WASHBURN
HOPKINS
The Sūtra literature
Gșihya Sūtras .
The Sūtra literature
Gșihya Sūtras .
Cambridge History of India - v1
Since then the work has been completed, all the
earlier chapters have been revised, and no effort has been spared to make
the book representative of the state of early Indian historical studies at the
end of 1920.
The system of chronology, which has been adopted for the periods of
Çaka and Kushāņa rule, needs some explanation. The chronological
difficulties connected with the Vikrama era of 58 B. C. and the Çaka era of
78 A. D, are well known ; and it is universally admitted that the names which
these eras bear were given to them at a later date, and afford no clue to
their origin. The view maintained in this work is that the eras in question
mark the establishment of the Çaka and Kushāņa suzerainties. The idea of
suzerainty, that is to say, supreme lordship over all the kings of a large
region-'the whole earth', as the poets call it - is deeply rooted in Indian
conceptions of government; and the foundation of an era is recognised as
one of the attributes of this exalted position. Now there is abundant
evidence that the Çaka empire attained its height in the reign of Azes I
and the Kushāna empire in the reign of Kanishka. It is natural to suppose
therefore that such imperial eras must have been established in these
reigns, and that their starting point in both cases was the accession of the
Euzerain.
The story of the foundation and extension of later eras in Indian
history - the Gupta era and the era of Harsha, for example--can be clearly
traced. All such undoubted illustrations of the process are seen to imply
the existence of certain political conditions - the relations of suzerain to
feudatories, in fact. It is not necessarily, or indeed usually, the founder of
a dynasty who is also the founder of an era ; but it is that member of the
royal house who succeeded in asserting ‘universal sway and in reducing his
neighbours to the status of feudatories. The use of the era can be shown,
in well-ascertained cases, to have spread from the suzerain to the feuda-
tories. Is there any reason to suppose that extension in the contrary
direction - from feudatory to suzerain-has ever taken place or could
possibly take place ?
It has been suggested that the Vikrama era originated with the
Mālavas, whose name it sometimes bears in inscriptions. They were a
people, apparently of no great political importance, who can be traced in
the Punjab and Rājputāna centuries before they settled in Mālwā, the tract
## p. ix (#13) ##############################################
PREFACE
IX
of Central India which now bears their name ; and they were almost
certainly, like the other peoples of these regions, included in the Çaka
empire at one period of their history. Is it conceivable that they could
have initiated the Vikrama era, and that a great suzerain like Gondo.
pharnes, who almost beyond doubt dates his. Takht-i-Bahi inscription in
this era, stood indebted to them for its use? The Vikrama era had
undoubtedly become the traditional reckoning of the Mālavas in the fifth
century A. D. ; but the most obvious explanation of the fact is that they had
inherited it from their former overlords.
In the same way, the later name of the era of 78 A. D. may be due to
its use for centuries by the Çaka satraps of Western India ; but they can
scarcely have founded this era. Their very title 'satrap’ shows that they
were originally feudatories ; and they were most probably feudatories of
the Kushāņas. If so, they would use the era of their suzerains as a matter
of course.
Thus all a priori considerations favour the views which are adopted
in this work in regard to the origin of these eras ; and, as is pointed out in
Chapter XXIII, the Taxila inscription of the year 136, which first suggested
to Sir John Marshall the possibility of an ‘era of Azes', may also furnish
positive evidence of their correctness. It has been necessary to deal with
these chronological problems somewhat at length because of their im-
portance. If the theories here maintained are accepted, there will be an end
to the worst of the perplexities which have for so long obscured the history
of N. W. India during the centuries immediately before and after the
Christian era, and the dates in all the known inscriptions of the period will
be determined, with the single exception of that which occurs in the Taxila
copper-plate of Maues, and which, as is suggested, may be in some era
which the Çakas brought with them from eastern Irān into India.
The munificence of Sir Dorabji Tata has enabled the Syndics of the
University Press to illustrate this volume more lavishly than would have
been possible without such generous help. Mr G. F. Hill and Mr J. Allan
of the British Museum have most kindly provided casts of the coins
figured in Plates I–VII ; and Sir John Marshall has enhanced the value of
his chapter on the monuments by supplying photographs, which were in
many cases specially taken for the illustrations in Plates IX-XXXIV.
The index has been made by Mr E. J. Thomas of Emmanuel College
and the University Library. Modern place-names are, with very few
exceptions, given as they appear in the index-volume of the Imperial
Gazetteer of India. For the spelling of ancient names the system adopted
by Prof. Macdonell in his History of Sanskrit Literature has been followed.
