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There they were raised and, upon reaching manhood, set out to avenge the murder of their father. They killed the tyrant, but did not seek to take over his power for themselves; instead, they restored democracy to their homeland.

[6] G # Ptolemy Physcon, the brother of Philometor, began his reign most wickedly. He put many of his subjects to death, with most cruel torments, after falsely charging them with plots against his life; he banished others and confiscated their estates, for pretended crimes invented by himself. In a short time, his subjects were so enraged by these cruelties, that they all detested him; however, he reigned for fifteen years.

[6a] G The younger Ptolemy reigned for fifteen years after the death of his elder brother. He committed many lawless acts: he married his own sister Cleopatra, and unjustly blamed many men for plotting against him. Some of these he killed; he drove the others into exile by false accusations, and confiscated their property.

[7] G At the wedding of Viriathus many gold and silver cups, and all sorts of rich carpets of exquisite workmanship, were set forth to grace the ceremony. But Viriathus, supporting himself on a lance, regarded them not with admiration of such a rich and splendid display, but rather in scorn and contempt. On this occasion he spoke many things with much wisdom and prudence, and concluded with many emphatic remarks, on the subject of ingratitude towards benefactors and of the folly [. . . of] trusting in the gifts of fortune, which are so uncertain; especially, since it was apparent, that all those highly esteemed riches of his father-in-law were liable to be a prey to whoever could them away upon his spear's point. He further added, that his father-in-law ought rather to thank him, because he had not needed to give anything of his own to him {Viriathus} who was lord and owner of all. 2 Viriathus therefore at that time, neither washed nor sat down, although he was earnestly entreated so to do. And although the table was plentifully furnished with rich dishes of meat, he only distributed some bread and flesh amongst them that came along with him. After he had little more than tasted the food himself, he ordered his bride to be brought to him, and having sacrificed after the manner of the Spaniards, he mounted her on horseback, and forthwith carried her away to his residence in the mountains. 3 He regarded sobriety and temperance the greatest riches; liberty as his homeland; and outstanding valour as the surest possession. In conversation he spoke plainly and sincerely what he thought; his own unblemished character led him (without any formal education) to express himself faultlessly.

4 G At the wedding of Viriathus, a lot of wealth was displayed. After casting his eyes over this, Viriathus asked Astolpas: "How have the Romans, seeing so much wealth spread in feasts, declined to take possession of the things, although they had the power? " Astolpas replied that many Romans had seen them, but no one had thought to take nor to ask for them. "Why then have you forsaken those that let you enjoy your property quietly, to join me, who am poor and ignoble? " 5Viriathus was direct in his manner of speech, drawing on a self-taught and unspoilt nature. The people of Tucca gave their support inconsistently, sometimes to the Romans, sometimes to Viriathus, and as they continued in this manner, Viriathus taunted their inconsistency and lack of judgment, 6 reciting a fable: "A middle-aged man took two wives, of which the younger, wanting her husband to be the same age as her, pulled out his grey hair, while the older one pulled out his black hair, and finally thanks these two women pulling at it, his head became completely bald. A similar fate awaits the people of Tucca: the Romans kill their enemies, the Lusitanians kill theirs, so that your city will soon be deserted. " 7 There are a lot of other pithy sayings attributed to this man, who had no formal education, but was tutored by common sense. A man who lives according to the principles of nature has concise speech, strengthened by the practice of virtue. By a brief and simple saying, this speaker can utter a maxim, which the hearer will readily recall.

[8] G A poor and humble position in life leads to self-sufficiency and love of justice, but wealth has as its companions greed and injustice.

[9] G # Demetrius, while he was staying at Laodiceia, spent his time in banqueting, and such like luxury; and he still behaved cruelly towards many in the mean time, because his character was not at all improved by his afflictions.

[10] G The Cnossians contended for the sovereignty of the island, which they alleged belonged to them, on account of both the ancient dignity of the city, and the glory and renown of their ancestors in the heroic age. For some say that Zeus was brought up amongst them, and that Minos, who had the dominion of the seas, was educated by Zeus at Cnossus, and excelled all other men in virtuous accomplishments.

[11] G According to tradition, Agamemnon had cursed the warriors who remained in Crete; and there is an old saying in use among the Cretans, which in a single verse warns of the present disaster: "Alas! the men of Pergamus paid no regard to misfortune. "

[12] G In Egypt, king Ptolemy was hated by all his subjects because of his cruelty. His manners were not to be compared with his brother Philometor's; for his brother was of a mild and gentle nature, but he himself was fierce and cruel. Therefore the people longed for a change and earnestly waited for a suitable opportunity to revolt.

[13] G # At the time when Ptolemy, in the traditional manner of the Egyptians, was enthroned at Memphis, his queen Cleopatra was delivered of a son. Ptolemy was exceedingly pleased by this, and he called the boy Memphites, because he was born in the city Memphis at the time of his solemn inauguration. But while he was celebrating his son's birth, he did not forget his habitual cruelty; for be ordered some men from Cyrene, who had accompanied him back to Egypt, to be put to death, because they rebuked him somewhat too freely, on account of his concubine Eirenē.

[14] G After Diēgylis came to the throne as king of Thrace, he was so puffed up with his prosperity, that he began to rule over his people not as his subjects and friends, but to domineer over then, as so many slaves and captives: for he put many good and honest Thracians to death by torture, and abused many others with the most extreme cruelty. He spared neither woman nor boy that was handsome and beautiful, and did not shrink from stripping men of all their possessions by force; so that he filled all his dominions with rapine and violence. 2 He also plundered and spoiled the neighbouring Greek cities, and abused some of the captives and put others to death with exquisite torments. After he had captured the city of Lysimacheia, which belonged to Attalus, he burnt it to the ground, and picked out the most eminent persons from amongst the captives, and put them to death with strange and unheard of tortures; 3 for he cut off the heads, hands, and feet of the children, and hung them about their parent's necks, and exchanged the members of men and women one with another. Of some he cut off their hands, and split them down the small of the back and sometimes would cause the sliced limbs to be carried about on the tips of spears, so that in his cruelty he far exceeded Phalaris and Apollodorus the tyrant of Cassandreia. His barbarity is made even more evident by the following instance. 4 When he was celebrating his wedding, in the traditional manner of the Thracians, he seized two young Greek men who were travelling from the kingdom of Attalus; they were brothers, both very handsome. The one had already reached manhood, and the other was near bordering on it; 5 Diegylis caused them both to be introduced crowned with garlands, after the manner of sacrificial victims. When the younger one was laid out and extended lengthways by the officer, as one ready to be split down the middle, the tyrant cried out, that kings and commoners ought not to offer the same sacrifices. Hereupon the older brother, offering loud lamentation, out of dear love for his brother, interposed himself between him and the sword; upon which Diēgylis commanded that he should be laid out in the same way, and then doubling his cruelty, at one stroke he despatched them both, while the spectators all applauded so noble a piece of dexterity. He committed many other wicked acts of a similar sort.

