(n Sex, n Aggression~ n Abasement-intrapunitive type): The hero is reproach- ing himself for having harmed the girl as the result of an
impulsive
sexual act.
Adorno-T-Authoritarian-Personality-Harper-Bros-1950
2; Men: Low-scoring mean .
6/High-scoring mean 1.
4).
2. THEMATIC ANALYSIS
a. ExPLANATION OF THE METHOD. The thematic analysis, instead of meas- uring each separate variable, examines the variables in combination. Here we discover not how much of each individual variable is expressed, but rather how often certain patterns of variables occur. This type of analysis has
the advantage of molarity with the disadvantage, often, of ambiguity.
The concept of thema is taken over from Murray (89). He defines it as "the dynamic structure of an event on a molar level," the "combination of a particular press or preaction or outcome and a particular need. " When dia- grammatically expressing a thema pattern, arrows are used to represent the direction of influence: e. g. , p Dominance ~ n Deference means that press Dominance imposed upon the hero causes him to express Deference; n Sen- tience ~ n Sex means that need for Sentience causes the hero to express a need for Sex; n Succorance ~~ n Nurturance means that two equally im-
portant heroes express a mutual nurturance-succorance relationship.
We constructed hypothetical "low" and "high" thema categories after careful study of the differences in need and press scores shown in Tables
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s(XIV)A and s(XIV)B, and after observation of the stories told in response to each picture by each of the low and high scorers. Such categQries were thought of as giving the general trends of the content of the stories. They were representative of differences in the more common variable constellation in the stories of our "high" as compared with our "low" subjects. We noted especially certain constellations in which one variable was equally weighted for "high" and "low" subjects. We noted also certain differences in the types of identifications with the heroes who expressed certain needs, and differ- ences in the object toward which the action was directed. A list of "low" and "high" categories was thus compiled-one for men and one for women.
There were several categories for each picture.
After the thema categories had been empirically derived in the fashion
described above, each set of 40 stories (i. e. , the stories told in response to each picture by the 40 men and by the 40 women tested) were scored "blindly" by two scorers, one staff member and one graduate student who had had no previous experience on our study. The scorers had only the derived categories as criteria by which to judge the "highness" or "lowness" of the subject who had told a particular story. Each story had been coded for identification, separated from other stories told by the same person, and randomly placed among the rest of the stories. Thus, judgments were based on the content of the single story. Every story thema was judged in terms of the thema category it most resembled. It should be pointed out that not all stories told conformed to patterns of the thema categories adopted as criteria. They were often more complex and sometimes included a combina- tion of two or three themes. Scoring problems created by story complexity were dealt with by two methods. ( r) The use of a neutral category when the theme of a particular story differed widely from any of the categories (about ro per cent of the judgments fell in the neutral category); (2) scor- ing 'if or Ya to each of two or three included themes.
The percentage of agreement between the two scorers as to their "High," "Low," or "Neutral" judgments was higher on some pictures than on others. The mean percentage agreement of judgments on men's stories was 76, the range of percentages being from 70 to So. The scorers had a mean percentage agreement of 79 on their ratings of the women's stories. Although the agree- ment was only 63 per cent for Picture 3, the range of percentages for the other nine sets of stories was from 74 to 9r.
Examples of thema variables are included (in Sll). all print) in the following comparison of the stories told by low- and high-scoring subjects. Each ex- ample is followed by a notation, in parenthesis, of the picture concerned and of the number of times the given thema was found, by each of the two scorers, to occur in stories of subjects scoring low on the Ethnocentrism scale and by subjects scoring high on this scale. The practice of assigning
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scores of ~ or Ya to each of two or three themes found in a given story accounts for the fractional totals which appear in the following summaries of themes.
Within the discussion, notations are made also from time to time of the sum of intensity scores on a particular variable (reflected in the stories to the picture in question) in the case of low-scoring subjects and in the case of high-scoring subjects.
We have chosen to discuss stories told in response to Pictures 1 and 7 (dealing with parental figures) first; stories to 3 and 5 (relationships to oppo- site sex) next; and then stories to 8 and 10 (responses to nonfamilial press), considering the men's stories and then the stories of the women subjects. Stories of both men and women told in response to the special pictures por- traying members of minority groups (2, 4, 6, 9) are discussed last. The
reader is referred to Table 4(XIV). b. RESULTS
1. Comparison of Stories Told by High- and by Low-scoring Men in Response to the Pictures from the Murray Series
PICTURE M I. Male subjects in both groups usually identify the characters as father and son or "older man" and "younger man. " Identification tends to be mainly with the son, who is said to be somber, sad, distressed. Many of the themes told to this picture describe the older man in the capacity of advisor or counselor. There is a greater tendency for low- than for high- scoring men to describe the younger man's reaction to this supervision as respectful (n Deference: Low scorers I], High scorers 8) and for high scorers to describe it as submissive (n Abasement: Low scorers I9, High scorers 30).