This system has the double advantage of being strictly accurate and, at the
>
## p. x (#14) ###############################################
PREFACE
same time, of offering as few difficulties as possible for readers who are not
orientalists. The vowels should be pronounced as in Italian, with the
exception of a which has the indefinite sound so common in English, e. g. ,
in the word organ. The vowels e and o are always long in Sanskrit, and
are therefore only marked as such in the non-Sanskritic names of Southern
India, in which it is necessary to distinguish them from the corresponding
short vowels.
E. J. R.
Sr John's COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE,
18 August 1921.
## p. xi (#15) ##############################################
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
THE SUB-CONTINENT OF INDIA
By Sir HalFORD J. MACKINDER, M. A. , M. P. , Reader in
Geography in the University of London, formerly
Student of Christ Church, Oxford
PAGE
1
. . .
. . .
1
2
2-3
3
4
4
: : :
5
::
The four sub-continents of Asia
Ceylon ; Colombo, the strategic centre of British sea-power in the Indian
Ocean
The Malabar and Coromandel coasts ; the Western and Eastern Ghāts
The Carnatic ; Travancore ; Cochin
The Gap of Coimbatore or Pālghāt
The plateau between the Ghāts; Mysore
Climate of the southern extremity of India
Madras ; some causes of the comparative isolation of southern India
Burma, the connecting link between the Far East and the Middle East
The geography of Burma
The geography of Bengal
Calcutta
Countries of the Himālayan fringe
Valley of the Brahmaputra
The Plain of the Ganges and Jumna
Central India
The situation of Bombay
The Marāthā country ; Hyderābād ; the Deccan plateau
The Central Provinces ; Baroda
:
Kāthiāwār and Cutch
The Himālayan barrier
Rājputāna ; historical importance of the great Indian desert and the Delhi
0
Gateway
The north-west frontier
The plain of the Indus
Routes leading into N. W. India
Kashmir
Gilgit ; Chitrāl; the Karakoram ; the Hindu Kush
Lateral communication between the Khyber and Bolān routes
The Hindu Kush and the Indus as boundaries between India and Irān
Summary of the principal physical features of the sub-continent
i ii
5
7
8
9,22,23
10
11
13
15
16
17
17,18
18
. . .
. . .
::
: : :
. . .
18
23
24,27
25
29
29
29
30
30
## p. xii (#16) #############################################
XII
CONTENTS
CHAPTER II
By E. J. RAPSON M. A. , Professor of Sanskrit in the University
of Cambridge, and Fellow of St John's College
A. PEOPLES AND LANGUAGES
PAGE
33
. . .
34
: : : : :
: : : : : :
36
36
43
47
Varieties of race, speech, and culture. . .
Western and eastern invaders
Natural and ethnographical divisions
The seven chief physical types
The four families of speech
The caste-system
B. SOURCES OF HISTORY
Prehistoric archaeology
Ancient literatures
Foreign writers
Inscribed monuments and coins
The Ancient alphabets
Progress of research . . .
: : : : : :
: : : : : :
: : : : : :
50
50
52
54
55
55
CHAPTER III
THE ARYANS
By P. Giles Litt. D. , Master of Emmanuel College, and Reader in
Comparative Philology in the University of Cambridge
The Indo-European languages
58,63
The Wiros and their original habitat
59
Their migrations
63
Evidence of the inscriptions of Boghaz-köi
64
Irānians and Indo-Āryans
65
Āryan names in the inscriptions of Mesopotamia
67
. . .
. . .
: : : : :
: : : : :
CHAPTER IV
THE AGE OF THE RIGVEDA
. . .
By A BERRIEDALE KEITH, D. C. L. , D. Litt. , Regius Professor
or Sanskrit and Comparative Philology in the University of
Edinburgh, formerly Scholar of Balliol College, Oxford
The hymns of the Rigveda
Geography
Fauna; peoples
Social organisation
Origins of the caste system
Political organisation
Warlike and peacefull avocations
Dress, food, and
Religion
The beginnings of philosophy
Chronology of Vedic literature
: : : : : : : : :
69,96
70
72
79
82
84
88
90
92
96
98
. .
amusements
. . .
: : : :
## p. xiii (#17) ############################################
XIII
CONTENTS
CHAPTER V.
THE PERIOD OF THE LATER SAMHITĀS, THE BRAHMAŅAS,
THE ĀRAŅYAKAS, AND THE UPANISHADS
By Professor A. BERRIEDALE KEITH
PAGE
: : : :
Vedic literature after the period of the Rigveda . .
Extension of Aryan civilisation to the Middle Country
Peoples of the Middle Country
The more eastern peoples
Changes in social conditions
Government and the administration of justice
Industry ; social life ; the arts and sciences
Religion and philosophy
Language
Criteria of date
i ii ::
1
: : : : :
102
104
105
109
111, 120
116
121
126
130
131
: : : : : :
::
. . .