[15] G # When Attalus understood that Diēgylis was hated by all his subjects for his cruelty and greed, he took a quite contrary course; and therefore, after he had taken many Thracian prisoners captive, and freely released them all, there were many that spread abroad his fame for his generosity and clemency. When many of the Thracian nobility, out of hatred towards Diēgylis, fled to him, they were kindly received; but Diēgylis, when he heard of this, tortured the hostages left by those who had fled with the most grievous torments. Many of these, that were very young and of tender age, he pulled into pieces, limb from limb, and of others he cut off their hands, feet, and heads; some he crucified, and others he hung upon trees; 2 many women likewise were spread-eagled before they were put to death, and prostituted to the lust of every vile fellow, as in a most barbarous manner he gave up himself to all manner of filthiness. Just as this clearly evidenced his unparalleled cruelty, so it moved many spectators, who had but the least sense of humanity, with pity and commiseration.

[16] G # The Numantines and Termessians sent ambassadors to the Romans, to treat for a peace, which was granted to them upon these conditions. That they should each deliver up their cities to the Romans, three hundred hostages, nine thousand military cloaks, three thousand hides, eight hundred war-horses, and all their weapons; and that they should be friends and allies to the Romans. A day was set for the cities to comply with these conditions, and they acted according to the terms; 2 but when at last it came to delivering up of their weapons, there arose a noble regret and lamentation, and a courageous resolution in the populace to regain their liberties. Therefore they were angry one at another that they should ever have considered that they should, like women, strip themselves of their weapons. Repenting of what had been decided, the fathers reproached their sons, children their parents, and women their husbands; and so, coming to themselves again, and resolving not to deliver up their weapons, they renewed the war with Romans.

[17] G # When Pompeius was preparing to besiege the city of Lagni, the Numantines in their eagerness to assist their countrymen, sent to them in the night four hundred soldiers. The men of Lagni at first readily received the soldiers, and bountifully rewarded then as their saviours. But a few days later, dreading a siege, they negotiated with Pompeius, to deliver up the town upon terms, insisting only upon sparing their lives. 2 When Pompeius would accept no conditions, unless the Numantines were delivered up to him, the men of Lagni at first shrank from the thought of such a wicked act against their benefactors, and therefore resolved to resist to the utmost. But being afterwards reduced to the utmost extremity, they sent envoys to Pompeius to inform him that they were ready to redeem their own lives by the destruction of their allies. When the Numantines discovered this, they set upon the citizens unexpectedly in the night, and made a grievous slaughter amongst them. 2 Pompeius, learning of this tumult and hustle in the town, forthwith set scaling ladders to the walls, and captured the city. Then he put all the nobles of Lagni to the sword, but generously discharged all the Numantine auxiliaries, to the number of two hundred; because he both felt pity for men who had so unworthily been brought into great danger and distress, and likewise intended by this act to gain the good will of the Numantines towards the Romans. Afterwards he razed the city to the ground.

[18] G # Arsaces king of the Parthians, being a mild and gracious prince, was exceedingly prosperous and successful, and greatly enlarged the bounds of his empire. He conquered all before him, as far as to India, where Porus reigned formerly, with a great deal of ease; and though he he had achieved that degree of power and authority, yet he inclined not in the least to pride and luxury, as is common with princes in such cases. He was kind to his subjects, and valiant in warfare against his enemies; and having subdued many nations, he collected the best of their customs, and imparted them to the Parthians.

[19] G # The consul Popilius, when Viriathus requested an interview, decided to state his conditions one by one, for fear that if he declared them all at once, it would push Viriathus to despair and all-out war.

[20] G There was a man from Athamania called Galaestes, the son of Amynander who had been king of the Athamanians; and he was pre-eminent amongst his compatriots in his family, his wealth and his reputation. He was a friend of Ptolemy Philometor, and commanded the forces from Alexandria in the battle against Demetrius. After the defeat and death of Ptolemy, Galaestes was falsely accused of deliberately yielding victory to the enemy, and Ptolemy who became the next king removed his privileges and treated him harshly. Therefore he took fear and went away to Greece. Since many others had been driven out of Egypt by the conflict against the mercenary soldiers, Galaestes provided a welcome to the exiles. He said that he had been entrusted by Ptolemy Philometor to be the guardian of the king's son by Cleopatra, who was destined to be the next king. He crowned the boy with a diadem, and with the support of many of the exiles, he prepared to lead the boy back to take over his father's kingdom.

[21] G # Audas, Ditalces and Nicorontes were relatives and friends of each other, from Urso. When they observed that the authority of Viriathus had been weakened by the Romans, they started to fear for themselves and decided to win some favour with the Romans, which would ensure their own safety . . . since they saw that Viriathus was keen to make an end of the war, they announced that they would persuade Caepio to agree to peace terms, if he sent them as envoys about a truce. The chieftain readily agreed to this, and they promptly went to Caepio, who was easily persuaded to promise them safety, when they told him that they would assassinate Viriathus. After giving and receiving pledges about this, they quickly returned to their camp. In order to divert Viriathus' thoughts as far as possible away from their true intentions, they told him that they had persuaded the Romans to agree to peace, which put him in good spirits. Then, taking advantage of the trust he had in them because of their friendship, they crept into his tent by night. After dispatching Viriathus with some well-aimed blows of the sword, they immediately escaped from the camp and, travelling by a remote route over the mountains, came safely to Caepio.

[21a] G Viriathus was buried by the Lusitanians with great pomp and state; for two hundred pairs of gladiators were matched against each other, and fought duels at his sepulchre, in honour of the remarkable valour of this man. He was, as is agreed by all, valiant in dangers, prudent and careful in providing whatever was necessary; and, what was most noteworthy of all, while he commanded he was more beloved than ever any was before him. For in dividing the spoil he never served himself with any thing above any of the rest, and out of those things which fell to his share, he often rewarded those that had fought most valiantly, and relieved those soldiers that were most in need. He acted with incredible sobriety and vigilance, not sparing any labour, or drawing back from any hazard; he was not in the least overcome by ease or pleasures. His virtuous qualities are evident and easy to prove: for he was general of the Lusitanians for the space of eleven years, during which time his soldiers were not only well-disciplined without any mutinies, but also nearly unconquerable; but after his death the forces of the Lusitanians were soon broken and dispersed, being deprived of such a general.

