
poet. He was a nati. e of Ephesus, whence he is
sometimes called Alexander Ephesius, and must
have lived shortly before the time of Strabo (14, p.
642), who mentions him among the more recent
Ephesian authors, and also states that he took a
part in the political affairs of his native city. Strabo
asciibes to him a history, and poems of a didactic
kind, viz. , one on astronomy and another on geogra-
phy, in which he describes the great continents of
the world, treating of each in a separate work or
book, which, as we learn from other sources, bore the
-. ame of the continent of which it contained an ac-
SCunt. What kind of history it was that Strabo
lii'jdes to is uncertain. The so-called Aurelius Vic-
tor (De Ortg. Gent. Rum. , 9) quotes, it is true, the
first book of a history of the Marsic war by Alexan-
der the Ephesian, hut this authority is more than
doubtful. Some writers have supposed that this
Alexander is the author of the history of the suc-
cession of Greek philosophers (al tuv fiXootyuv
itadoxai) which is so often referred to by Diogenes
Laertius(l, 116; 2, 19, 106; 3,4,5; 4,62; 7, 179;
8, 24; 9, 61), but this work belonged, probably, to
Alexander Polyhistur. His geographical poem, of
which several fragments are still extant, is frequent-
ly referred to by Stephanos Byzantius and others.
(Stcph. Byz. , t. w. Admfioc, Tairpo6uvn, Auoor, Tp-
Kavoi, MekiTaia, &c. --Comp. Eustath. ad Dwr. ys.
Pcricg. , 388, 591. ) Of his astronomical poem a
fragment is still extant, which has h<<en erroneously
attributed by Gale {Addend, ad Panhcn. , p. 49) and
Schneider (ad Viirut. , 2, p. 23, <kc. ) to Alexander
iEtolus. (Vid. [fake, Scheda Critic*, p. 7, <fcc. ) It
is highly probable that Cicero (ad All. , 2, SO, 22)
is speaking of Alexander Lychnus when he says
that Alexander is not a good poet, a careless wri-
ter, but yet ixissesses some information. --XIX. Of
Mrwous in Caria, a Greek writer on zoology, of
? ? uncertain date. His works, which are now lost,
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? SUPPLEMENT.
14. 15
bui ga. nsul his esteem and admiration to such a de-
gree, mat Herodes honoured him with a munificent
present. One Corinthian, however, of the name of
Sceptes, when asked what he thought of Alexander,
expressed his disappointment by saying that he had
found "the clay (IZiJJloc), but not Plato. " This say-
ing is a pan on the surname of Peloplaton. The
place and time of his death are not known. Philos-
tratus gives the various statements which he found
about these points. Alexander was one of the great-
est rhetoricians of his age, and he is especially
praised for the sublimity of his style and the bold-
ness of his thoughts; but he is not known to have
written anything. An account of his life is given by
Philostratus (Vit. Soph. , 9, 6), who has also pre-
served some of his sayings, and some of the sub-
jects on which he made speeches. (Comp. Suidas,
I. >>. 'AteS-avdpo; Aiyofof, in fin. --Eudoc. , p. 52. )--
XXII. PHILALETDES ('AAefovdpof *i^aX^9i? f), an an-
cient Greek physician, who is called by Octavius
Horatianus (4, p. 102, d, ed. Argent. , 1532), Alexan-
der Amator Veri, and who is probably the same per-
son who is quoted by Caelius Aurelianus (De Mori.
Acut. , 2, 1, p. 74) ander the name of Alexander La-
adicensis. He lived, probably, towards the end of
the first century before Christ, as Sirabo speaks of
him (12, p. 580) as a contemporary; he was a pu-
pil of Asclepiades (Octav. -Herat. , I. c. ), succeeded
Zenxis as head of a celebrated Herophilean school
of medicine, established in Phrygia between Lnudi-
ceaand Carura (Strab. , 1. c. ), and was tutor to Aris-
toxenus and Demosthenes Philalethes. (Galen, DC
Differ. Puts. , 4, 4, 10, vol. 8, p. 727, 746. ) He is
several times mentioned by Galen, and also by So-
ranus (De Arie Obstetr. , c. 93, p. 210), and appears
to have written some medical works, which are no
longer extant. --XXIII. Assumed the title of EM-
PEROR OF ROME in A. D. 311; he was, according to
some accounts, a Phrygian, and according to others
a Pannonian. He was appointed by Maxentius gov-
ernor of Africa, but discovering that Maxentius was
plotting against his life, he assumed the purple,
though he was of an advanced age and a timid na-
ture. Maxentius sent some troops against him un-
der Rufius Volusianus, who put dowri the insurrec-
tion withor/. difficulty. Alexander was '. aken and
strangled. (Zosimus, 2, 12, 14. --Aur. Viet. , Dt
Cas. , 40; Epit. , 40. )--XXIV. TIBERIUS (Tittpt^
'AAffavdnof), was born at Alexandrea, of Jewish pa-
rents. His father held the office of Alabarch in
Alexandrea, and his uncle was Fhilo, the weU
known writer. Alexander, however, did not con-
tinue in the faith of his ancestors, and was reward-
ed for his apostacy by various public appointments.
In the reign of Claudius he succeeded Fadius at
procurator of Judsea, about A. D. 46, and was pro-
moted to the equestrian order. He was subse-
quently appointed by Nero procurator of Egypt;
and by his orders 50,000 Jews were slain on one
occasion at Alexandrea, in a tumult in the city. It
was apparently during his government in Egypt thai
he accompanied Corbulo in bis expedition into Ar-
menia, A. D. 64; and he was, in this campaign,
given as one of the hostages to secure the safety oi
Tiridates, when the latter visited the Roman camp.