CHAPTER
VI
THE HISTORY OF THE JAINS
By JARL CAARPENTIER, Ph. D. , University of Upsala
Jainism in its relation to Brāhmanism and Buddhism
The tirthakaras or 'prophets' ; Pārcva
Mabāvīra
Jains and Buddhists
Mahāvīra's rivals, Gosāla and Jamāli
The Jain church after the death of Mahāvīra
The great schism : Çvetāmbaras and Digambaras
Settlements in Western India
Organisation of the religious and lay communities
Blanks in Jain ecclesiastical history
CHAPTER VII
134
136
138
143
145
140
147
148
150
151
. . .
: :
::
. . .
. . .
. . .
THE HISTORY OF THE BUDDHISTS
By T. W. Rays Davids, LL. D. , Ph. D. , D. Sc. , formerly Professor of Pāli
and Buddhist Literature at University College, London, and Professor
of Comparative Religion in the University of Manchester
Pre-Buddhistic
152
India in the Buddha's time; the clans
155
The kingdoms ;
Kosala
158
Magadha
162
Avanti
165
The Vamsas
166
The first great gap
167
169
Chandagutta
170
Age of the authorities used
Growth of Buddhist literature from the time of Buddha down to Asoka
175
. . .
: : :
. . .
: : : : :
: :
iii :
::
. . .
: :
## p. xiv (#18) #############################################
XIV
CONTENTS
CHAPTER VIII
ECONOMIC CONDITIONS ACCORDING TO EARLY
BUDDHIST LITERATURE
: :
::
: : : :
. . .
: :
:
. . .
::
. . .
. .
192
By Mrs C. A. F. Rays Davids M. A. D. Litt. , Fellow of
University College, London
PAGE
Rural economy
176
Cities ; villages ; the land
178
Agriculture
181
Labour and industry
183
Social conditions
185
Trade and commerce
187
Trade centres and routes
189
Methods of exchange and prices
Securities and interest
1 94
General conclusions
195
CHAPTER IX
THE PERIOD OF THE SŪTRAS EPICS AND LAW-BOOKS
By E. WASHBURN HOPKINS Ph. D. , LLD. , Professor of Sanskrit and
Comparative Philology in Yale University
Language of the later Brāhman literature
197
Social conditions as reflected in the Brāhman and Buddhist books
198
Outlines of chronology
199
Causes of the wider political outlook
202
CHAPTER X
: :
. . .
FAMILY LIFE AND SOCIAL CUSTOMS AS THEY APPEAR IN
THE SŪTRAS
. . .
; :
. . .
i :
::
. . .
. . . . . .
. . .
By Professor E.
WASHBURN HOPKINS
The Sūtra literature
Gșihya Sūtras . . .
Oblations to spirits and gods
Rites to avert disaster and disease
Substitution of images of meal for sacrificial animals
Marriage ceremonies
Caste and family
Contents and arrangemont of the Gșihya Sūtras . . .
The life represented is rural, not urban
Minor superstitions
Ārya and Çüdra ; Dharma Sūtras
The beginnings of civil and criminal law ; inheritance
Duties of the king
Taxes ; status of women ; ordeals
Legal rates of interest
Religion and philosophy
Relative ages of the Sūtras
203
204
205
207
208
208
210
211
212
213
215
217
219
221
222
222
222
. . .
: : :
. . .
::
: : : :
: : : :
: :
## p. xv (#19) ##############################################
CONTENTS
X
CHAPTER XI
THE PRINCES AND PEOPLES OF THE EPIC POEMS
By Professor E. WASHBURN HOPKINS
PAGE
::
: :
. . .
. . .
. . .
231
The two chief varieties of epic poetry
224
Sources of the Mahābhārta
225
Narrative and didactic interpolations
228
The characters partly historical and partly mythical
229
Date of the poem in its present form
230
Features common to the Mahābhārta and the Rāmāyana
Social conditions in the Sanskrit epics and in Buddhist works of the same period 231
The Story of the Mahābhārata . . .
233
The Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyana contrasted
235
Earlier and later inoral ideals in the Mahābhārata
236
Knights, priests, commoners, and slaves
237
The king and his ministers
242
Religious and philosophical views of the epics
243
244
Peoples traditionally engaged in the great war
The genealogies
246
CHAPTER XII
: :
. . . . . .
. . . .
: : :
i:
1
THE GROWTH OF LAW AND LEGAL INSTITUTIONS
. . .
: :
. . .
. . .
. . .
: :
: :
. . .
. .