[22] G Ptolemy [was hated by all] on account of his cruelty, murders, filthy lusts and deformed body, whence he was called Physcon. But his general Hierax, being an expert soldier, and popular in all general meetings, and a man of a great spirit, sustained the government by himself. When Ptolemy lacked money, and the soldiers for want of pay were ready to revolt to Galaestes, he put a stop to their mutiny by paying off their arrears out of his own purse.

[23] G The Egyptians altogether condemned Ptolemy when they saw him so childish in his speeches, drowned in filthy lusts, and his body emasculated by his intemperance.

[24] G # The city known as Contobris sent envoys with instructions to order the Romans to leave the territory of Contobris immediately, or expect some catastrophe; for all those who had ever dared to invade this country with a hostile army had perished. The consul said to the envoys: "The Lusitanians and Celtiberians make great threats and ambitious claims, but the Romans know how to punish the guilty and despise their threats. It is better to show one's courage in action than by threats, and the natives will learn this at their expense. "

[25] G He thought it was better to die gloriously in battle than surrender their weapons and undergo the most shameful slavery.

[26] G # Junius exhorted his soldiers, saying that they must now, more than ever, be courageous, and be worthy of their previous victories . . . their souls must withstand fatigue and their intelligence overcome bodily weakness.

2 G The implacable vengeance with which the Romans pursued their enemies became universally known, as well as their outstanding leniency towards those who submitted.

[27] G # Aemilius the consul, being of a heavy and ungainly body as he was very fat with masses of flabby flesh, was totally unfit for conducting a war.

[28] G # In Syria, Diodotus called Tryphon killed Antiochus son of Alexander, who was a mere child and was being raised to be king. He then put on the royal diadem, and as the throne was empty, he proclaimed himself king, and prepared to fight against the satraps and generals of the royal family. In Mesopotamia there was Dionysius the Mede; in Coele Syria there were Sarpedon, Palamedes and their associates; in Seleuceia by the sea there was Aeschron, accompanied by queen Cleopatra, the wife of Demetrius who had been captured by Arsaces.

[28a] G Tryphon, who had risen from being a private citizen to become a king, did all he could to obtain a decree of the senate that would strengthen his position. Therefore, preparing a golden statue of Victory weighing ten thousand gold pieces, he sent ambassadors to Rome, to present it to the people, fully expecting that he would obtain from them the title of king, considering that the present which he sent was not only extremely valuable in itself, but also its very name was a portent of victory. But he found the senate far more subtle than himself; for their prudence prompted them to a dislike of anyone who deceitfully circumvented others. They received the present, and the good omen, together with the profit; but, instead of Tryphon's name, the senate decreed that the title of the king who was treacherously murdered should be engraved upon it. By so doing, they showed that they hated Tryphon's wickedness in murdering the child, and that they would not accept the presents of wicked men.

[28b] G # Scipio Africanus came to Alexandria along with other ambassadors, to view the whole kingdom of Egypt. Ptolemy met them in pomp and state, with a great retinue, and feasted them sumptuously, and, going about with them, showed them his palace and treasury. 2 But they, being persons eminent for virtue, contented themselves with a spare and wholesome diet, and scorned the rich food they were given, as prejudicial both to mind and body. As for those things which the king esteemed as rarities and admirable, they only glanced their eyes upon them, and looked on them as things of no value; but they observed most carefully those things which were really worth their viewing; such as the situation of the city, and its prosperity, and particularly the features of the Pharos. From there they sailed to Memphis, and took notice of the goodness of the land, the advantages provided by the river Nile, the number of the cities, the infinite thousands of inhabitants, the strong defences of Egypt, the excellence of the country, and how well it was provided to support and defend a large empire. 3 Having admired both the populousness of Egypt, and the advantages of the county, they were of opinion that the kingdom of Egypt could easily swell into a vast empire, if it once had worthy masters. After the ambassadors had viewed all they needed of Egypt, they went to Cyprus, and thence on to Syria. In short, they passed through most parts of the inhabited world: and, carrying themselves soberly, to admiration in all places wherever they came, they gained exceeding honour and reputation. By the time they returned home, they had earned the unanimous praise of everyone. 4 For those that were in conflict, they reconciled one to another; and others they persuaded to do right and justice to those that complained against them. Those that were impudently obstinate, they were obliged to curb and restrain by force; and such disputes as were difficult to be resolved, they referred to the senate. Conferring both with kings and their people, and renewing all former treaties, they increased the goodwill felt towards the Roman government; and so all the states, being brought to a friendly disposition, sent ambassadors to Rome and highly applauded Scipio and the other delegates, and the senate for employing such men.

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Diodorus Siculus, Books 34 & 35
( fragments covering the period 134 - 105 B. C. )

See table of contents for some information about how this translation has been produced, and key to translations for an explanation of the format.
[1] G # King Antiochus besieged Jerusalem. The Jews withstood the siege for some time; but when all their provisions were used up, they were forced to send ambassadors to him, to seek terms for a truce. Many of his friends urged him to storm the city, and to root out the whole nation of the Jews; for they only of all people hated to mix with any other nations, and treated them all as enemies. They suggested to him that the ancestors of the Jews were driven out of Egypt, as impious and hateful to the gods: 2 for seeing that their bodies were infected with white marks and leprosy, by way of expiation the Egyptians gathered them all together, and expelled them out of their county, as profane and wicked wretches. After they were thus expelled, they settled around Jerusalem, and were afterwards united into one nation, called the nation of the Jews; but their hatred of all other men descended with their blood to their posterity. And therefore they made strange laws, and quite different from other people; they never will eat nor drink with any of other nations, or wish them any prosperity. 3 His friends reminded him that Antiochus surnamed Epiphanes, after subduing the Jews, entered into the temple of God, into which none was allowed to enter by their law except the priest. When he found in there the image of a man with a long beard, carved in stone sitting upon an ass, he took it to be Moses, who built Jerusalem and brought the nation together, and who established by law all their wicked customs and practices, abounding in hatred and enmity to all other men. Antiochus therefore, abhorring their antagonism to all other people, tried his utmost to abolish their laws. 4 To that end he sacrificed a great swine at the image of Moses, and at the altar of God that stood in the outward court, and sprinkled them with the blood of the sacrifice. He commanded likewise that the books, by which they were taught to hate all other nations, should be sprinkled with the broth made of the swine's flesh. And he put out the lamp (called by them immortal) which burns continually in the temple. Lastly he forced the high priest and the other Jews to eat swine's flesh.

When Antiochus' friends had spoken about all these things, they earnestly advised him to root out the whole nation, or at least to abolish their laws, and compel them to change their former manner of living. 5 But the king, being of a generous spirit and mild disposition, received hostages and pardoned the Jews: but he demolished the walls of Jerusalem, and took the tribute that was due.