(p Dominance~ n Submissive Abasement): The hero is reprimanded by the father for having committed an antisocial act. He responds with feelings of shame and submission to the instructions of the older man. The father figure acts as a restraining force, not just as an advisor or counselor. There is often a nurturant aspect to the father's dominance, but the dominance is the stronger press. (M1: Low scorers, 2, r; High scorers, 8, g. )
There appears to be a tendency for both groups to describe fantasies of rebellion against the older man's advice (n Autonomy, Low scorers 25; High scorers I 8).
(p Nurturance-Dominance ~ n Autonomy-Rejection): The older man is advis- ing the younger one. The younger man rejects the older man's advice. The father is deeply hurt, or in some way shows genuine concern over the action of the younger man-a concern other than a desire to dominate the boy. (Mr: Low scorers 7, 6; High scorers 6, 7. )
However, there is a greater tendency for the high scorers to follow
? MURRAY PICTURES G1VEN TO MEN AND WOMEN
MEN WOMEN
? Credits. Picture 2: Courtesy of Life, Copyright Time, Inc. Picture 6: Courtesy of Fortune Magazine.
Photograph by Otto Hagel.
? THE THEMA TIC APPERCEPTION TEST
this theme with punishment? for the rebellious younger man (3 of 7 high- scoring men, but no low-scoring men).
Another theme sometimes elicited by this picture is one in which both men are planning or plotting together. The low scorers more often than the high scorers describe a constructive enterprise (n Expression: Low scorers
IZ, High scorers 7; n Understanding: Low scorers 10, High scorers I; n Cog- nizance: Low scorers I 6; High scorers 5).
(n Understanding, n Nurturance): The hero strives for understanding and bet- terment of society. He attempts to right a wrong done to society. Rebellion is motivated by rational principle. There is close identification with the hero, who rebels against social injustice or who wants to right an injustice committed against a friend or relative. (M1: Low scorers 3, 6; High scorers zlh, r~. )
The high- more often than the low-scoring men depict a father who acts as a moral control over the actions of the son and causes the son to conform to his demands or be punished. The low scorers are more inclined to portray a relationship in which the father acts as an advisor whom the son respects, but the son does not necessarily submit to his wishes. Although high and low scorers alike describe heroes who behave contrary to the wishes of the father, a principled, constructive purpose initiating the rebellion is more commonly described by "lows," whereas the rebellion in the stories of "highs" is more often of a criminal, impulsive nature. Furthermore, the revolt is more likely to be rejected or given up in stories of high scorers than in those of low scorers.
These differences in fantasied relationship between father and son remind one of the difference in the childhood memories of the father pointed out in Chapter X. The reader will recall that the stern father who represented a "moral-model" and who was respected out of fear, was more frequently described in the childhood memories of the high-scoring men than in those of the low-scoring men. On the other hand, the low scorers more often re- ported that their fathers were "relaxed and mild" and supported "principled independence," a similar picture to the one drawn in the T. A. T. stories.
To what extent either of these sources of portrayed relationships offers a true picture of family relationship is still an open question, but it is im- portant to note that the needs expressed by the prejudiced men are in the direction of authoritarian relationships with father figures whereas those set forth by unprejudiced men tend to allow for individualized behavior. One may conclude from this that the low- as compared with the high-scoring men have less residual fears of punishment by their fathers, and that this accounts for""their being better able to accept fantasies of constructive autonomy.
PICTURE M7? Most of our male subjects describe the people portrayed in this picture as mother and son, and the identification is mainly with the son.
? 510
THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
The mother is usually said to be rejecting the son, and the mood expressed by the son is somber.
There are two main themes that appear more often in the stories of high- scoring men than in those of the low scorers. One of these, which deviates from the more common story of the rejecting mother, stresses tragic events leading up to the portrayed scene (p Aggression: Low scorers 7, High scorers
IS; p Death: Low scorers 5, High scorers 22; p Physical Danger: Low scorers o, High scorers 6).
(Environmental p Aggression, p Death-object, p Physical Danger~ n Succor- ance): Environmental factors (a death or fire; a rejecting or erring child, or a demand from an external force that forces the man to leave home) threaten both of the portrayed figures. They both respond with dejection. (M7: Low scorers Ilh, o; High scorers 4, 6. )
In the other predominantly "high" theme more direct mother-son rela- tionships are often described. In such cases the son is usually said to have committed a crime, and he is confessing or apologizing. (n Blamavoidance: Low scorers 9, High scorers I7; n Abasement: Low scorers 24, High scorers 32. )
(p Dominance~ n Submissive Abasement): The mother rejects the son or the son fears she will reject him (for an act of theft, murder, or an affair with a girl). He responds with guilt and anxiety and subsequent submission to his mother's wishes. (He tries to make amends for what he has done by apologizing and/or complying with his mother's wishes from then on. ) (M7: Low scorers, 4, 2; High scorers 4lh, 9lh. )
The mother-son conRict expressed by low scorers is most commonly said t. o arise out of the young man's demand for autonomy. He wants to do some- thing of which the mother disapproves (leave home, marry, or plan for a particular career). In some stories she is said to be annoyed with him because he has committed a minor crime. These subjects often indicate that the son feels he is justified to some extent at least in what he has done or what he intends to do. He is determined to do what he thinks right, or defend what he has done. There is usually some sign of regret that he is disappointing his mother by defying her wishes, yet he insists on his independence. (n Auton- omy: Low scorers 4I, High scorers 33; n Rejection: Low scorers 24, High scorers I2. )
Autonomous striving receives high scores in both groups, but in the stories of our prejudiced subjects it is intense at first but is later given up, whereas nonprejudiced subjects describe less violent, less destructive autonomy that carries through to the conclusion.