By Professor E. WASHBURN HOPKINS
The chiefs codes-Manu, Vishņu, Yājňavalkya, and Nārada
247-9
Growth of the distinction between religious precepts and law
250
Growth of the distinction between civil and criminal law, and the first enumera-
tion of legal titles
251
Ordeals
252
Dharna
253
Punishments
253
Development of civil law
255
Interest ; wages ; property
256
The kings as ruler in peace and war
257
The king as judge
258
Hereditary traditional law and custom
260
Infant marriage ; the levirate ; the status of women
260
The law-books and the Arthacăstra
262-3
CHAPTER XIII
THE PURĀŅAS
By Professor E. J. RAPSON
The classical definition of a Purāņa
264
Kshatriya literature
265,270
Scriptures of the later Hinduism
266
Critical study of the Purāņas
267
The Purāṇas and Upapurāņas
267
Their chronological and geographical conceptions
270
Genealogies partly legendary and partly historical
271
: :
. . . . . .
. . .
. .
: :
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
## p. xvi (#20) #############################################
XVI
CONTENTS
: : : :
: : : :
PAGE
272
273
274
275
. . .
ii : : :
: : : : :
276
277
278
279
281
. . .
283
Common traditional elements in Vedic literature and the Purāņas
Traditional period of the great war between Kurus and Pāņdus
The Pūrus
The Ikshvākus
Kings or suzerains of Magadha
Brihadrathas
Pradyotas, originally kings of Avanti
Çiçunāgas
Nandas
Contemporary dynasties in Northern and Central India
Later kings of Magadha and suzerains of N. India :
The later Nandas, Mauryas, Çungas, Kanvas and Andhras
CHAPTER XIV
THE PERSIAN DOMINIONS IN NORTHERN INDIA DOWN
TO THE TIME OF ALEXANDER'S INVASION
By A. V. WILLIAMS JACKSON, Ph. D. , LL. D. , Professor of
Indo-Irānian Languages in Columbia University
Prehistoric connexions between Persia and India
Common Indo-Irānian domains
Evidence of the Veda and the Avesta
Avestan, Old Persian, Greek, and modern designations of Persian provinces
south of the Hindu Kush
Early commerce between India and Babylon
The eastern campaigns of Cyrus
Cambyses
Darius
Xerxes
Decadence of the Achaemenian empire
The conquest of Persia by Alexander
Extent of Persian influence in India
: : :
285
287
288
. . .
: : : :
; :
. . .
: : : : :
: : : :
292
294
295
298
299
304
305
305
306
: : : : : :
NOTE TO CHAPTER XIV
ANCIENT PERSIAN COINS IN INDIA
By Dr. GEORGE MACDONALD
The rarity of Persian gold coins in India explained by the low ratio of gold to
silver
Tho attribution of punch-marked Persian silver coins to India doubtful
CHAPTER XV
306
308
ALEXANDER THE GREAT
By E. R. BEVAN, M. A. , Hon. Fellow of New College, Oxford
The Kābu) valley and the Punjab in the fourth century B. C.
Alexander's conquest of the Persian empire ; settlements in Seistān, Kandahār,
and the upper Kābul valley ; invasion of Bactria
The rāja of Takshaçilā and the Paurava king (Porus)
309
. . .
311
312
## p. xvii (#21) ############################################
CONTENTS
XVII
. . .
: :
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
: :
. . .
. . . . . .
PAGE
314
• 315
318
319
320
321
322,330,343
323
330
331
333
333
334
335
336
338
340
340
341
342
344
345
. . .
Invasion of India from the upper Kābul valley
Hill tribes beyond the N. W. frontier
Occupation of the lower Kābul valley
Siege and capture of Aornus
The crossing of the Indus
Reception at Taksha çilā
The Paurava king
The battle of the Hydaspes
Foundation of Nicaea and Bucephala
Fight of the second Paurava king, and occupation of his kingdom
Capture of Sangala
Saubhūti (Sophytes)
The Hyphasis, the eastern limit of Alexander's conquests
Return to the Hydaspes ; expedition to the Indus delta . . .
Defeat of the Mālavas
Musicanus
Return of Craterus through Kandahār and Seistān
Pattala . . .
Return of Alexander through Gedrosia
Return of Nearchus by sea
Alexander's Indian satrapies
Consequences of the invasion
NOTE TO CHAPTER XV
. . .
: :
. . . . . .
: :
: :
i
: :
. . .
.
. . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .
Ancient Greek Coins in India
By Dr GEORGE MACDONALD
Athenian and Macedonian types
Sophytes
Coins attributed to Alexander
Double darics . . .
CHAPTER XVI
346
318
348
349
351
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
INDIA IN EARLY GREEK AND LATIN LITERATURE
By E. R. BEVAN, M. A.
The early sources of information
Scylax of Caryanda ; Hecataeus of Miletus; Herodotus : Ctesias of
Cnidus
Nearchus; Onesicritus ; Clitarchus
Magasthenes ; Daimachus ; Patrocles
Geography and physical phenomena
The mineral, vegetable and animal world
Ethnology and mythology
Social divisions according to Megasthenes
His description of Pāțaliputra
Manners and customs ; laws
Marriage ; suttee ; disposal of the dead ; slavery
The king ; royal festivals ; government officials
Industries
Brāhmans; ascetics ; philosophers
. . .