Alexander was the first Roman governor who de-
clared in favour of Vespasian; and the day on which
? ? he administered the oath to the legions in the name
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? ^
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? ESSAY
ON THE
MEASURES, WEIGHTS, AND MONEYS
OF THE
QUEERS AND ROMANS.
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? I
^
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-12-26 09:20 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/uva. x001045523 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? THE
MEASURES, WEIGHTS, AND MONEYS
GREEKS AND ROMANS.
THE metrologies! systems of the Greeks and Ro-
9>tns, and the methods pursued in the determination
of their standards, have been regarded with interest
by those curious in antiquarian researches. While
tin relations of the various parts of each system have
been satisfactorily ascertained, the values which have
been assigned to their units, whether of length, capa-
city, or weight, when referred to those of modern
times, exhibit considerable discrepance. This may not
excite surprise when it is considered that these values
have been deduced from observations, made with differ-
ent degrees of nicely, upon models possessing conflict-
ing claims to perfection. A learned professor of Stut-
gard* has reviewed the labours of his predecessors in
these inquiries with masterly skill, and has imparted
to his investigations it precision which entitles them to
? eliance. His results have been adopted, and his mode
of procedure exhibited in the following pages. In
conformity with his plan, and for the reason that we
possess more numerous specimens of the Roman
? tandards than of those of the Greeks, which furnish
more accurate data for the estimate of both, the former
? ill bo first treated of.
? J> 1. ROHAN MEASURES OF LENGTH.
The Romans, like other nations of antiquity, derived
their measures of length from the different members
of the human body, the unit of which was the foot.
Their Pes was divided both into 12 undo: and 16 di-
gili. The first division, by which it was recognised
a* the \As or unit, and its parts expressed by uncite,
was generally adopted. Thus, when authors make
mention of pet uncialii, they understand the -^j of pa;
thus, also, jii. i dodrantali* means }, busali* \, quin-
rmii/iiiilii y1. ,, trienlalit ? , quadrantalii \, and icmiun-
tialis 5\- of pet. The second division, into 16 digiti,
is the more natural, and was principally used by archi-
tects and land surveyors; and, though it latterly came
into more general use, is seldom found in the speci-
mens of tlir /<<? *? , unaccompanied by the first. Palmiu,
the palm, or the width of the hand, is the -n'/. '-m-,"/ of
the Greeks, and was invariably received by the Ro-
mans as the fourth of pcs ; but St. Jerome, in his com-
ments on Ezechiel (cap. 40), has assumed it as the
three fourths, by which admeasurement it nearly an-
swers to the Greek o~ni6afi^, and the modern Italian
Palm. Culntus is scsquipcs or 1J peilei, and is scl-
iom met with except when it is used in translating
* J. F. Wurm. His determinations are given In the old
French measures, weights, &c , . mil have been reduced lo the
English am! American standards by a comparison or the " Man-
aal des Poida et MesureV' of M. Tarbe, and Mr. Hassler*s able
report to Ihe Treasury Department in 1833. Other works have
been con<<uTied, of which may be mentioned those of Greaves,
Hooper, and AtImihnot.
ihe paper* of Rarwr In the Philosophi-
cal Transactions of the Roynl Society of London lor Ihe years
1700 and ITT I. and the profound reporter President A Jains lo
tor f^nste of the United Stales i I 1821.
1 Mee the section i"i Roman \' eights.
the Greek -? ? ; > re It is sometimes improperly cert-
founded with Ulna. Ulna is the Greek opyvia ("dic-
ta ulna uird ruv id. evuv,id cat a brachiis; proprit eil
spatium in quantum utraque extenditur mama. "--Ser-
vms ad Virg. , Eel. , 3, 105. ) Pes testcrliu*=2l pcd.
is rendered by Boethius and Frontinus grains 01
"step," a term, however, not found in any classics. !
writer. Passua (*' a pasgis pcdibus") was a pace, equal
? ? to five pcdei. Deeempeda or Pcrtica (modern Perch)
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? 1440
MEASURES. WEIGHTS, AND MONEYS
quently makes cadus synonymous with it, and by the
Greeks it was called Kepufiicv, a/ifopiic, and Aterpiynjc
'IraXtubc. The greatest liquid measure was the Cu-
lms or Culleus=W amphora:. The divisions of the
amphora; are easily inferred from the plebiscitum just
mentioned, and from the following passage of Volusius
Mecianus: "Quadrantal, quod,nune plerique ampho-
ram vocant, habet urnas 2, modios 3, semimodios 6,
eongios 8, sextarios 48, hemiruu 96, quartarios 192,
tya'tkos 576. " The Urna was bo called, according
to Varro, "ah urinando, quod in aqua hauriendd, uri-
nal, hoc est mergitur, ut urinator. " Congius was the
cube of half a pes; one of Vespasian's is still extant,
narked with the letters P. X. , which denote pondo
decern, ten being the number of pounds it contained by
law. Congii of wine or oil were given to the people by
tho emperors and chief magistrates on holydays, which
gifts were hence called congmru, and persons frequent-
ly derived surnames from the number of congii of wine
they were in the habit of drinking at a draught; hence
Ciccro'a son wa>> called Bicongius, and Novellus Tor-
quatus, a Milanese, Tricongius. (Plin. , 14, 22. )
Sextarius was j of the congius=2 hemi>kt. --\ quar-
fani=12 cyatki; hence the sextarius, from the fact
of its containing 12 cyaihi, was regarded as the a* or
unit of liquid measures, and its uncia or cyathi were
denominated, according to their numbers, sextans,
quadrant, &c. It may be remarked that the ancients,
at their entertainments, were in the habit of drinking
as many cyathi as there were letters in the names of
their mistresses. (Martial, Epig. , 9, 93; 1, 72. )
There were two kinds of tcxtarii, the castrensis and
urbtcus, the former being double of the latter, or com-
mon sextarius. Acetabulum was half the quartarius,
and wa9 so called, in imitation of the Greeks (to whose
b(v6a$ov it corresponded), fro. n acetum, since it was
first used for holding sauce for meat. Ligula or lin-
gula at first simply signified a spoon, but was after-
ward regarded by the Latin physicians as a fourth of
the cyathus; Fliny and Columella make cochlear or
cochleare synonymous with it.