(p Dominance ~ n Autonomy): A possessive mother rejects her son because of his past activities or plans for the future, of which she disapproves (leaving home, conflict over mode of achievement, intended marriage, a theft). The son feels that
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he is justified to some extent at least in what he has done or intends to do. He is determined to do what he thinks right or defend what he has done. There may be a note of regret that he must disappoint his mother by defying her wishes. (M7: Low scorers I I, rr; High scorers 4? 3. )
The fantasies of low-scoring and of high-scoring men centering about the mother figure tend to be distinguishable in much the same way as their fantasies about the father figure; that is, the high-scoring men tend to describe a hero who is morally dependent upon the mother while the hero of the low- scoring men more often considers her advice but finally acts according to his own judgment. This differentiation is in accordance with the analysis of the interview material, which indicated a more realistic, less awesome por- trayal of the childhood mother by low than by high scorers.
Prejudiced subjects more often than the unprejudiced describe relations to parents, both fantasied and real (in the interviews), with more reference to the child's reacting because of fear or because of the compulsion of the parental demands for obedience. However, both the interviews and the T. A. T. indicate that the low-scoring subjects have a more critical attitude toward parental influences.
PICTURE 3. Male subjects in both groups tend to identify with a male hero in their stories to this picture. Usually the upper figure is so designated, the lower figure being described as his wife.
In the responses of low-scoring men to this picture there is much variability in the relationship between the two people portrayed. Often the woman is a nurturant mother figure who encourages and helps the man; sometimes he is the stronger and more dominant one who cares for her. In general, how- ever, there is a clear affiliative relationship in which hero and love object show a mutual sensitivity to and concern over the mood and feelings of the other.
(Mutual Nurturance-Succorance Sex relationship-fusion of n Nurturance, n Suc- corance, n Sex, n Affiliation): Two people (husband and wife, usually) are em- bracing each other. They are glad to be together ("to see each other after a long separation") or both are sad (because they have to be separated). This theme is not preceded by an aggressive press such as an argument between them, the fear of death, affliction, or physical danger. Affiliation and Sex are expressed in the mutuality of the Nurturance-Succorance. (3: Low scorers I4, I6; High scorers 7, 2. )
Closer investigation of the stories of low scorers who produce this thema shows that when a joyful event such as a reunion is described, the woman usually plays the more active role. She is the one who protects and nurtures the man, the latter enjoying a more passive role. When the event is unpleasant or sad, a situation such as departure, the man is usually the one to give the woman support and reassurance and to deal forcefully with the situation.
The high-scoring men more often fantasy the man as the dominant person
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in the heterosexual relationship. They are inclined to identify with the role of a benevolent but despotic father, demonstrating no real dependence on the woman. The man is likely to be described as the master, while the woman is weak and dependent. This division of masculine and feminine roles is often sharply made, no overlapping of roles being allowed. At the same time the high-scoring man is likely to reject the woman because of her dependency. He describes her as being fickle, flighty or burdensome.
(Male n Dominance~Female n Succorance): There is no overlapping of roles. She is dependent and weak; he is the source of strength and he refrains from ex- pressing any dependence on her. ("She is on the verge of hysterics; so he comforts her. " "She is relying on strength from her husband to pull her through. " "He com- forts her and hides his own feelings. ") (3: Low scorers 3, 2? 2; High scorers 7, 4? )
The woman becomes obstreperous. He comforts her in order to quiet her and subdue her aggression. ("He's comforting her. They have quarrelled, as they often do over some trivial matter. " "She nagged at him. He got mad. Now he's comforting her. ") (3: Low scorers o, o; High scorers 3, 2. ) ?
Although the situational factor in the stories of high-scoring subjects is somewhat variable, reference to dangerous situations resulting in death and affliction are very common (p Death-hero: Low scorers 4, High scorers q; p Affliction: Low scorers o; High scorers 9). Usually the high scorers de- scribe episodes which cause the woman to exhibit her weakness and the man his strength and superior capabilities. Even when the focus is on the husband's departure for war, ideas of fear are usually projected onto the woman. She
is the one who "fears for his safety. "
It appears, then, that the low- and high-scoring groups conceptualize dif-
ferent types of heterosexual relationship. The low-scoring men tend to identify mainly with a flexible male role that is varied with different situa- tions, the heterosexual adjustment of hero and love object being on the basis of reciprocal dependency stemming from their mutual need of companion- ship and sympathy, and of someone to care for; whereas the high-scoring men characteristically identify wjth a dominant, heroic role, the woman being subservient. In contrast to stories of low-scoring men, in which women serve as helpful companions, the high-scoring men more often conceive of the woman's function as one of serving the man's needs, and he resents any demands placed upon him by her.