[2] G When the affairs of Sicily, after the overthrow of Carthage, had remained successful and prosperous for the space of sixty years, at length war with the slaves broke out for the following reasons. The Sicilians, through the enjoyment of a long peace, grew very rich, and bought up an abundance of slaves; who being driven in droves like so many herds of cattle from the different places where they were bred and brought up, were branded with certain marks burnt on their bodies. 2 Those that were young, they used for shepherds, others for such services as they had occasion. But their masters were very strict and severe with them, and took no care to provide either necessary food or clothing for them, so that most of them were forced to rob and steal, to get these necessities: so that all places were full of slaughters and murders, as if an army of thieves and robbers had been dispersed all over the island. 3 The governors of the provinces, to tell the truth, did what they could to suppress them; but they did not dare punish them, because the masters, who possessed the slaves, were rich and powerful. Therefore every governor was forced to connive at the thefts and rapines that were committed in the province. For many of the landowners were Roman knights, and because they judged the accusations brought against the governors for their conduct in the provinces, they were a terror to the governors themselves.

4 G The slaves therefore being in this distress, and vilely beaten and scourged beyond all reason, were now resolved not to bear it any longer. Therefore, meeting together from time to time as they had opportunity, they consulted how to free themselves from the yoke of servitude they lay under, until at length they really accomplished what they had previously agreed upon. 5 There was a Syrian, born in the city of Apameia, who was a slave of Antigenes of Enna, and he was a magician and conjuror; he pretended to foretell future events, revealed to him (as he said) by the gods in his dreams, and deceived many by this kind of practice. Then he proceeded further, and not only foretold things to come, revealed to him in dreams, but pretended that he saw the gods when he was awake, and they declared to him what was to come to pass. 6 And though these were tricks that he played, yet by chance many of the things afterwards proved true. The predictions that were not fulfilled were ignored, but those which did come to pass were everywhere applauded, so that he grew more and more celebrated. By some artifice or other, he used to breath flames of fire out of his mouth as from a burning lamp, and so would prophesy as though he had been at that time inspired by Apollo. 7 For he put fire with some combustible matter to feed it, into a nut-shell or some such thing bored through on both sides; then putting it into his mouth and forcing his breath upon it, there would issue out both sparks and flames of fire. Before the revolt of the slaves this man boasted that the Syrian goddess had appeared to him, and told him that he should reign, and this he declared not only to others but often to his own master.

8 G As this became a common subject of laughter, Antigenes was so taken with the jest and the ridiculous conceit of the man, that he took Eunus (for such was his name) with him to feasts and dinners, and several questions being put to him concerning his future kingdom, he was asked how he would treat each person who was there present at the table. He readily went on with his story, and told them that he would be very kind to his masters and like a conjuror using many monstrous magical terms and expressions, he made all the guests laugh, upon which some of them as a reward gave him large helpings frum the table, and asked him to remember their kindness when he came to be king. 9 But all this jesting at length really did end in his advancement to be king; and all those who at the feasts by way of ridicule had been kind to him, he rewarded in earnest. But the beginning of the revolt was in this manner.

10 G # There was one Damophilus of Enna, a man of great wealth, but of a proud and haughty disposition. This man above all measure was cruel and severe to his slaves; and his wife Megallis strove to exceed her husband in all kind of cruelty and inhumanity towards the slaves. The slaves, who had been so cruelly used, were enraged by this like wild beasts, and plotted together to rise in arms and cut the throats of their masters. To this end they consulted Eunus, and asked him whether the gods would give them success in their designs. He encouraged them and declared that they would prosper in their enterprise. He uttered conjuring words and expressions, as was his usual manner, and told them to be speedy in their execution. 11 Therefore, after they had raised a body of four hundred slaves, at the first opportunity they suddenly armed themselves and broke into the city of Enna, led by their captain Eunus, who used his juggling tricks to breathe fire out of his mouth. Then entering the houses, they made such a great a slaughter, that they did not even spare even the suckling children, 12 but plucked them violently from their mother's breasts and dashed them against the ground. It cannot be expressed how vilely and filthily, for the satisfying of their lusts, they used men's wives in the very presence of their husbands. These villains were joined by a multitude of the slaves who were in the city. They first executed their rage and cruelty upon their own masters, and then fell to murdering others.

13 G In the mean time Eunus heard that Damophilus and his wife were in an orchard near the city. Therefore he sent some of his rabble there, who brought them back with their hands tied behind their backs, taunting them as they passed along with much ill-treatment; but they declared that they would be kind in every respect to their daughter, because of her pity and compassion towards the slaves, and her readiness always to be helpful to them. This showed that the savage behaviour of the slaves towards others arose, not from their own cruel nature, but from a desire to have revenge for the wrongs they had suffered previously. 14 The men that were sent for Damophilus and Megallis his wife brought them to the city and into the theatre, where all the rebellious rabble was assembled. There Damophilus pleaded earnestly for his life and moved many with what he said. But Hermeias and Zeuxis denounced him with many bitter accusations and called him a cheat and dissembler. Then without waiting to hear the decision of the people concerning him, the one ran him through with a sword and the other cut off his head with an axe.

Then they made Eunus king, not for his valour or skill in warfare, but on account of his extraordinary tricks, and because he was the leader and author of the defection; and his name seemed to portend and to be a good omen, that he would be kind {eunous} to his subjects. 15 When he had therefore been made general, with absolute power to order and dispose of all things as he pleased, an assembly was called, and he put all the prisoners from Enna to death except those that were skilful in making of weapons, whom he fettered and set to work. As for Megallis, he delivered her up to the will of the women slaves, to take their revenge on her as they thought fit. After they had whipped and tormented her, they threw her down a steep precipice. 16 And Eunus himself killed his own master Antigenes and Python. At length, putting a diadem upon his head and graced with all the emblems of royalty, he caused his wife, who was a Syrian from the same city, to be called queen, and chose such as he judged to be most prudent to be his councillors. Amongst these was one Achaeus by name, and an Achaean by birth, a wise man and a good soldier. Within the space of three days he got together above six thousand men, armed with what they could by any way or means lay their hands upon; and he was joined by others, who were all furnished either with axes, hatches, slings, bills, or stakes sharpened and burnt at one end, or with spits. With these he ravaged and made spoil all over the country. At length, after he had been joined by an infinite number of slaves, he grew to such power and boldness as to engage in a war with the Roman generals, and often defeated them in battle, by overpowering them with the number of his men; for he now had with him above ten thousand men.
17 G # In the mean time, a Cilician called Cleon instigated another defection of the slaves, and now all were hoping that this unruly rabble would come to blows one with another, and so Sicily would be rid of them through their mutual slaughters and destruction of each other. But contrary to all men's hopes and expectations, they joined forces together. Cleon followed the commands of Eunus in every respect, and served his prince as general, having five thousand of his own soldiers. Thirty days had now passed since the first beginning of this rebellion: 18 # and presently the slaves fought a battle with Lucius Hypsaeus, who had come from Rome and commanded eight thousand Sicilians. In this fight the rebels won the day; they were then twenty thousand in number, and very soon afterwards their army increased to two hundred thousand men. And although they fought against the Romans themselves, yet they often came off as conquerors, and were very seldom defeated.