2. For things dry. The unit of this measure was
the modms, which contained two semimodii, and was
J of the amphora, as is apparent from the passage of
Volusius Mscianus above quoted. The remaining
measures, sextarius, hemina, (See, bear the same re-
lation to the amphora in the dry as in the liquid
measure.
$ 4. DITERM1NATI0N OF THE ROHAN MEASURES.
The measures of Length, Extent, and Capacity are
to intimately connected that the determination of their
values will easily be deduced from that of the pes.
Various measurements have been made, and various
modes of investigation been pursued, for the purpose
of assigning the value of the Roman foot, which, from
the imperfection of instruments, the want of accuracy
of observation, and of attention paid to the degree of
injury which the specimens examined may have suf-
fered, differ considerably in their results. We shall
give a brief account of most of these observations, and,
as far as possible, assign to each its proper degree of
credence. All that has served as a means of calcula-
ting the value of the Roman foot mav be arranged un-
der the following classes: (a) Specimens of the pes
found on tombstones, (4) Foot-rules, (e) Milestones,
(d) Distances of places, (c) Congii. ,/) Dimensions
of ancient buildings at Rome.
? ? (a) There remain four celebrated specimens of the
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? OF THE GREEKS AND ROMAN'S.
1441
git. , the congius contains 199. 876921 cubic inches,
anil, consequently, its >ido is 5. 8468 inch. But the
? ide of the congius was half the Roman foot; hence
the value of the Roman foot, as deduced from the con-
gius, is 11. 6936 inch. Though this result is very
near the correct one, much reliance cannot be placed
on this mode of arriving at it, in consequence of the
weight of the ancient wine (80 libra of which were
contained in the congius) being unknown. But, as
Khomnius Fannius informs us that the ancients ac-
counted no difference to exist in the specific gravities
>>f wine and water, we have considered them equal, and
mpposed distilled water of maximum density to be of
the same specific gravity with that employed by them,
which was very probably pure rain-water. There re-
raiin two congii, of which the most celebrated was
placed by Vespasian in the Capitol, as its inscription
imports, and is commonly called the Farnesian; the
other is preserved at Paris. These have been filled
with water and weighed by Psetus, Villalpandus, Au-
zout, and others, who have hence sought to determine
the libra and pes; but the results of their experiments
lire so much at variance as to render any inferences
drawn from them objectionable.
( f) The last method we shall notice, and which
(cads to the most satisfactory conclusion, consists in
the measurement of the ancient buildings now stand-
ing at Rome; and though many have ascertained the
length of some single parts of them, yet no one has
-. ompared the measures of the principal parts with so
much assiduity and success as Mr. Raper. Having
carefully examined the work entitled " Let Edifices
ai. tn/iics de Rome," by M. Desgodetz, he very inge-
niously deduced the value of the Roman foot from
65 dimensions--. 97075 ft. From this value of the
pet, which is the one now generally adopted in Ger-
nuxy and France, are easily deduced all the measures
pf length. (See Tables I. and II. ) The jugerum
being 28800 pcd. quad. , equals 27139 sq. h ---2 roods,
i 9 poles, and 187 ft. ; whence the superficial measures
11 Tables III. , IV. , and V. have been calculated. The
tmphora being the cube of the pea, equals 1580. 75
cub. inch. ; but as a cubic inch of distilled water at
BUimum density weighs 252. 632 grs. , and a gallon
lOlbs. avoirdupoisu or 70,000 gis. , the amphora equals
6 galls. , 2 qts. , 1. 64 pts. ; whence the Capacious meas-
ures in Tables VI. and VII. have been computed.
$ 5. ROHAN WEIGHTS.
The unit of weight was originally denominated At,
and subsequently Libra or As Lib-alls. It correspond-
ed nearly with our Troy pound. Its multiples were
Dupondius (2 pondo or libra). Sestertius (2i asses),
Tn'. isi. i (3 asses), Quatrusiii. t, Qttingttcssis, and so
on till Ccnhutu. The term as, though properly ap-
plied to a piece of copper of the weight of a Roman
pound, was extended not only to all the Roman meas-
ures expressing their units, but also denoted the entire
(mount of inheritances, interest, houses, farms, and all
things which it was customary to divide; and refer-
ence being constantly made hy authors to it and its
subdivisions, it is important that they should be thor-
oughly understood. The following table exhibits the
relations subsisting between the as and its several
puts.
Jttcix
A.