The implications derived from the differences in content of the stories told by low- and high-scoring men in response to Picture Mr-that the "highs" tend to be more fearful of asserting themselves in the face of the father's opposition than are the "lows"-suggest one aspect at least of the differences in motivation behind the fantasied roles described in response to the present picture. The high-scoring men apparently can identify with the father's role in certain situations. They seem to compensate for feelings
? THE TH;EMA TIC APPERCEPTION TEST
of inadequacy precipitated by the father, by adopting the role-at least in fantasy-of a dominant, authoritarian individual in relationships with people less threatening than the father.
From the interview material we would have reason to believe that the authoritarian sex role described by the prejudiced men in the T. A. T. is not limited to their fantasies. The quantitative results in Chapter XI, indicating that they tend to adhere to exploitive-manipulative and power-oriented attitudes toward sex objects, corroborate our findings here. The interview data for unprejudiced men are also in keeping with T. A. T. results. Their interviews reveal appreciation of more relaxed, equalitarian modes of love- seeking.
PICTURE M5. Except in rare cases there is consistent identification by all the male subjects with the man in the picture. The description of events leading up to the portrayed situation, in stories of low and high scorers alike, often involves an impulsive sexual act. Aggressive behavior on the part of the hero is described more often by low- than by high-scoring men; but the expression is more intense and more commonly rejected in stories of high than in those of low scorers (n Aggression: Low scorers z8, High scorers 8; on Aggression: Low scorers 6, High scorers 14). Some high-scoring subjects ignore the woman in the background and attribute the man's dejection to overindulgence in liquor.
The main difference between the stories of one group and those of the other lies in the story-teller's attitude toward what the hero has done and why he has done it. The more aggressive stories of murder and rape are often explained by low-scoring men on the basis of temporary maladjustments that could occur in the life of anyone, e. g. , "He has difficulty in adjusting to civilian life after his army experiences. " These story-tellers rarely condemn the hero. Rather they tend to identify with his problems, describing his feelings and thoughts about the situation. The hero is usually portrayed as dejected, guilt-ridden, and concerned about the welfare of the girl involved.
(n Sex, n Aggression~ n Abasement-intrapunitive type): The hero is reproach- ing himself for having harmed the girl as the result of an impulsive sexual act. The girl is never rejected; in fact there is often an expression of affection for her. The hero is not rejected by the story-teller. Rather there are signs of sympathy for the hero's problems. (M5: Low scorers 8, 6; High scorers 2, 1J2. )
The high scorers who describe the same situational factors as the above often attribute the action to inherent criminal tendencies, referring to the hero by such phrases as "a fiend" or a "sex maniac. " Although detailed de- scription of the crime may be given, references to the hero's feelings or thoughts about what has happened are comparatively rare. Suicide or punish- ment by authorities is the most common ending to these stories.
(on Aggression): The central character is rejected for being a criminal or a low
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
character, and the picture is condemned as sordid. The story deals with an intense aggressive episode in which the story character has indulged preceding the pictured scene. He has committed a major crime (rape, murder, robbery) and the result is one of serious damage. (1V1s: Low scorers o, 1; High scorers 2, 4%. )
Subjects from both groups sometimes tell less aggressive stories dealing mainly with the sensual aspects of the picture. In these stories, the low scorers also tend to be more accepting of sensual indulgence than are high scorers. Three nonprejudiced men tell stories of the pleasures of "wine, women, and song," but none of the prejudiced men approach such a theme. There are, however, many stories by prejudiced men which center around a con- demnation of passive sensuality.
(on Sex, Sentience~ on Abasement, giving up of self-respect): The hero has yielded to sensual impulses because of innate weakness or a disappointing experi- ence. (He has become a drunkard or indulged in sexual activities with a whore. ) He is guilt-ridden, loses all self-respect, and becomes worthless to society. (Ms: Low scorers 6, 5; High scorers 12%, 10%. )
The low scorers, then, tend to identify with a hero who either finds no harm in a little overindulgence of sensuality or who blames himself for his transgressions, whereas the high scorers more often reject the hero for such behavior and predict for him a future of moral degradation. 2 The T. A. T. stories are in keeping with the evidence from the interviews (see Chapter XI) that the low-scoring men are better able to accept id impulses than are high-scoring men. They are, furthermore, consistent with interview data (see Chapter XII) indicating that intrapunitiveness tends to be more com- mon in low than in high scorers.
PICTURE 8. The content of all the stories elicited by this picture implies a recognition, on the part of the subject, of the contrasting active and passive roles of the two figures presented. In most of the stories of high- and low- scoring subjects alike the situation described is either a hypnotic session or a scene of death or illness. Many of the subjects elaborate very little beyond a description of the setting. Where further content is offered, there is a tend- ency for high more often than for low scorers to attribute permanent af- fliction and death to their heroes (p Affiiction: Low scorers, 16, High scorers, 23; Death-hero: low scorers, 6, High scorers 10) and to give emphasis to
themes of exploitation by the dominant figure.