. .
earlier chapters have been revised, and no effort has been spared to make
the book representative of the state of early Indian historical studies at the
end of 1920.
The system of chronology, which has been adopted for the periods of
Çaka and Kushāņa rule, needs some explanation. The chronological
difficulties connected with the Vikrama era of 58 B. C. and the Çaka era of
78 A. D, are well known ; and it is universally admitted that the names which
these eras bear were given to them at a later date, and afford no clue to
their origin. The view maintained in this work is that the eras in question
mark the establishment of the Çaka and Kushāņa suzerainties. The idea of
suzerainty, that is to say, supreme lordship over all the kings of a large
region-'the whole earth', as the poets call it - is deeply rooted in Indian
conceptions of government; and the foundation of an era is recognised as
one of the attributes of this exalted position. Now there is abundant
evidence that the Çaka empire attained its height in the reign of Azes I
and the Kushāna empire in the reign of Kanishka. It is natural to suppose
therefore that such imperial eras must have been established in these
reigns, and that their starting point in both cases was the accession of the
Euzerain.
The story of the foundation and extension of later eras in Indian
history - the Gupta era and the era of Harsha, for example--can be clearly
traced. All such undoubted illustrations of the process are seen to imply
the existence of certain political conditions - the relations of suzerain to
feudatories, in fact. It is not necessarily, or indeed usually, the founder of
a dynasty who is also the founder of an era ; but it is that member of the
royal house who succeeded in asserting ‘universal sway and in reducing his
neighbours to the status of feudatories. The use of the era can be shown,
in well-ascertained cases, to have spread from the suzerain to the feuda-
tories. Is there any reason to suppose that extension in the contrary
direction - from feudatory to suzerain-has ever taken place or could
possibly take place ?
It has been suggested that the Vikrama era originated with the
Mālavas, whose name it sometimes bears in inscriptions. They were a
people, apparently of no great political importance, who can be traced in
the Punjab and Rājputāna centuries before they settled in Mālwā, the tract
## p. ix (#13) ##############################################
PREFACE
IX
of Central India which now bears their name ; and they were almost
certainly, like the other peoples of these regions, included in the Çaka
empire at one period of their history. Is it conceivable that they could
have initiated the Vikrama era, and that a great suzerain like Gondo.
pharnes, who almost beyond doubt dates his. Takht-i-Bahi inscription in
this era, stood indebted to them for its use? The Vikrama era had
undoubtedly become the traditional reckoning of the Mālavas in the fifth
century A. D. ; but the most obvious explanation of the fact is that they had
inherited it from their former overlords.
In the same way, the later name of the era of 78 A. D. may be due to
its use for centuries by the Çaka satraps of Western India ; but they can
scarcely have founded this era. Their very title 'satrap’ shows that they
were originally feudatories ; and they were most probably feudatories of
the Kushāņas. If so, they would use the era of their suzerains as a matter
of course.
Thus all a priori considerations favour the views which are adopted
in this work in regard to the origin of these eras ; and, as is pointed out in
Chapter XXIII, the Taxila inscription of the year 136, which first suggested
to Sir John Marshall the possibility of an ‘era of Azes', may also furnish
positive evidence of their correctness. It has been necessary to deal with
these chronological problems somewhat at length because of their im-
portance. If the theories here maintained are accepted, there will be an end
to the worst of the perplexities which have for so long obscured the history
of N. W. India during the centuries immediately before and after the
Christian era, and the dates in all the known inscriptions of the period will
be determined, with the single exception of that which occurs in the Taxila
copper-plate of Maues, and which, as is suggested, may be in some era
which the Çakas brought with them from eastern Irān into India.
The munificence of Sir Dorabji Tata has enabled the Syndics of the
University Press to illustrate this volume more lavishly than would have
been possible without such generous help. Mr G. F. Hill and Mr J. Allan
of the British Museum have most kindly provided casts of the coins
figured in Plates I–VII ; and Sir John Marshall has enhanced the value of
his chapter on the monuments by supplying photographs, which were in
many cases specially taken for the illustrations in Plates IX-XXXIV.
The index has been made by Mr E. J. Thomas of Emmanuel College
and the University Library. Modern place-names are, with very few
exceptions, given as they appear in the index-volume of the Imperial
Gazetteer of India. For the spelling of ancient names the system adopted
by Prof. Macdonell in his History of Sanskrit Literature has been followed.
This system has the double advantage of being strictly accurate and, at the
>
## p. x (#14) ###############################################
PREFACE
same time, of offering as few difficulties as possible for readers who are not
orientalists. The vowels should be pronounced as in Italian, with the
exception of a which has the indefinite sound so common in English, e. g. ,
in the word organ. The vowels e and o are always long in Sanskrit, and
are therefore only marked as such in the non-Sanskritic names of Southern
India, in which it is necessary to distinguish them from the corresponding
short vowels.