Uncic
? ? Ai
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? 1 -442
MEASURES, WEIGHTS. AN'D MONEYS
usaj Aistcrs. The entire mint was under the genera
f upenntendence of three men, appointed by the people
? t the Comitia Tributa, denominated Triumviri Mon-
xaics. The Romans counted by usscs, sestertii,
denarii, and aurci. The as (originally assis, from
aes), or assipondium, was at first libralis, and bore
the impression of Janus geminus, or bifrons, on one
side; on the reverse, the rostrum of a ship, and was at
first, as we have noticed, libralis; but in the first Punic
war, in consequence of the scarcity of money, the re-
public ordered asses to be struck weighing 2 uncie,
by which, as Pliny informs us, it gained J and dis-
charged its debt; it was subsequently reduced, when
Hannibal invaded Italy, to the weight of an uncia, and
lastly by the Papirian law to that of a semiuncia; and
though this rapid diminution of its weight was required
by the necessities of the commonwealth, it would
eventually have been accomplished by the increasing
abundance of silver and gold. The as thus reduced
was, in reference to its original weight, denominated
lilirlla, and the older coins are distinguished from it
by later writers when they speak of as grave. Be-
sides the ns, its subdivisions, viz. , semisses, trientes,
fuadrantes, sextantes, stipes unaales, semiuncia, and
sexlula (the smallest of the Roman coins according to
Varro), and its multiples, dupondii, quatrusses, and
decusses, were coined; specimens of which remai. i at
the present day, and are to be found in the most valu-
able collections of ancient coins. But those pieces
less than the as which were most frequently coined,
were the semissis and gitadrans, bearing the impress
of a lioat instead of the rostrum of a ship; the former
was (,lso named sembella (quasi semilibella), the lat-
ter ti:ru. nr. ius. The sestertius, quinarius, and dena-
rius were silver coins, and called bigati or quail-
rigati, from the impression of a chariot drawn by two
or fo jr horses, which they bore on one side, that on
the leverse being the head of Roma with a helmet.
The sestertius (or tsmistertius) was so called by a
figure borrowed from the Greeks, and equalled 24
tuts; its symbol is H. $. , abbreviated from L. L. IS. ,
tee iinui. s of libra, libra, semis. The sestertium,
K 1000 sestertii, was expressed by the symbol HS;
it was not a coin, but was employed by the Romans,
together with the sestertius, in computing large sums
of money. Their method of notation was effected by
combining the symbols with their numeral characters;
thus HS. MC. indicates 1100 sestertii; but if the
numerals have a line over them, ccntena millia or
100,000 is understood; thus HS. MC. means 110
millions of sestertii. When the numerals are separ-
ated by points into two or three orders, the 1st on
the right hand denotes units, the 2d, thousands, the
3d, hundred thousands; thus, III. XII. DC. HS. de-
notes 300,000+12,000-|-600=312600 sestertii. The
following illustration may be also added. Pliny says,
that seven years before the first Punic war there were
in the Roman Treasury " auri pondo XVI. DCCCX. ;
argenti pondo XXII. LXX. ; et in numerate LXII.
LXXV. CCCC. " (33, 3); that is, 16,810 pounds
of gold, 22,070 pounds of silver, and 6,275,400 ses-
tertii of ready money. The quinarius was equal to 5
asses, and marked V; by the Clodian law it was im-
pressed with the figure of Victory, and hence called
Vietoriatus. The denarius, at its first institution,
equalled 10 asxcs, and was stamped with the numeral
X or ^. But when the Romans were pressed by Hai>
? ? nibal, A. U. C. 537, the a* having been made uncialis,
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? OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS.
U43
oeds. 'Ofryvin, or falhom, from opiyu, "to extend,"
a the distance from the hands, when the arms are
raised and extended, measured along the breast, and
equals 6 Trddtc; hence it has received from Herodo-
tus the epithets rerpain)x>>t and i^areodnc. The
measure from which the Romans probably borrowed
their decempeda waa ixaiva or icdAa/iOC=10 Trader;
six of these cor. s'i'uled the 'Aft/ta, which, together
with the TrXi? r>ci'=100 jroiiff, and the KaAauu(, was
ised principally in the measurement of lands. The
jaost ancient itinerary measure of the Greeks was the
aridiov, which appears to have had a very rude ori-
gin. ' It is said to have been the invention of Hercu-
. cs, whose athletic exertion it exhibited, since it com-
prehended the distance which ho was able to run with-
out taking breath. Isidorus informs us that it took
its name from lorrifit, "to stand," and assigns as a
reason, "quod in fine respirasset simulque sletisset. "
It was established as the measure of the length of the
aitec, or foot-course, at the Olympic games; and from
the respect in which these exercises were held, it be-
came an itinerary measure. This distance, the hero
who instituted it measured by the length of his foot,
which he found equal to one six hundredth part of the
eourse Censorinus and M. Gossellin have endeav-
oured to show that there were different stadia em-
ployed among the Greeks, but their remarks have
been completely refuted by Wurm. 'Imwtov, or the
distance a horse could run, "sub uno spiritu," equals 4
errdiia, and AdAi;yoc has been variously assumed as 6,
7, 8, and even 21 orddia, but more correctly as 12.
Those linear measures which were known to the
Greeks by their intercourse with other nations, were
Mt'Atov, or the Roman mile--S orddia; Tlapaody-
yj7f=30 orudia, according to Herodotus (2, 6) and
Xenophon (Anal'. , 6, 7), though Straho makes it, in
different places, W and 60 orudia; and Zxolvoc, an
Egyptian measure, whose value is differently assigned
to be 60, 40, and 32 orddia.
y 8. DETERMINATION Or THE GREEK FOOT.
There are two methods of investigating the value of
;he rrove proposed to us: the first consists in its de-
termination by its ratio to the Roman foot; the sec-
ond, by means of the public edifices of the Greeks
which are yet standing.