{n Coercive Dominance ~ n Submissive Abasement): The hypnotist uses his powers for the purpose of exploiting the hypnotized person. (He is trying to secure information that will be held against the hypnotized man, or he is hypnotizing him for the purpose of being able to control the man's actions. ) Although there is usually some identification with the victim, and the hypnotist may be rejected, the story
2 The variable n Abasement does not differentiate stories told by high- and low-scoring subjects in response to this picture (Low scorers 51; High scorers 49) because, according to the scheme of analysis used in this study, this variable includes both intragression and moral degradation.
? THE THEMA TIC APPERCEPTION TEST
ends without escape or counte'raction on the part of the victim. (8: Low scorers 3, 1; High scorers 5, 5? )
The low-scoring men, on the other hand, tend to minimize the aggressive, dominant aspects usually suggested by the picture. Two low- but no high- scoring men tell stories in which hypnotism is used for purposes of aiding the psychological well-being of the patient.
Another predominantly "low" story is distinguished by the sequence of themes rather than by the content alone. The story-teller begins by indicat- ing the possibility that the picture portrays an aggressive act on the part of the "hypnotist," but he does not elaborate this interpretation. Instead, he proceeds to minimize the intensity of the story content.
(Denial of n Aggression): The story-teller rejects the picture as unpleasant, or rejects the unpleasant possibilities for a story, or shows some confusion when the picture is first presented. He offers several suggestions of possible plots, involving aggressive intentions on the part of the hypnotist (death, an exploitive hypnotist, a potential crime), but these ideas are rejected. The intensity of the story content is then minimized. ("It is merely a stage demonstration of no consequence. " "It is a doctor and a patient," or "It could be a priest saying a blessing over a sick man, or it may be a doctor and patient or most anything. ") (8: Low scorers 5, 4; High scorers 1, 2. )
The elements which, in stories to Picture 8, appear to be more character- istic of high than of low scorers are similar to those that have already been seen to differentiate the story content of the two groups of subjects. The tendency of high- more often than low-scoring men to stress dominance- submission relationships was indicated in stories to Pictures M1, 3, M7, and it appears here again. Also, the greater incidence in "high" stories of refer- ences to death and affliction was noted before in the discussion of responses to Picture 3? The impunitive manner of dealing with the aggressive aspect of this picture, exhibited in stories of some low-scoring men, has not been apparent in their responses to the pictures discussed previously. The tend- ency of the low scorers to describe their heroes as intrapunitive, i. e. , to tell stories in which the hero blames himself for his transgressions, was evident in the production of low scorers elicited by Picture Ms. It will be remembered that the high scorers tended to condemn the characters instead. The differ- ence in the way in which aggression is dealt with by these two groups of subjects-intra- or impunitively by low scorers and extrapunitively by high scorers-is reflected in the T. A. T. as well as in the interview data (see Chap- ter XI).
These findings may appear to be in contradiction to our previous remarks that the stories of low scorers describe more rebelliousness on the part of the hero. One might suspect that the trends toward obsessiveness suggested by the impunitive expressions would not be found in the same individual who describes fantasies of demands for independence. If the personality structure
? SI6 THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
were essentially that of an obsessive nature, perhaps fantasies of decisive action could not be expressed. Apparently, however, the obsessiveness is limited to certain areas; the same group of men responding impunitively to Picture 8, almost without exception produce stories to Pictures M r and M7 (father-son and mother-son) in which heroes demand their autonomous rights despite parental pressures. The type of hero reaction described appar- ently depends on the stimulus value of the picture. Perhaps the factor dis- tinguishing Picture 8 from Mr and M7 is that the latter more readily allow for a choice of autonomy than does the former, in which the contrasting roles of dominance-submission are more clearly depicted.
As will be noted in the discussion of stories produced by men in response to Picture 6 (see page 527), low-scoring men are likely to refrain from de- scribing rebellious activity when such action is not practical in view of the pictured situation.
PICTURE ro. This picture was included in our series because it was ex- pected that most of our subjects would make some kind of identification with a "religious" person and thereby add to our understanding of the com- parative satisfactions derived from religious practices by our two groups. We anticipated differences similar to those found independently in the ques- tionnaire and interview responses (see Chapters VI, XVIII), the low scorers. being more concerned with principles, the high scorers with the authoritarian, conventional, and ritualistic aspects of religious practice. Although differ- ences of this kind were found in the stories of those individuals who re- sponded to the religious elements of the picture, many of our subjects, both high and low scorers (about half of the male subjects), appeared to be unin- spired by the picture; they limited their responses to mere descriptions of the picture. It would seem that for these subjects there was not an adequate medium for identification. Of those men who elaborated their stories beyond what was given in the picture, a few in each of the two compared groups told stories in which a soldier in battle faced an immediate crisis and sought help from God.
The low scorers who actually projected a story with some content tended to interpret the scene portrayed as expressive of a hero thoughtfully evaluat- ing life and religion and/or reacting with sensitive imaginative enjoyment to music or art. (n Sentience: Low scorers 37; High scorers r6. )
(n Sentence, n Cognizance): The hero is considering the problem of what religion, life, God really mean. Religion and/or music serves to give him emotional support, peace, and serenity. He is sensitive and imaginative, thoughtful, gets real enjoyment from playing the violin, and seeking the meaning of life. (10: Low scorers 2;2, 4; High scorers o, 2. )
The high scorers often identify with a hero who is afflicted with a disease such as infantile paralysis or suffering from the aggressions of an evil force such as "the Nazis," and who seeks refuge in religion (p Affliction: Low
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scorers 4, High scorers 10; ? n Abasement: Low scorers 4, High scorers 19; n Deference: Low scorers 19, High scorers 28).