E. J. R.
Sr John's COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE,
18 August 1921.
## p. xi (#15) ##############################################
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
THE SUB-CONTINENT OF INDIA
By Sir HalFORD J. MACKINDER, M. A. , M. P. , Reader in
Geography in the University of London, formerly
Student of Christ Church, Oxford
PAGE
1
. . .
. . .
1
2
2-3
3
4
4
: : :
5
::
The four sub-continents of Asia
Ceylon ; Colombo, the strategic centre of British sea-power in the Indian
Ocean
The Malabar and Coromandel coasts ; the Western and Eastern Ghāts
The Carnatic ; Travancore ; Cochin
The Gap of Coimbatore or Pālghāt
The plateau between the Ghāts; Mysore
Climate of the southern extremity of India
Madras ; some causes of the comparative isolation of southern India
Burma, the connecting link between the Far East and the Middle East
The geography of Burma
The geography of Bengal
Calcutta
Countries of the Himālayan fringe
Valley of the Brahmaputra
The Plain of the Ganges and Jumna
Central India
The situation of Bombay
The Marāthā country ; Hyderābād ; the Deccan plateau
The Central Provinces ; Baroda
:
Kāthiāwār and Cutch
The Himālayan barrier
Rājputāna ; historical importance of the great Indian desert and the Delhi
0
Gateway
The north-west frontier
The plain of the Indus
Routes leading into N. W. India
Kashmir
Gilgit ; Chitrāl; the Karakoram ; the Hindu Kush
Lateral communication between the Khyber and Bolān routes
The Hindu Kush and the Indus as boundaries between India and Irān
Summary of the principal physical features of the sub-continent
i ii
5
7
8
9,22,23
10
11
13
15
16
17
17,18
18
. . .
. . .
::
: : :
. . .
18
23
24,27
25
29
29
29
30
30
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XII
CONTENTS
CHAPTER II
By E. J. RAPSON M. A. , Professor of Sanskrit in the University
of Cambridge, and Fellow of St John's College
A. PEOPLES AND LANGUAGES
PAGE
33
. . .
34
: : : : :
: : : : : :
36
36
43
47
Varieties of race, speech, and culture. . .
Western and eastern invaders
Natural and ethnographical divisions
The seven chief physical types
The four families of speech
The caste-system
B. SOURCES OF HISTORY
Prehistoric archaeology
Ancient literatures
Foreign writers
Inscribed monuments and coins
The Ancient alphabets
Progress of research . . .
: : : : : :
: : : : : :
: : : : : :
50
50
52
54
55
55
CHAPTER III
THE ARYANS
By P. Giles Litt. D. , Master of Emmanuel College, and Reader in
Comparative Philology in the University of Cambridge
The Indo-European languages
58,63
The Wiros and their original habitat
59
Their migrations
63
Evidence of the inscriptions of Boghaz-köi
64
Irānians and Indo-Āryans
65
Āryan names in the inscriptions of Mesopotamia
67
. . .
. . .
: : : : :
: : : : :
CHAPTER IV
THE AGE OF THE RIGVEDA
. . .
By A BERRIEDALE KEITH, D. C. L. , D. Litt. , Regius Professor
or Sanskrit and Comparative Philology in the University of
Edinburgh, formerly Scholar of Balliol College, Oxford
The hymns of the Rigveda
Geography
Fauna; peoples
Social organisation
Origins of the caste system
Political organisation
Warlike and peacefull avocations
Dress, food, and
Religion
The beginnings of philosophy
Chronology of Vedic literature
: : : : : : : : :
69,96
70
72
79
82
84
88
90
92
96
98
. .
amusements
. . .
: : : :
## p. xiii (#17) ############################################
XIII
CONTENTS
CHAPTER V.
THE PERIOD OF THE LATER SAMHITĀS, THE BRAHMAŅAS,
THE ĀRAŅYAKAS, AND THE UPANISHADS
By Professor A. BERRIEDALE KEITH
PAGE
: : : :
Vedic literature after the period of the Rigveda . .
Extension of Aryan civilisation to the Middle Country
Peoples of the Middle Country
The more eastern peoples
Changes in social conditions
Government and the administration of justice
Industry ; social life ; the arts and sciences
Religion and philosophy
Language
Criteria of date
i ii ::
1
: : : : :
102
104
105
109
111, 120
116
121
126
130
131
: : : : : :
::
. . .