1.
was to be undertaken against Nabis, Alexander
ipoke against the Athenians, and also insinuated
that the Romans were acting fraudulently towards
Greece. (Lie, 34, 23. ) When, in B. C. 189, M. Ful-
vius Nobilior, after his victory over Antiochus, was
expected to march into . -Etolia, the . 'Etolians sent
envoys to Athens and Rhodes; and Alexander Isius,
together with Phaneas and Lycopus, were sent to
Rome to sue for peace. Alexander, now an old
man, was at the head of the embassy; but he and
his colleagues were made prisoners in Cephalenia
by the Epirots, for the purpose of extorting a heavy
ransom. Alexander, however, although he was
very wealthy, refused to pay it, and was, according-
'y, kept in captivity for some days, after which he
>>vas liberated, at the command of the Romans, with-
out any ransom. (Polybius, 33, 9. )--XVIII. Sur-
named Lychnus (Avxvoc), a Greek rhetorician and
poet. He was a nati. e of Ephesus, whence he is
sometimes called Alexander Ephesius, and must
have lived shortly before the time of Strabo (14, p.
642), who mentions him among the more recent
Ephesian authors, and also states that he took a
part in the political affairs of his native city. Strabo
asciibes to him a history, and poems of a didactic
kind, viz. , one on astronomy and another on geogra-
phy, in which he describes the great continents of
the world, treating of each in a separate work or
book, which, as we learn from other sources, bore the
-. ame of the continent of which it contained an ac-
SCunt. What kind of history it was that Strabo
lii'jdes to is uncertain. The so-called Aurelius Vic-
tor (De Ortg. Gent. Rum. , 9) quotes, it is true, the
first book of a history of the Marsic war by Alexan-
der the Ephesian, hut this authority is more than
doubtful. Some writers have supposed that this
Alexander is the author of the history of the suc-
cession of Greek philosophers (al tuv fiXootyuv
itadoxai) which is so often referred to by Diogenes
Laertius(l, 116; 2, 19, 106; 3,4,5; 4,62; 7, 179;
8, 24; 9, 61), but this work belonged, probably, to
Alexander Polyhistur. His geographical poem, of
which several fragments are still extant, is frequent-
ly referred to by Stephanos Byzantius and others.
(Stcph. Byz. , t. w. Admfioc, Tairpo6uvn, Auoor, Tp-
Kavoi, MekiTaia, &c. --Comp. Eustath. ad Dwr. ys.
Pcricg. , 388, 591. ) Of his astronomical poem a
fragment is still extant, which has h<<en erroneously
attributed by Gale {Addend, ad Panhcn. , p. 49) and
Schneider (ad Viirut. , 2, p. 23, <kc. ) to Alexander
iEtolus. (Vid. [fake, Scheda Critic*, p. 7, <fcc. ) It
is highly probable that Cicero (ad All. , 2, SO, 22)
is speaking of Alexander Lychnus when he says
that Alexander is not a good poet, a careless wri-
ter, but yet ixissesses some information. --XIX. Of
Mrwous in Caria, a Greek writer on zoology, of
? ? uncertain date. His works, which are now lost,
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? SUPPLEMENT.
14. 15
bui ga. nsul his esteem and admiration to such a de-
gree, mat Herodes honoured him with a munificent
present. One Corinthian, however, of the name of
Sceptes, when asked what he thought of Alexander,
expressed his disappointment by saying that he had
found "the clay (IZiJJloc), but not Plato. " This say-
ing is a pan on the surname of Peloplaton. The
place and time of his death are not known. Philos-
tratus gives the various statements which he found
about these points. Alexander was one of the great-
est rhetoricians of his age, and he is especially
praised for the sublimity of his style and the bold-
ness of his thoughts; but he is not known to have
written anything. An account of his life is given by
Philostratus (Vit. Soph. , 9, 6), who has also pre-
served some of his sayings, and some of the sub-
jects on which he made speeches. (Comp. Suidas,
I. >>. 'AteS-avdpo; Aiyofof, in fin. --Eudoc. , p. 52. )--
XXII. PHILALETDES ('AAefovdpof *i^aX^9i? f), an an-
cient Greek physician, who is called by Octavius
Horatianus (4, p. 102, d, ed. Argent. , 1532), Alexan-
der Amator Veri, and who is probably the same per-
son who is quoted by Caelius Aurelianus (De Mori.
Acut. , 2, 1, p. 74) ander the name of Alexander La-
adicensis. He lived, probably, towards the end of
the first century before Christ, as Sirabo speaks of
him (12, p. 580) as a contemporary; he was a pu-
pil of Asclepiades (Octav. -Herat. , I. c. ), succeeded
Zenxis as head of a celebrated Herophilean school
of medicine, established in Phrygia between Lnudi-
ceaand Carura (Strab. , 1. c. ), and was tutor to Aris-
toxenus and Demosthenes Philalethes. (Galen, DC
Differ. Puts. , 4, 4, 10, vol. 8, p. 727, 746. ) He is
several times mentioned by Galen, and also by So-
ranus (De Arie Obstetr. , c. 93, p. 210), and appears
to have written some medical works, which are no
longer extant. --XXIII. Assumed the title of EM-
PEROR OF ROME in A. D. 311; he was, according to
some accounts, a Phrygian, and according to others
a Pannonian. He was appointed by Maxentius gov-
ernor of Africa, but discovering that Maxentius was
plotting against his life, he assumed the purple,
though he was of an advanced age and a timid na-
ture. Maxentius sent some troops against him un-
der Rufius Volusianus, who put dowri the insurrec-
tion withor/. difficulty. Alexander was '. aken and
strangled. (Zosimus, 2, 12, 14. --Aur. Viet. , Dt
Cas. , 40; Epit. , 40. )--XXIV. TIBERIUS (Tittpt^
'AAffavdnof), was born at Alexandrea, of Jewish pa-
rents. His father held the office of Alabarch in
Alexandrea, and his uncle was Fhilo, the weU
known writer. Alexander, however, did not con-
tinue in the faith of his ancestors, and was reward-
ed for his apostacy by various public appointments.