(p Physical Danger-'>> n Submissive Abasement): The hero is left totally helpless in the face of a crisis. Counteractive aggression is suppressed, taking the form of submissive abasement. ( ro: Low scorers o, o; High scorers 2, 4. )
(p Physical Danger, Affliction-'>> Deference to supernatural forces): The hero, who is the victim of infantile paralysis or of some mysterious physical force, seeks refuge in religion. He becomes a believer. He "gets religion. " ( ro: Low scorers 2, o; High scorers 2, 5. )
These differences suggest patterns of reaction to the idea of God and the supernatural that are similar to those found in parent-child relationships. Those subjects who respond to the religious appeal of the picture generally depict the hero's behavior in the way that is most characteristic of their fantasied responses to parental dominance: the low scorers describe autono- mous but deferent intellectual consideration, the high scorers apprehension and submission.
The more frequent reference by prejudiced than by unprejudiced men to death and affliction is apparent here as it was in stories to Pictures 8 and M7. One might say that the' feelings of victimization so commonly ex- pressed by high scorers in their interviews (see Chapter XI) are likewise an important feature of the fantasy life of these men. The finding from the interviews that subjects in this group tend, more often than the low scorers, to conceptualize the "world as a jungle" (see Chapter XI) is also borne out by the fact that in their T. A. T. stories, especially those elicited by the present picture and by Picture M7, they place more emphasis on the variable p Physical Danger.
2. Comparison of Stories Told by High- and by Low-scoring Women in Response to the Pictures from the Murray Series
PICTURE Fl. Picture Fr elicited different types of themes than did Mr. The stories for Fr center around the "old man" in the picture, btft: since he is the only figure present, the theme of parent-child relationship, so common in the case of Mr, appears in only a few cases. Stories are mainly concerned with the father figure, with his attributes and interactions with his environment.
The high- more often than the low-scoring women tell stories about a man who is sad and completely defeated, who has been severely rejected or has lost all that he spent his life striving for. (p Rejection: Low scorers 9, High scorers 15; p Affliction: Low scorers o, High scorers 11; p Bad Luck: Low scorers o, High scorers 12; p Death of Hero: Low scorers r6, High scorers 27; p Lac~: Low scorers 1 0 , High scorers 15; p Loss: Low scorers ro, High scorers 17; n Succorance: Low scorers 21; High scorers 41. )
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(p Failure, p Loss, p Lack, p Rejection, p Affliction and/or Death~ n Succor- ance): The hero is sad, feels defeated because he has lost or never had money or status, because he is old and sick, or because he has been rejected by all his friends. (Fr: Low scorers 8, 6; High scorers r6, I7*? )
The low-scoring women tend to describe a father figure who is a philoso- pher or scholar, one who is constructively thoughtful and sensitive to the broader aspects of his environment. (n Cognizance: Low scorers 27, High scorers 7; n Exposition: Low scorers g, High scorers 3; n Nurturance: Low scorers 12, High scorers s; n Understanding: Low scorers rg, High scorers
IJ).
(n Cognizance, n Understanding): The hero is a philosopher reflecting upon the ways of mankind, or upon life's pleasures and inconsistencies; or he is a scholar who desires to contribute to knowledge. He may be attempting to counteract in- justice that has been directed at society as a whole, toward a particular social group or toward a friend-but not in response to personal press of aggression or dominance.
(Fr: Low scorers 8, 12; High scorers r, s*-)
It appears that the nonprejudiced women tend more to admire and accept elderly men-who might be termed "father figures"-than do the prejudiced women. The former usually make a more positive identification with the male figure presented in this picture, attributing to him positive successful striving, whereas the latter more often make a negative identification with the father figure, describing him as an unsuccessful, miserable individual.
PICTURE F7. This picture is regularly interpreted as portraying two women, one old and one young. The identification is most often with the younger woman.
Prejudiced women tend to reject the older woman in the picture as an unpleasant individual. She is often described as representing disagreeable characteristics that come with old age, and she is depicted as domineering, aggressive, selfish and manipulative of the younger woman, who is forced to submit to her demands. These trends are not clear in the scoring of need- press variables because many of the same variables are attributed to the older womal\ in stories of high scorers and to the younger person in stories of low scorers. Although total scores from some variables, e. g. , n Aggression, are equally weighted for the F7 stories of high and low scorers, the constellation of variables in which they appear varies considerably. The following thema variables indicates that the high more often than the low scorers reject old age.