19 G When news of this spread abroad, a revolt was started at Rome by one hundred and fifty slaves, who conspired against the government; similarly in Attica by one thousand slaves; and likewise at Delos, and many other places. But the magistrates of the various communities, to prevent the mischief from going further, made a quick response, and promptly fell upon the slaves, and put them all to death. So those that remained and were ready to break out into rebellion, were reduced to more sound and sober thoughts.

20 But in Sicily the disorders increased more and more; for cities were taken, and their inhabitants made slaves, and many armies were routed by the rebels, until such time as Rupilius the Roman general recovered Tauromenium. The besieged had been reduced to such an extremity of famine by a sharp and close siege, that they began to eat their own children, and the men their wives; and at length they butchered one another for food. There Rupilius captured Comanus the brother of Cleon, who was endeavouring to escape out of the city while it was besieged. 21 # At last Sarapion, a Syrian, betrayed the citadel, and all the fugitives fell into his hands. Rupilius had them scourged and thrown over a cliff. He marched from there to Enna, and by a long siege reduced it to such straits, that there was no hope left for anyone to escape. After slaying Cleon their general, who had made a sally from the city and fought like a hero, he exposed his body to open view; and soon afterwards the city likewise was betrayed into his hands, which otherwise could never have been taken by force because of the natural strength of the place.

22 As for Eunus, he fled like a coward with (? ) six hundred of his guards to the top of certain high cliffs, where those that were with him, foreseeing their inevitable ruin (for Rupilius pursued then closely), cut one another's throats. But Eunus the conjuring king out of fear hid himself in some caves, which he had discovered for that purpose; he was dragged out of there with four others of his gang - his cook, his barber, the man who rubbed him in the bath and the jester at his banquets. 23 Finally he was thrown into prison, and there consumed by lice, and so ended his days at Morgantina by a death worthy of the former wickedness of his life. Rupilius afterwards with a small body of men marched all over Sicily, and presently cleared the country of thieves and robbers.

24 G This Eunus king of the robbers called himself Antiochus and all his followers Syrians.

24b G The slaves conspired together to rise in revolt and kill their masters. They approached Eunus, who lived not far away, and asked him whether their plan had the approval of the gods. He began to speak in a strange and inspired manner, and when he heard the purpose of their visit, he made it clear that the gods would grant success to their revolt, if they made no delay and immediately put their plot into action; for fate had assigned Enna to them as their home, which was the citadel of the whole island. When they heard what he said, and perceived that the divinity was supporting them in their venture, their spirits were so aroused to revolt that they made no further delay in implementing their plans. They immediately released some slaves from bonds, and called on others dwelling nearby to join with them. About four hundred of them gathered in a field near Enna, and after making pledges to each other and exchanging vows by night over sacrificial victims, they armed themselves as far as the occasion permitted; but they all put on the strongest of weapons, their angry determination to wipe out their arrogant masters. With Eunus as their leader, and urging each other on, about the middle of the night they fell on the city and slew many of the inhabitants.

25 G About this time there arose so great a mutiny and sedition of the slaves in Sicily, as no age before could ever parallel, in which many cities suffered and were miserably ransacked. Innumerable multitudes of men, women and children fell into most grievous calamities; and the whole island was now upon the point of falling into the hands of the slaves, who set no other bounds to their exorbitant power, than the absolute destruction of their masters.

These things occurred when none in the least expected them; but those who were accustomed to investigate into the roots and causes of all events, concluded that it was not a thing that happened merely by chance. 26 For the inhabitants of this rich island grew arrogant with too much plenty; they fell into luxury and voluptuousness, and then into pride and insolence. For those reasons the cruelty of the masters towards their slaves, and the hatred of the slaves towards their masters raged and increased more and more every day. At length when a suitable opportunity offered itself, this hatred broke forth and many thousands of slaves suddenly, without any warning, joined together to destroy their masters.

# And the same thing happened in Asia, almost about the same time. For when Aristonicus without any proper rights sought to gain the kingdom of Asia, all the slaves, by reason of the cruelty of their masters, joined with him, and filled many towns and cities with bloodshed and slaughter.

27 G In like manner the men who had large possessions in Sicily bought up whole slave markets to till their lands. Some they shackled, others they exhausted with hard labour, and branded and marked every one of them. So great a multitude of slaves overflowed all of Sicily, like a deluge, that the excessive number seemed incredible to all who heard it. The rich men of Sicily rivalled the Italians in pride, greed, and wickedness; for many of the Italians who had great numbers of slaves had driven their shepherds to such a degree of villainy, that they allowed them to rob and steal, rather than provide them with any necessary subsistence. 28 Once this license had been permitted to those men who had strength of body, together with time and leisure, sufficient to enable them readily to execute any outrage, and who had been reduced by lack of subsistence to the extremity of attempting anything to supply their needs; in a short time this lawlessness began to spread.

At first they used to murder travellers upon the highway, when only one or two were together; afterwards they would in groups enter into little villages by night, and pillage poor men's houses, and forcibly carry away whatever they found and kill anyone who opposed them. 29 At length, as they grew everyday more and more audacious, there was neither security in the roads in Sicily for travellers in the night, nor safety in their houses for those who dwelt in the country, but all places were full of rapine, robberies, and murders. And because the shepherds and herdsmen were supplied with weapons, and inured to stay in the open fields through night and day, they every day grew more bold and daring; carrying clubs and lances and long staves, and covered with the skins of wolves and wild boars, they had a most frightful and terrible appearance, almost like they were going to war. 30 Besides, every one had a guard of great mastiff dogs to attend them; and as they guzzled down milk, and glutted themselves with meat, and all other sorts of food, they resembled beasts both in souls and bodies. As a result, the whole island seemed as if it was full of soldiers roving up and down in every place, since all the daring slaves were let loose by their masters to act the part of madmen. 31 It is true indeed that the Roman praetors did what they could to suppress the violence of the slaves, but because they did not dare to punish them, on account of the power and influence of their masters, they were forced to suffer the country to be infested with robberies. For most of their masters were Roman knights, who had judicial authority at Rome, and might act as judges in the cases of the praetors, who were summoned to appear before them on charges relating to their administration of the province; and therefore the magistrates were for good reasons afraid of them.

32 G The Italians, who had large estates in Sicily, bought many slaves, every one of whom they branded with marks on their cheeks, and oppressed them with hard labour, and yet failed to give them sufficient subsistence.