In the reign of Claudius he succeeded Fadius at
procurator of Judsea, about A. D. 46, and was pro-
moted to the equestrian order. He was subse-
quently appointed by Nero procurator of Egypt;
and by his orders 50,000 Jews were slain on one
occasion at Alexandrea, in a tumult in the city. It
was apparently during his government in Egypt thai
he accompanied Corbulo in bis expedition into Ar-
menia, A. D. 64; and he was, in this campaign,
given as one of the hostages to secure the safety oi
Tiridates, when the latter visited the Roman camp.
Alexander was the first Roman governor who de-
clared in favour of Vespasian; and the day on which
? ? he administered the oath to the legions in the name
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? ^
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? ESSAY
ON THE
MEASURES, WEIGHTS, AND MONEYS
OF THE
QUEERS AND ROMANS.
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? I
^
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? THE
MEASURES, WEIGHTS, AND MONEYS
GREEKS AND ROMANS.
THE metrologies! systems of the Greeks and Ro-
9>tns, and the methods pursued in the determination
of their standards, have been regarded with interest
by those curious in antiquarian researches. While
tin relations of the various parts of each system have
been satisfactorily ascertained, the values which have
been assigned to their units, whether of length, capa-
city, or weight, when referred to those of modern
times, exhibit considerable discrepance. This may not
excite surprise when it is considered that these values
have been deduced from observations, made with differ-
ent degrees of nicely, upon models possessing conflict-
ing claims to perfection. A learned professor of Stut-
gard* has reviewed the labours of his predecessors in
these inquiries with masterly skill, and has imparted
to his investigations it precision which entitles them to
? eliance. His results have been adopted, and his mode
of procedure exhibited in the following pages. In
conformity with his plan, and for the reason that we
possess more numerous specimens of the Roman
? tandards than of those of the Greeks, which furnish
more accurate data for the estimate of both, the former
? ill bo first treated of.
? J> 1. ROHAN MEASURES OF LENGTH.
The Romans, like other nations of antiquity, derived
their measures of length from the different members
of the human body, the unit of which was the foot.
Their Pes was divided both into 12 undo: and 16 di-
gili. The first division, by which it was recognised
a* the \As or unit, and its parts expressed by uncite,
was generally adopted. Thus, when authors make
mention of pet uncialii, they understand the -^j of pa;
thus, also, jii. i dodrantali* means }, busali* \, quin-
rmii/iiiilii y1. ,, trienlalit ? , quadrantalii \, and icmiun-
tialis 5\- of pet. The second division, into 16 digiti,
is the more natural, and was principally used by archi-
tects and land surveyors; and, though it latterly came
into more general use, is seldom found in the speci-
mens of tlir /<<? *? , unaccompanied by the first. Palmiu,
the palm, or the width of the hand, is the -n'/. '-m-,"/ of
the Greeks, and was invariably received by the Ro-
mans as the fourth of pcs ; but St. Jerome, in his com-
ments on Ezechiel (cap. 40), has assumed it as the
three fourths, by which admeasurement it nearly an-
swers to the Greek o~ni6afi^, and the modern Italian
Palm. Culntus is scsquipcs or 1J peilei, and is scl-
iom met with except when it is used in translating
* J. F. Wurm. His determinations are given In the old
French measures, weights, &c , . mil have been reduced lo the
English am! American standards by a comparison or the " Man-
aal des Poida et MesureV' of M. Tarbe, and Mr. Hassler*s able
report to Ihe Treasury Department in 1833. Other works have
been con<<uTied, of which may be mentioned those of Greaves,
Hooper, and AtImihnot.
ihe paper* of Rarwr In the Philosophi-
cal Transactions of the Roynl Society of London lor Ihe years
1700 and ITT I. and the profound reporter President A Jains lo
tor f^nste of the United Stales i I 1821.
1 Mee the section i"i Roman \' eights.
the Greek -? ? ; > re It is sometimes improperly cert-
founded with Ulna. Ulna is the Greek opyvia ("dic-
ta ulna uird ruv id. evuv,id cat a brachiis; proprit eil
spatium in quantum utraque extenditur mama. "--Ser-
vms ad Virg. , Eel. , 3, 105. ) Pes testcrliu*=2l pcd.
is rendered by Boethius and Frontinus grains 01
"step," a term, however, not found in any classics. !
writer. Passua (*' a pasgis pcdibus") was a pace, equal
? ? to five pcdei. Deeempeda or Pcrtica (modern Perch)
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? 1440
MEASURES. WEIGHTS, AND MONEYS
quently makes cadus synonymous with it, and by the
Greeks it was called Kepufiicv, a/ifopiic, and Aterpiynjc
'IraXtubc. The greatest liquid measure was the Cu-
lms or Culleus=W amphora:. The divisions of the
amphora; are easily inferred from the plebiscitum just
mentioned, and from the following passage of Volusius
Mecianus: "Quadrantal, quod,nune plerique ampho-
ram vocant, habet urnas 2, modios 3, semimodios 6,
eongios 8, sextarios 48, hemiruu 96, quartarios 192,
tya'tkos 576. " The Urna was bo called, according
to Varro, "ah urinando, quod in aqua hauriendd, uri-
nal, hoc est mergitur, ut urinator. " Congius was the
cube of half a pes; one of Vespasian's is still extant,
narked with the letters P. X. , which denote pondo
decern, ten being the number of pounds it contained by
law. Congii of wine or oil were given to the people by
tho emperors and chief magistrates on holydays, which
gifts were hence called congmru, and persons frequent-
ly derived surnames from the number of congii of wine
they were in the habit of drinking at a draught; hence
Ciccro'a son wa>> called Bicongius, and Novellus Tor-
quatus, a Milanese, Tricongius. (Plin. , 14, 22. )
Sextarius was j of the congius=2 hemi>kt. --\ quar-
fani=12 cyatki; hence the sextarius, from the fact
of its containing 12 cyaihi, was regarded as the a* or
unit of liquid measures, and its uncia or cyathi were
denominated, according to their numbers, sextans,
quadrant, &c. It may be remarked that the ancients,
at their entertainments, were in the habit of drinking
as many cyathi as there were letters in the names of
their mistresses. (Martial, Epig. , 9, 93; 1, 72. )
There were two kinds of tcxtarii, the castrensis and
urbtcus, the former being double of the latter, or com-
mon sextarius. Acetabulum was half the quartarius,
and wa9 so called, in imitation of the Greeks (to whose
b(v6a$ov it corresponded), fro. n acetum, since it was
first used for holding sauce for meat. Ligula or lin-
gula at first simply signified a spoon, but was after-
ward regarded by the Latin physicians as a fourth of
the cyathus; Fliny and Columella make cochlear or
cochleare synonymous with it.