CHAPTER
VI
THE HISTORY OF THE JAINS
By JARL CAARPENTIER, Ph. D. , University of Upsala
Jainism in its relation to Brāhmanism and Buddhism
The tirthakaras or 'prophets' ; Pārcva
Mabāvīra
Jains and Buddhists
Mahāvīra's rivals, Gosāla and Jamāli
The Jain church after the death of Mahāvīra
The great schism : Çvetāmbaras and Digambaras
Settlements in Western India
Organisation of the religious and lay communities
Blanks in Jain ecclesiastical history
CHAPTER VII
134
136
138
143
145
140
147
148
150
151
. . .
: :
::
. . .
. . .
. . .
THE HISTORY OF THE BUDDHISTS
By T. W. Rays Davids, LL. D. , Ph. D. , D. Sc. , formerly Professor of Pāli
and Buddhist Literature at University College, London, and Professor
of Comparative Religion in the University of Manchester
Pre-Buddhistic
152
India in the Buddha's time; the clans
155
The kingdoms ;
Kosala
158
Magadha
162
Avanti
165
The Vamsas
166
The first great gap
167
169
Chandagutta
170
Age of the authorities used
Growth of Buddhist literature from the time of Buddha down to Asoka
175
. . .
: : :
. . .
: : : : :
: :
iii :
::
. . .
: :
## p. xiv (#18) #############################################
XIV
CONTENTS
CHAPTER VIII
ECONOMIC CONDITIONS ACCORDING TO EARLY
BUDDHIST LITERATURE
: :
::
: : : :
. . .
: :
:
. . .
::
. . .
. .
192
By Mrs C. A. F. Rays Davids M. A. D. Litt. , Fellow of
University College, London
PAGE
Rural economy
176
Cities ; villages ; the land
178
Agriculture
181
Labour and industry
183
Social conditions
185
Trade and commerce
187
Trade centres and routes
189
Methods of exchange and prices
Securities and interest
1 94
General conclusions
195
CHAPTER IX
THE PERIOD OF THE SŪTRAS EPICS AND LAW-BOOKS
By E. WASHBURN HOPKINS Ph. D. , LLD. , Professor of Sanskrit and
Comparative Philology in Yale University
Language of the later Brāhman literature
197
Social conditions as reflected in the Brāhman and Buddhist books
198
Outlines of chronology
199
Causes of the wider political outlook
202
CHAPTER X
: :
. . .
FAMILY LIFE AND SOCIAL CUSTOMS AS THEY APPEAR IN
THE SŪTRAS
. . .
; :
. . .
i :
::
. . .
. . . . . .
. . .
By Professor E.
WASHBURN HOPKINS
The Sūtra literature
Gșihya Sūtras . . .
Oblations to spirits and gods
Rites to avert disaster and disease
Substitution of images of meal for sacrificial animals
Marriage ceremonies
Caste and family
Contents and arrangemont of the Gșihya Sūtras . . .
The life represented is rural, not urban
Minor superstitions
Ārya and Çüdra ; Dharma Sūtras
The beginnings of civil and criminal law ; inheritance
Duties of the king
Taxes ; status of women ; ordeals
Legal rates of interest
Religion and philosophy
Relative ages of the Sūtras
203
204
205
207
208
208
210
211
212
213
215
217
219
221
222
222
222
. . .
: : :
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::
: : : :
: : : :
: :
## p. xv (#19) ##############################################
CONTENTS
X
CHAPTER XI
THE PRINCES AND PEOPLES OF THE EPIC POEMS
By Professor E. WASHBURN HOPKINS
PAGE
::
: :
. . .
. . .
. . .
231
The two chief varieties of epic poetry
224
Sources of the Mahābhārta
225
Narrative and didactic interpolations
228
The characters partly historical and partly mythical
229
Date of the poem in its present form
230
Features common to the Mahābhārta and the Rāmāyana
Social conditions in the Sanskrit epics and in Buddhist works of the same period 231
The Story of the Mahābhārata . . .
233
The Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyana contrasted
235
Earlier and later inoral ideals in the Mahābhārata
236
Knights, priests, commoners, and slaves
237
The king and his ministers
242
Religious and philosophical views of the epics
243
244
Peoples traditionally engaged in the great war
The genealogies
246
CHAPTER XII
: :
. . . . . .
. . . .
: : :
i:
1
THE GROWTH OF LAW AND LEGAL INSTITUTIONS
. . .
: :
. . .
. . .
. . .
: :
: :
. . .
. .
By Professor E. WASHBURN HOPKINS
The chiefs codes-Manu, Vishņu, Yājňavalkya, and Nārada
247-9
Growth of the distinction between religious precepts and law
250
Growth of the distinction between civil and criminal law, and the first enumera-
tion of legal titles
251
Ordeals
252
Dharna
253
Punishments
253
Development of civil law
255
Interest ; wages ; property
256
The kings as ruler in peace and war
257
The king as judge
258
Hereditary traditional law and custom
260
Infant marriage ; the levirate ; the status of women
260
The law-books and the Arthacăstra
262-3
CHAPTER XIII
THE PURĀŅAS
By Professor E. J. RAPSON
The classical definition of a Purāņa
264
Kshatriya literature
265,270
Scriptures of the later Hinduism
266
Critical study of the Purāņas
267
The Purāṇas and Upapurāņas
267
Their chronological and geographical conceptions
270
Genealogies partly legendary and partly historical
271
: :
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. .