33 G Not only in political life should the powerful behave humanely towards those who are of humble condition, but also in private life the right-minded should not be too harsh on their slaves. For as in states arrogant behaviour leads to civil dissension amongst the citizens, so in each private home, such behaviour provokes the slaves against their masters, and gives rise to terrible disorders in the cities. For when those in power act cruelly and wickedly, the character of their subjects is inflamed to reckless action. Those whom fate has placed in a lowly position will gladly yield to their superiors in honour and glory, but if they are denied the kindness which they deserve, they revolt against the men who act like cruel despots.

34 G # There was one Damophilus of Enna, who was wealthy, but very proud and arrogant; this man cultivated a large area of land, had a vast stock of cattle, and imitated the luxury and cruelty of the Italians towards their slaves. He traversed the country up and down, travelling in a coach drawn by stately horses, and guarded by a company of armed slaves; he likewise always carried about with him many beautiful boys, flatterers and parasites. 35 In the city and in the villages he had finely engraved silver vessels, and all sorts of purple carpets of very great value; and he held magnificent feasts and entertainments, rivalling the state and grandeur of a king; in pomp and expense he far surpassed the luxury of the Persians, and his pride and arrogance were excessive. He was uncouth, and brought up without learning, or any liberal education; and having heaped up a great deal of wealth, he abandoned himself to self-indulgent licentiousness. At first this fullness and plenty made him insolent; and at length he was a plague to himself, and the occasion of bringing many miseries and calamities upon his country. 36 For having bought many slaves, he abused them in the highest degree; and those that were free born in their own country, and taken captives in war, he branded on their cheeks with the sharp points of iron pins. Some of these he bound in fetters and put in slave pens; and to others that were ordered to look after the cattle in the fields, he allowed neither clothing nor food sufficient to satisfy nature.

37 G The barbarity and cruelty of this Damophilus was such, that never a day passed without him scourging his slaves, without the least cause or occasion. And his wife Megallis was as cruel as himself, towards the maid servants, and other slaves that fell into her hands. Therefore his slaves, being provoked by this cruelty of their master and mistress, concluded that nothing could bring them into a worse condition than they already were; [and they suddenly rose up in revolt].

38 G Some naked slaves once went to Damophilus of Enna and complained that they did not have clothes; but he did not listen to their complaints. "What then," he said to them, "do the travellers in the countryside walk naked along the roads, so that you can not take the clothes off them? " He then attached them to pillars, beat them cruelly, and haughtily dismissed them.

39 G In Sicily Damophilus had a young daughter of a very gentle and courteous disposition, who made it her business to relieve and heal those slaves that had been abused and scourged by her parents, and to bring sustenance to those who were shackled; so that she was wonderfully beloved by all the slaves. In remembrance of her former kindness, they all had pity on her, and were so far from offering any violence or injury to the young maid, that every one of them made it their business to preserve her chastity unviolated; and chose the most suitable men from their own company, of whom Hermeias was the most eager, to conduct her to Catana to some of her family.

40 G The rebel slaves, venting their fury against the entire household of their masters, committed many terrible outrages. This revenge was not a mark of their cruel disposition, but the outcome of the unfair treatment that they had experienced, which made them turn angrily to punishing those who had wronged them in the past.

Nature itself teaches slaves to give a just response of gratitude or revenge.

41 G After Eunus was declared king, he put many rich citizens to death, and spared only those who had commended him for his prophecies at their feasts, to which his master {Antigenes} used to bring him as a jest; those likewise that had been so kind as to give him some of their food, he preserved; so that the strange turn of fortune was truly astonishing, that a kindness shown to such a poor and humble person should result in a great favour, when it was most needed.

42 G Achaeus, an advisor to King Antiochus {Eunus}, disapproving the actions of fugitive slaves, censured their excesses, and predicted that they would soon be punished. But Eunus, far from being angry at this frankness, and putting Achaeus to death, gave him instead the house of his masters, and appointed him his advisor.

43 G # About the same time another rebellion of the slaves broke out. Cleon, a Cilician from near Mount Taurus, who was inured to robberies from a boy and had been appointed to look after the horses in their pastures in Sicily, used to attack travellers on the highways and committed various heinous murders. This man, hearing of the good fortune of Eunus and his followers, persuaded some of the neighbouring slaves to join with him in a sudden revolt. They overran the city of Agrigentum and all the neighbouring country round about.

44 G Their pressing needs and lack of provisions forced the rebel slaves to risk everything, because they had no opportunity to follow a better course.

45 G It did not need a revelation from god to understand how easy it was to capture the city. It was obvious, even to the simplest observer, that since the walls were in disrepair due to the long time of peace, and many of the garrison had been killed, the city could not hold out for long against a siege.

46 G Eunus, keeping his army out of the range of weapons, shouted insults at the Romans, saying that it was not his men, but the Romans who were runaways from danger. He put on mimes for those inside, in which the slaves depicted how they had revolted from their own masters, mocking their masters' arrogance and the excessive cruelty that led to their overthrow.

47 G Although some men may be convinced that the gods are not concerned about the extraordinary misfortunes that afflict men, yet it is beneficial to the community for the fear of the gods to be instilled in the hearts of the masses. Few men act justly solely as a result of their own virtue; the majority of men will be stopped from crime only because of the punishments inflicted by the laws and the retribution of the gods.

48 G The common people, far from feeling pity for the immense misfortunes that were suffered by the Sicilians, on the contrary were delighted because they were jealous of the inequality that existed in wealth and living conditions. This jealousy, which used to cause them grief, was now turned to joy, because they saw that those who once enjoyed a brilliant fortune had now fallen into the most miserable condition. But the cruellest thing was that, although the rebels, as a sensible precaution, did not burn their houses, or destroy their property and crops, and indeed wholly avoided harming any of the men engaged in agriculture; yet the populace, using the runaway slaves as a pretext, but in reality motivated by jealousy against the rich, ran out into the countryside, and not only looted the properties but also set fire to the rural dwellings.

[3] G # In Asia, Attalus {III} as soon as he came to the throne, began to manage affairs in a way quite different from all the former kings; for they by their clemency and kindness to their subjects, reigned prosperously and happily themselves, and were a blessing to the kingdom; but this prince being of a cruel and bloody disposition, oppressed his subjects with many slaughters, and grievous calamities. Since he suspected that the most powerful of his father's friends were plotting against him, he resolved to rid himself of them. To that end he picked out some of the most brutal and rapacious ruffians from among his barbarian mercenary soldiers, and hid them in certain chambers in the palace; then he sent for those of his friends and kindred whom he most suspected, and when they appeared, he had all their throats cut by these bloody executioners of his cruelty, and he promptly ordered their wives and children to be put to death in the same manner.