2. For things dry. The unit of this measure was
the modms, which contained two semimodii, and was
J of the amphora, as is apparent from the passage of
Volusius Mscianus above quoted. The remaining
measures, sextarius, hemina, (See, bear the same re-
lation to the amphora in the dry as in the liquid
measure.
$ 4. DITERM1NATI0N OF THE ROHAN MEASURES.
The measures of Length, Extent, and Capacity are
to intimately connected that the determination of their
values will easily be deduced from that of the pes.
Various measurements have been made, and various
modes of investigation been pursued, for the purpose
of assigning the value of the Roman foot, which, from
the imperfection of instruments, the want of accuracy
of observation, and of attention paid to the degree of
injury which the specimens examined may have suf-
fered, differ considerably in their results. We shall
give a brief account of most of these observations, and,
as far as possible, assign to each its proper degree of
credence. All that has served as a means of calcula-
ting the value of the Roman foot mav be arranged un-
der the following classes: (a) Specimens of the pes
found on tombstones, (4) Foot-rules, (e) Milestones,
(d) Distances of places, (c) Congii. ,/) Dimensions
of ancient buildings at Rome.
? ? (a) There remain four celebrated specimens of the
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? OF THE GREEKS AND ROMAN'S.
1441
git. , the congius contains 199. 876921 cubic inches,
anil, consequently, its >ido is 5. 8468 inch. But the
? ide of the congius was half the Roman foot; hence
the value of the Roman foot, as deduced from the con-
gius, is 11. 6936 inch. Though this result is very
near the correct one, much reliance cannot be placed
on this mode of arriving at it, in consequence of the
weight of the ancient wine (80 libra of which were
contained in the congius) being unknown. But, as
Khomnius Fannius informs us that the ancients ac-
counted no difference to exist in the specific gravities
>>f wine and water, we have considered them equal, and
mpposed distilled water of maximum density to be of
the same specific gravity with that employed by them,
which was very probably pure rain-water. There re-
raiin two congii, of which the most celebrated was
placed by Vespasian in the Capitol, as its inscription
imports, and is commonly called the Farnesian; the
other is preserved at Paris. These have been filled
with water and weighed by Psetus, Villalpandus, Au-
zout, and others, who have hence sought to determine
the libra and pes; but the results of their experiments
lire so much at variance as to render any inferences
drawn from them objectionable.
( f) The last method we shall notice, and which
(cads to the most satisfactory conclusion, consists in
the measurement of the ancient buildings now stand-
ing at Rome; and though many have ascertained the
length of some single parts of them, yet no one has
-. ompared the measures of the principal parts with so
much assiduity and success as Mr. Raper. Having
carefully examined the work entitled " Let Edifices
ai. tn/iics de Rome," by M. Desgodetz, he very inge-
niously deduced the value of the Roman foot from
65 dimensions--. 97075 ft. From this value of the
pet, which is the one now generally adopted in Ger-
nuxy and France, are easily deduced all the measures
pf length. (See Tables I. and II. ) The jugerum
being 28800 pcd. quad. , equals 27139 sq. h ---2 roods,
i 9 poles, and 187 ft. ; whence the superficial measures
11 Tables III. , IV. , and V. have been calculated. The
tmphora being the cube of the pea, equals 1580. 75
cub. inch. ; but as a cubic inch of distilled water at
BUimum density weighs 252. 632 grs. , and a gallon
lOlbs. avoirdupoisu or 70,000 gis. , the amphora equals
6 galls. , 2 qts. , 1. 64 pts. ; whence the Capacious meas-
ures in Tables VI. and VII. have been computed.
$ 5. ROHAN WEIGHTS.
The unit of weight was originally denominated At,
and subsequently Libra or As Lib-alls. It correspond-
ed nearly with our Troy pound. Its multiples were
Dupondius (2 pondo or libra). Sestertius (2i asses),
Tn'. isi. i (3 asses), Quatrusiii. t, Qttingttcssis, and so
on till Ccnhutu. The term as, though properly ap-
plied to a piece of copper of the weight of a Roman
pound, was extended not only to all the Roman meas-
ures expressing their units, but also denoted the entire
(mount of inheritances, interest, houses, farms, and all
things which it was customary to divide; and refer-
ence being constantly made hy authors to it and its
subdivisions, it is important that they should be thor-
oughly understood. The following table exhibits the
relations subsisting between the as and its several
puts.
Jttcix
A.