(op Old Age ~ on Aggression, Dominance): A story of contrast between youth and old age. The older woman is a product of the imagination of the figure in the foreground. The heroine is worrying about old age. Old women are conceived of as being mean and ugly. (F7: Low scorers r, r; High scorers 3, 5. )
The old woman is a dominant, aggressive mother or a witch who exploits others for her own gain. She dominates her daughter's life. She schemes to get her daughter
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519
married off. She forces others to submit to her. (F7: Low scorers 2, 2; High scorers 4? 5? )
Low scorers more often center their stories around the younger woman. The older woman in the picture is usually said to be either the same person as the younger one, portrayed later in life when she has gained the satisfac- tion of success, or the mother of the younger woman. Descriptions of mother- daughter relationship vary. The mother may be overprotective, causing the daughter to seek to escape from her; she may be a sympathizing, encouraging mother who aids the daughter in attempts for success; or she may be rejective of the daughter for the daughter's selfish behavior. Stories are often told of a woman seeking a successful career, attempting to compete with men, and sometimes even to dominate and exploit them (n Acquisition: Low scorers 20, High scorers 3; n Autonomy: Low scorers r6, High scorers 7; n Dominance: Low scorers 17, High scorers 3). In those stories of low-scor- ing women in which the central character (the young woman) is described as domineering, she is usually denounced for this quality. This rejection is particularly interesting in view of the fact that low scorers rarely condemn their characters. It would seem that although they are able to accept their fantasies of competition and professional success, the hostility, in the form of deceit and exploitation, that may be a part of these fantasies, is unaccept- able.
(p Old Age~ n Achievement, n Nurturance): The older woman is a product of the imagination of the younger woman or it is the same woman depicted at two stages of her career. She is often an artist or career woman for whom old age brings happiness and the satisfaction of success. (F7: Low scorers 4, 7; High scorers r, I. )
(on Dominance-toward men): The younger woman is sometimes rejected for her insincerity, her lack of understanding, or her attempts to exploit men. The older woman is sensitive to her environment and r~jects the daughter's lack of sensitivity. (F7: Low scorers 5, 5; High scorers r, r. )
Low scorers differ from high scorers in their conceptions of both youth and old age. The low scorers tend to depict constructive striving as belong- ing to the period of youth, while the aged person enjoys the fruits of the earlier efforts. High scorers more often picture youth as a period of helpless- ness in which the girl is led by the aging mother, and old age as a period of life to be dreaded because with it comes loss of the personal charms of youth.
In stories told to this picture and to Picture Fr, the high- more often than the low-scoring women describe parental figures as either weak and ineffec- tive or as demanding and threatening. The hostility toward parental figures emphasized in these descriptions might well underlie the trend in these high- scoring subjects toward the comparative lack of genuine affection for their
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own parents that is described in Chapter X. Feelings both of hostility and love are more frankly expressed in the interviews of low scorers according to the data presented in Chapter X. However, parental figures appearing in the expressed fantasies of these subjects tend to be admired unambivalently. It is probably the greater ability to deal with hostile feelings that makes it possible for low- more than for high-scoring women to enjoy fantasies of the more pleasant aspects of parental behavior, rather than to dwell on, and to regard as characteristic of the parent, those aspects of the behavior which they regard as disagreeable.
PICTURE 3? Women, for the most part, describe the characters portrayed in this picture in much the same way as do the men (upper figure, male; lower figure, female). Also like the men, the women usually interpret the expres- sions on both faces as somber and indicative of a crucial situation. The causa- tive factor is often the man's departure for or return from the army.
Six low-scoring subjects and 3 high-scoring ones identify the characters as father and son. Stories of 3 low but no high scorers center around the boy's problem of breaking home ties and accepting the role of an independent adult. In these stories the father is sympathetic and encouraging. In the father- son stories of high-scoring women, the father tends to be more authoritarian and less nurturant.
Besides producing numerous stories in which departure and reunion is said to precipitate the immediate scene, the low-scoring women sometimes attribute the somberness depicted to the worry of parents over a child. In either case the reaction described involves sensitivity to the feelings of the other by each of the characters depicted. In most cases the more nurturant figure is the man, but in a few stories the woman is assigned a protective role.
(Female-n Succorance, n Affiliation): A description is given of the joy felt by a man and woman because they are together after a long separation: (or) They are sad because they have to be separated. There is no fear of death or affliction pro- jected into the story. Although the man is usually the more nurturant, mutual dependency and strong affiliation are expressed. (3: Low scorers 6, 9; High scorers 4' J. )
The man is sympathizing with the woman's joys or sorrows created by a crucial situation involving a child, close friend, or relative. (The situation is natural death, a child running away from home, or success achieved by their child. ) Here the woman is the somewhat more dependent. (3: Low scorers 3:Y2, 9; High scorers, 2? 2, 5? )
High-scoring women, like low-scoring women, tell stories in which the woman is the more dependent. However, the intensity of the personal rela- tionships is usually not as great in "high" stories as in "low" stories. Prejudiced women more often elaborate descriptions of disastrous situational factors, such as personal affliction or threat from the physical environment, that prompts the woman to seek the aid of the man, or, sometimes, they imagine
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such dangers confronting the husband. Stories of a husband or son leaving for the army are often accompanied by an expression on the part of the woman of fearfulness lest the man be harmed. Several of the high scorers' stories of the man's return from war describe his afflictions. (p Affliction: Low scorers 3, High scorers w; p Physical Danger: Low scorers 6, High scorers I 6).