The rest of his father's friends that either had command in his army, or were governors of cities, he either caused to be treacherously assassinated; or seizing them, murdered them and their families together. Therefore he was hated not only by his subjects, but by all the neighbouring nations; and all within his dominions endeavoured as much as they could to bring about a revolution and change of government.

[4] G # Most of the barbarian prisoners either committed suicide or killed each other while they were being transported, because they were unwilling to bear the disgrace of slavery. A young man, still immature, who was accompanying his three sisters, slaughtered them in their sleep. He was arrested before he had time to kill himself, and was asked why he had murdered his sisters. He said that he had killed them because they had nothing worth living for; then, by refusing all food, he killed himself through starvation.

2 G The same prisoners, when they arrived at the borders of their country, fell down and kissed the ground, moaning and filling the folds of their clothes with dust, so that the whole army was touched with pity. Each of the soldiers felt a divine awe when he saw the emotions of his fellow humans, and observed that even the most savage barbarians, when fate separates them from the bond of their homeland, do not forget their love for the land that reared them.

[5] G Tiberius Gracchus was the son of the Tiberius who had twice been consul, a man very famous for both his military and his political achievements. He was also, through his mother, the grandchild of that Publius Scipio who conquered Hannibal and the Carthaginians. As well as being nobly born on both sides, he excelled all his contemporaries in judgement and power of speech, and indeed in all manner of learning, so that he was not afraid to debate freely with the powerful men who opposed him.

[6] G # The people flocked to Rome, like rivers flowing into the all-receptive ocean. They were determined to support their own cause, with the law as their leader and ally. Their defender {Gracchus} was a magistrate who was untouched by corruption or fear; he had decided to undergo every toil and danger until the last breath of his life, in order to acquire land for the people . . . 2 He {Octavius? } had around him, not an ill-organised mob, but the strongest and most prosperous part of the people. Therefore the power of both sides was evenly balanced, and victory was long uncertain, swinging first one way, then the other. Many thousands of men had gathered together, and they supported their side with violence. The assemblies of these people had the appearance of stormy waves on the sea.

[7] G After he was deprived of his office, Octavius did not want to admit that he was a private individual, but he did not dare to act as tribune, and so he kept quiet. Yet at the time when Gracchus proposed a decree to dismiss Octavius from his position as magistrate, Octavius could have proposed a similar decree depriving Gracchus of his position as tribune. For if the two decrees had been legally adopted, both would have returned to private life; or else they would have kept their powers, if the hostile proposals had been deemed unlawful.

2 # Heading relentlessly to his doom, Gracchus soon obtained his deserved punishment. Scipio seized a club that was close to hand, because anger can often overcome obstacles . . .

3 # When news of the death of Gracchus reached the army, Scipio Africanus exclaimed: "So may all those perish who attempt such crimes" {Homer, Od_1'47).

[8] G The Syrian slaves cut off the hands of those they took prisoners, not at the wrists, but hands and arms together.

[9] G Those {slaves} who ate the sacred fish endured great suffering. For the divinity, as if making a clear example of them for others, left all these madmen to die without help. So they received both a just punishment from the gods, and severe censure from writers of history.

[10] G # The senate, dreading the anger of the gods, consulted the Sibylline books, and sent ambassadors into Sicily, who visited the altars dedicated to Aetnaean Zeus throughout the whole island, and offered solemn sacrifices to him. The ambassadors enclosed tbe altars within walls, to exclude all except those of the several cities who, according to the customs of their own country, used to offer sacrifices to him.

[11] G Gorgus of Morgantina, surnamed Cambalus, was one of the chief men of wealth and authority in the city. Going out to hunt and encountering a band of robbers, he took to his heels to escape back to the city. He happened to be met by his father, also called Gorgus, who was on horseback. The father forthwith leaped off his horse, and told his son to mount the horse, and make away with all speed into the city. But the son was not willing to put his own preservation above that of his father, nor could the father bear to cause the death of his son by avoiding the danger himself. And so while they were with tears entreating one another, and competing in pious affection, with the love of the father rivalling the love of the son, they were overtaken by the thieves, and both killed on the spot.

[12] G # Zibelmius the son of Diēgylis followed his father's steps in cruelty. Enraged at what the Thracians had done to Diēgylis , he proceeded to such a degree of implacable severity and height of wickedness, that he put to death all that had displeased him, with their whole families; and for the most slight and frivolous reasons he cut some in pieces limb from limb, crucified others, and sawed several asunder. He also killed little children before their parent's faces, and infants at their mother's breasts, and having cut them in pieces, dished up their members as curiosities for their kindred to feast upon, reviving as it were those ancient banquets of Tereus and Thyestes. At length the Thracians seized upon his person; but it was scarce possible to punish him according to his deserts. For how could one body suffer the punishment justly due for the cruelties and injuries committed against a whole nation? However, to the utmost of their power they repaid him with all the insults, and extremity of torture upon his body, that they could invent.

[13] G # Attalus, the first king of that name, consulted the oracle on some matter. The Pythia replied spontaneously in these words: "Courage, O bull-horned one, you will have regal honours, and the son of your son will have them too, but your great-grandsons will not. "

[14] G # Ptolemy Physcon, when he saw that his sister Cleopatra was so great an enemy to him, and could not revenge himself otherwise upon her, contrived a most abominable piece of villainy for that purpose. For, imitating the cruelty of Medeia, he murdered her son, begotten by himself, in Cyprus; the son was called Memphites, and was still a young boy. Not content with this, he committed a far more wicked act: for cutting up the child's limbs, he put them in a chest and delivered them to one of his guards to be conveyed to Alexandria. He commanded that in the night before Cleopatra's birthday, which was then near at hand, the chest should be set down at the palace gates. When this was done and the circumstances became known, Cleopatra was distraught, and all the people were in a great rage against Ptolemy.

[15] G The warm spring heat had begun to melt the snow; the crops, after the long cold of winter, were showing their first buds; and men were going to the work of agriculture; when Arsaces, to probe the enemy, sent envoys to negotiate peace. Antiochus replied that he would grant peace on these conditions: that his brother Demetrius was freed from captivity and released, that Arsaces evacuated the territory which he had occupied, and that, content with his ancestral realm, he paid tribute to Antiochus. Provoked by the harshness of this response, Arsaces marched against Antiochus.

[16] G # The friends of Antiochus urged him not to engage in combat against the Parthians, who were so superior in numbers; for they could retreat to the nearby mountains, where the difficult ground would protect them from the danger of the enemy cavalry. Antiochus paid no heed to this advice, saying it was shameful that the victors should fear the audacity of those they had already conquered. So he urged his friends to face the dangers and boldly withstand the attack of the barbarians.