Uncic
? ? Ai
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? 1 -442
MEASURES, WEIGHTS. AN'D MONEYS
usaj Aistcrs. The entire mint was under the genera
f upenntendence of three men, appointed by the people
? t the Comitia Tributa, denominated Triumviri Mon-
xaics. The Romans counted by usscs, sestertii,
denarii, and aurci. The as (originally assis, from
aes), or assipondium, was at first libralis, and bore
the impression of Janus geminus, or bifrons, on one
side; on the reverse, the rostrum of a ship, and was at
first, as we have noticed, libralis; but in the first Punic
war, in consequence of the scarcity of money, the re-
public ordered asses to be struck weighing 2 uncie,
by which, as Pliny informs us, it gained J and dis-
charged its debt; it was subsequently reduced, when
Hannibal invaded Italy, to the weight of an uncia, and
lastly by the Papirian law to that of a semiuncia; and
though this rapid diminution of its weight was required
by the necessities of the commonwealth, it would
eventually have been accomplished by the increasing
abundance of silver and gold. The as thus reduced
was, in reference to its original weight, denominated
lilirlla, and the older coins are distinguished from it
by later writers when they speak of as grave. Be-
sides the ns, its subdivisions, viz. , semisses, trientes,
fuadrantes, sextantes, stipes unaales, semiuncia, and
sexlula (the smallest of the Roman coins according to
Varro), and its multiples, dupondii, quatrusses, and
decusses, were coined; specimens of which remai. i at
the present day, and are to be found in the most valu-
able collections of ancient coins. But those pieces
less than the as which were most frequently coined,
were the semissis and gitadrans, bearing the impress
of a lioat instead of the rostrum of a ship; the former
was (,lso named sembella (quasi semilibella), the lat-
ter ti:ru. nr. ius. The sestertius, quinarius, and dena-
rius were silver coins, and called bigati or quail-
rigati, from the impression of a chariot drawn by two
or fo jr horses, which they bore on one side, that on
the leverse being the head of Roma with a helmet.
The sestertius (or tsmistertius) was so called by a
figure borrowed from the Greeks, and equalled 24
tuts; its symbol is H. $. , abbreviated from L. L. IS. ,
tee iinui. s of libra, libra, semis. The sestertium,
K 1000 sestertii, was expressed by the symbol HS;
it was not a coin, but was employed by the Romans,
together with the sestertius, in computing large sums
of money. Their method of notation was effected by
combining the symbols with their numeral characters;
thus HS. MC. indicates 1100 sestertii; but if the
numerals have a line over them, ccntena millia or
100,000 is understood; thus HS. MC. means 110
millions of sestertii. When the numerals are separ-
ated by points into two or three orders, the 1st on
the right hand denotes units, the 2d, thousands, the
3d, hundred thousands; thus, III. XII. DC. HS. de-
notes 300,000+12,000-|-600=312600 sestertii. The
following illustration may be also added. Pliny says,
that seven years before the first Punic war there were
in the Roman Treasury " auri pondo XVI. DCCCX. ;
argenti pondo XXII. LXX. ; et in numerate LXII.
LXXV. CCCC. " (33, 3); that is, 16,810 pounds
of gold, 22,070 pounds of silver, and 6,275,400 ses-
tertii of ready money. The quinarius was equal to 5
asses, and marked V; by the Clodian law it was im-
pressed with the figure of Victory, and hence called
Vietoriatus. The denarius, at its first institution,
equalled 10 asxcs, and was stamped with the numeral
X or ^. But when the Romans were pressed by Hai>
? ? nibal, A. U. C. 537, the a* having been made uncialis,
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? OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS.
U43
oeds. 'Ofryvin, or falhom, from opiyu, "to extend,"
a the distance from the hands, when the arms are
raised and extended, measured along the breast, and
equals 6 Trddtc; hence it has received from Herodo-
tus the epithets rerpain)x>>t and i^areodnc. The
measure from which the Romans probably borrowed
their decempeda waa ixaiva or icdAa/iOC=10 Trader;
six of these cor. s'i'uled the 'Aft/ta, which, together
with the TrXi? r>ci'=100 jroiiff, and the KaAauu(, was
ised principally in the measurement of lands. The
jaost ancient itinerary measure of the Greeks was the
aridiov, which appears to have had a very rude ori-
gin. ' It is said to have been the invention of Hercu-
. cs, whose athletic exertion it exhibited, since it com-
prehended the distance which ho was able to run with-
out taking breath. Isidorus informs us that it took
its name from lorrifit, "to stand," and assigns as a
reason, "quod in fine respirasset simulque sletisset. "
It was established as the measure of the length of the
aitec, or foot-course, at the Olympic games; and from
the respect in which these exercises were held, it be-
came an itinerary measure. This distance, the hero
who instituted it measured by the length of his foot,
which he found equal to one six hundredth part of the
eourse Censorinus and M. Gossellin have endeav-
oured to show that there were different stadia em-
ployed among the Greeks, but their remarks have
been completely refuted by Wurm. 'Imwtov, or the
distance a horse could run, "sub uno spiritu," equals 4
errdiia, and AdAi;yoc has been variously assumed as 6,
7, 8, and even 21 orddia, but more correctly as 12.
Those linear measures which were known to the
Greeks by their intercourse with other nations, were
Mt'Atov, or the Roman mile--S orddia; Tlapaody-
yj7f=30 orudia, according to Herodotus (2, 6) and
Xenophon (Anal'. , 6, 7), though Straho makes it, in
different places, W and 60 orudia; and Zxolvoc, an
Egyptian measure, whose value is differently assigned
to be 60, 40, and 32 orddia.
y 8. DETERMINATION Or THE GREEK FOOT.
There are two methods of investigating the value of
;he rrove proposed to us: the first consists in its de-
termination by its ratio to the Roman foot; the sec-
ond, by means of the public edifices of the Greeks
which are yet standing.
1.