: :
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. . .
. . .
## p. xvi (#20) #############################################
XVI
CONTENTS
: : : :
: : : :
PAGE
272
273
274
275
. . .
ii : : :
: : : : :
276
277
278
279
281
. . .
283
Common traditional elements in Vedic literature and the Purāņas
Traditional period of the great war between Kurus and Pāņdus
The Pūrus
The Ikshvākus
Kings or suzerains of Magadha
Brihadrathas
Pradyotas, originally kings of Avanti
Çiçunāgas
Nandas
Contemporary dynasties in Northern and Central India
Later kings of Magadha and suzerains of N. India :
The later Nandas, Mauryas, Çungas, Kanvas and Andhras
CHAPTER XIV
THE PERSIAN DOMINIONS IN NORTHERN INDIA DOWN
TO THE TIME OF ALEXANDER'S INVASION
By A. V. WILLIAMS JACKSON, Ph. D. , LL. D. , Professor of
Indo-Irānian Languages in Columbia University
Prehistoric connexions between Persia and India
Common Indo-Irānian domains
Evidence of the Veda and the Avesta
Avestan, Old Persian, Greek, and modern designations of Persian provinces
south of the Hindu Kush
Early commerce between India and Babylon
The eastern campaigns of Cyrus
Cambyses
Darius
Xerxes
Decadence of the Achaemenian empire
The conquest of Persia by Alexander
Extent of Persian influence in India
: : :
285
287
288
. . .
: : : :
; :
. . .
: : : : :
: : : :
292
294
295
298
299
304
305
305
306
: : : : : :
NOTE TO CHAPTER XIV
ANCIENT PERSIAN COINS IN INDIA
By Dr. GEORGE MACDONALD
The rarity of Persian gold coins in India explained by the low ratio of gold to
silver
Tho attribution of punch-marked Persian silver coins to India doubtful
CHAPTER XV
306
308
ALEXANDER THE GREAT
By E. R. BEVAN, M. A. , Hon. Fellow of New College, Oxford
The Kābu) valley and the Punjab in the fourth century B. C.
Alexander's conquest of the Persian empire ; settlements in Seistān, Kandahār,
and the upper Kābul valley ; invasion of Bactria
The rāja of Takshaçilā and the Paurava king (Porus)
309
. . .
311
312
## p. xvii (#21) ############################################
CONTENTS
XVII
. . .
: :
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
: :
. . .
. . . . . .
PAGE
314
• 315
318
319
320
321
322,330,343
323
330
331
333
333
334
335
336
338
340
340
341
342
344
345
. . .
Invasion of India from the upper Kābul valley
Hill tribes beyond the N. W. frontier
Occupation of the lower Kābul valley
Siege and capture of Aornus
The crossing of the Indus
Reception at Taksha çilā
The Paurava king
The battle of the Hydaspes
Foundation of Nicaea and Bucephala
Fight of the second Paurava king, and occupation of his kingdom
Capture of Sangala
Saubhūti (Sophytes)
The Hyphasis, the eastern limit of Alexander's conquests
Return to the Hydaspes ; expedition to the Indus delta . . .
Defeat of the Mālavas
Musicanus
Return of Craterus through Kandahār and Seistān
Pattala . . .
Return of Alexander through Gedrosia
Return of Nearchus by sea
Alexander's Indian satrapies
Consequences of the invasion
NOTE TO CHAPTER XV
. . .
: :
. . . . . .
: :
: :
i
: :
. . .
.
. . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .
Ancient Greek Coins in India
By Dr GEORGE MACDONALD
Athenian and Macedonian types
Sophytes
Coins attributed to Alexander
Double darics . . .
CHAPTER XVI
346
318
348
349
351
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
INDIA IN EARLY GREEK AND LATIN LITERATURE
By E. R. BEVAN, M. A.
The early sources of information
Scylax of Caryanda ; Hecataeus of Miletus; Herodotus : Ctesias of
Cnidus
Nearchus; Onesicritus ; Clitarchus
Magasthenes ; Daimachus ; Patrocles
Geography and physical phenomena
The mineral, vegetable and animal world
Ethnology and mythology
Social divisions according to Megasthenes
His description of Pāțaliputra
Manners and customs ; laws
Marriage ; suttee ; disposal of the dead ; slavery
The king ; royal festivals ; government officials
Industries
Brāhmans; ascetics ; philosophers
. . .
. .