[17] G When the death of Antiochus became known at Antioch, the whole city mourned, and every house was full of wailing, especially from women, who bemoaned this great loss. Three hundred thousand men had been lost, including those who did not serve in the ranks. Every family had some loss to grieve: among the women, some had to mourn the death of a brother, others that of a husband or a son; and many girls and boys, left as orphans, lamented that they were bereaved of their fathers. Eventually time, the best healer of grief, put an end to their laments.

2 G # Athenaeus, Antiochus' general, soon met with a just reward for the wrongs he had committed when he put the army in quarters. After being the first to flee, forsaking Antiochus in the heat of battle, he came to some of the villages which he had mistreated when he used them for winter quarters. They all shut their gates on him, and refused to help him with either food or drink, so that he wandered up and down the country, till at length he died from starvation.

[18] G # Arsaces, king of the Parthians, after defeating Antiochus expected to invade Syria and easily make himself master of the country, but he was not able to make this expedition, since fate had placed him in grave danger and many perils. I believe, indeed, that the deity never gives unalloyed happiness, but adds some ills to it as if on purpose; and in the same way the deity will add some blessings to follow misfortune. And in this case fortune was true to its usual character; as if weary of bestowing continual success, it brought about such a reversal in the course of the whole war, that those who were previously successful were in the end brought low.

[19] G Arsaces, king of the Parthians, was angry against the Seleuceians and could not forgive them for the cruel punishment they had inflicted on his general Enius. The Seleuceians therefore sent envoys to him, to beg forgiveness for what had happened. When the envoys requested an answer, Arsaces led them to where Pitthides sat, blinded and lying on the ground; he ordered them to report to the Seleuceians that they should all suffer the same fate. Terror-stricken by this, they forgot their previous woes out of fear of the dangers that now threatened, because new misfortunes always tend to obscure men's past calamities.

[20] G # When Hegelochus, the general of Ptolemy Physcon, was sent against Marsyas the Alexandrian general, he took him prisoner and destroyed all his army. Marsyas was brought before the king, and everyone expected that he would immediately be put to a cruel death; but instead Ptolemy pardoned him. For now he began to repent of his former cruelties, and endeavoured to regain the people's love and favour by acts of clemency.

[21] G # Euhemerus, king of Parthia, born in Hyrcania, exceeded all known tyrants in cruelty, and omitted no sorts of torments he could invent. He enslaved many of the Babylonians, upon slight pretexts, along with their whole families, and sent them into Media to be sold as booty. He also burnt to the ground the market-place, and some of the temples in Babylon; and destroyed the best part of the city.

[22] G Alexander surnamed Zabinas, when the distinguished officers Antipater, Clonius, and Aeropus revolted from him, besieged and captured Laodiceia, which they had occupied. However, he generously spared them all. For he was of a mild and gentle disposition, and pleasing temper, and of a wonderful affability towards his associates and those he met; and therefore he was greatly loved by the mass of his subjects.

[23] G # When Sextius had captured the city of the Gauls, and was selling the inhabitants as slaves, one Crato who was led in chains with the rest, came up to the consul, as he sat upon the tribunal, and told him he had always been a friend to the Romans, and for that reason had received many injuries, and had suffered many beatings from his fellow citizens. Sextius immediately released him from his bonds, along with all his family, and restored all his possessions; and for his good will to the Romans, gave him power to set free nine hundred of the citizens, such as he himself thought fit. For the consul was more generous and bountiful to Crato than he expected, so that the Gauls could easily see how exactly just the Romans were, both in their punishments and in their rewards.

[24] G # The people showed favour to him {Gracchus}, not only when he took up office, but when he was a candidate, and even before then. Upon his return from Sardinia, the people went out to meet him, and his landing from the boat was greeted with blessings and applause. Such was the extreme affection that people had for him.

[25] G # Gracchus in his speeches to the people urged them to overthrow the aristocracy and establish a democratic government; and after winning the favour of all classes, he had them not only as supporters, but even as instigators of his bold objectives. For every citizen, lured by the hope that the proposed laws would be in his own interests, was ready to risk any danger to ensure that they were adopted. By taking control of the courts away from the senators and setting up the knights as judges, Gracchus gave the lower classes power over the nobles, and by breaking the harmony that existed previously between the senate and the knights, he made the populace a serious rival to both those classes. By setting all the classes at variance, he built up personal power for himself; and by using funds from the public treasury for shameful and inopportune expenses, which however bought him favour with others, he made himself the centre of everyone's attention. By leaving the provinces open to the greed and rapacity of the tax-farmers, he made their subjects rightly resentful of Roman rule; and by reducing the traditional severity of military discipline through his laws, as a favour to the soldiers, he introduced insubordination and anarchy into the state. Contempt for their leaders causes men to disobey the laws, and finally leads to fatal disorders and the overthrow of the state.

2 G # Gracchus had reached such a degree of power and arrogance, that he released Octavius, even though the people had voted to send him into exile. He told the people that he did this as a favour to his mother, who had interceded with him.

[26] G # When Popilius was sent into exile, the people accompanied him with weeping as he left the city; for the people knew that the sentence of exile was unjust, and that by accepting bribes against Popilius they had lost the ability to speak out openly against wickedness.

[27] G Seventeen tribes voted against the law, which was approved by an equal number of tribes; when the votes of the eighteenth tribe were counted, there was a majority of one vote in favour of approval. While the judgment of the people was so finely balanced, Gracchus was terribly alarmed, as if his life was in danger; but when he heard that he had won by a margin of just one vote, he cried out in elation, "The sword is hanging over the heads of our enemies, and for the rest, we will be pleased with whatever fortune will grant us. "

[28] G # Alexander, who had no confidence in the multitude, in regard to both their inexperience of warfare, and also their habitual inconstancy and craving for change, did not venture upon a pitched battle. Having got together as much money as he could out of the royal treasuries, and pillaged the temples, he resolved to slip away by night towards Greece. But he was detected while he was attempting, with the help of some of his barbarians, to plunder the temple of Zeus; and he and his accomplices almost suffered the instant punishment that they deserved. However he managed to escape with a few followers, and headed towards Seleuceia. The Seleuceians, who had heard about the sacrilege he had committed, shut their gates against him; so having failed in this attempt also, he hurried along the sea coast towards Posideium.

2 G Alexander, after looting the temple, fled to Posideium. He seemed to be pursued by an invisible demon, which tracked his steps and constantly worked to ensnare him in the punishment that he so richly deserved. In fact, two days after his sacrilege, he was arrested and taken to the camp of Antiochus. Such is the inescapable power of avenging justice, which pursues those guilty of brazen impiety; for punishment relentlessly hunts down the wicked, bringing swift revenge.