(p Death, p Affliction directed at male figure): The man is leaving for war. She fears that he will be killed or injured and that she will never see him again: (or) He has just come back from war, severely injured. (3: Low scorers 3, 5; High scorers 5? II. ) .
Both prejudiced and unprejudiced women apparently fantasy a role of de- pendency upon their male partners. However, in the case of the high-scor- ing women, the relationships involve less intensity of personal feelings than is found in those of the low scorers. The commonly fantasied death and injury to the man, in stories of the prejudiced subjects, suggest that un- derlying hostilities are present that prevent expression of more genuine affection.
PICTURE F5. The woman in this picture is usually described as sad by both low- and high-scoring women. She is experiencing feelings of guilt, fear, and/or shame. There is a small group of subjects, mainly low scorers, who minimize the intensity of the disphoric tone by saying that the heroine is only putting on an act, or that she has a temporary illness which she will soon overcome (4 low scorers, I high scorer). (It is interesting to note the similarity of the defense used by these women against masochistic behavior to that used by some of the low-scoring men against aggressive behavior.
2. THEMATIC ANALYSIS
a. ExPLANATION OF THE METHOD. The thematic analysis, instead of meas- uring each separate variable, examines the variables in combination. Here we discover not how much of each individual variable is expressed, but rather how often certain patterns of variables occur. This type of analysis has
the advantage of molarity with the disadvantage, often, of ambiguity.
The concept of thema is taken over from Murray (89). He defines it as "the dynamic structure of an event on a molar level," the "combination of a particular press or preaction or outcome and a particular need. " When dia- grammatically expressing a thema pattern, arrows are used to represent the direction of influence: e. g. , p Dominance ~ n Deference means that press Dominance imposed upon the hero causes him to express Deference; n Sen- tience ~ n Sex means that need for Sentience causes the hero to express a need for Sex; n Succorance ~~ n Nurturance means that two equally im-
portant heroes express a mutual nurturance-succorance relationship.
We constructed hypothetical "low" and "high" thema categories after careful study of the differences in need and press scores shown in Tables
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s(XIV)A and s(XIV)B, and after observation of the stories told in response to each picture by each of the low and high scorers. Such categQries were thought of as giving the general trends of the content of the stories. They were representative of differences in the more common variable constellation in the stories of our "high" as compared with our "low" subjects. We noted especially certain constellations in which one variable was equally weighted for "high" and "low" subjects. We noted also certain differences in the types of identifications with the heroes who expressed certain needs, and differ- ences in the object toward which the action was directed. A list of "low" and "high" categories was thus compiled-one for men and one for women.
There were several categories for each picture.
After the thema categories had been empirically derived in the fashion
described above, each set of 40 stories (i. e. , the stories told in response to each picture by the 40 men and by the 40 women tested) were scored "blindly" by two scorers, one staff member and one graduate student who had had no previous experience on our study. The scorers had only the derived categories as criteria by which to judge the "highness" or "lowness" of the subject who had told a particular story. Each story had been coded for identification, separated from other stories told by the same person, and randomly placed among the rest of the stories. Thus, judgments were based on the content of the single story. Every story thema was judged in terms of the thema category it most resembled. It should be pointed out that not all stories told conformed to patterns of the thema categories adopted as criteria. They were often more complex and sometimes included a combina- tion of two or three themes. Scoring problems created by story complexity were dealt with by two methods. ( r) The use of a neutral category when the theme of a particular story differed widely from any of the categories (about ro per cent of the judgments fell in the neutral category); (2) scor- ing 'if or Ya to each of two or three included themes.
The percentage of agreement between the two scorers as to their "High," "Low," or "Neutral" judgments was higher on some pictures than on others. The mean percentage agreement of judgments on men's stories was 76, the range of percentages being from 70 to So. The scorers had a mean percentage agreement of 79 on their ratings of the women's stories. Although the agree- ment was only 63 per cent for Picture 3, the range of percentages for the other nine sets of stories was from 74 to 9r.
Examples of thema variables are included (in Sll). all print) in the following comparison of the stories told by low- and high-scoring subjects. Each ex- ample is followed by a notation, in parenthesis, of the picture concerned and of the number of times the given thema was found, by each of the two scorers, to occur in stories of subjects scoring low on the Ethnocentrism scale and by subjects scoring high on this scale. The practice of assigning
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scores of ~ or Ya to each of two or three themes found in a given story accounts for the fractional totals which appear in the following summaries of themes.
Within the discussion, notations are made also from time to time of the sum of intensity scores on a particular variable (reflected in the stories to the picture in question) in the case of low-scoring subjects and in the case of high-scoring subjects.
We have chosen to discuss stories told in response to Pictures 1 and 7 (dealing with parental figures) first; stories to 3 and 5 (relationships to oppo- site sex) next; and then stories to 8 and 10 (responses to nonfamilial press), considering the men's stories and then the stories of the women subjects. Stories of both men and women told in response to the special pictures por- traying members of minority groups (2, 4, 6, 9) are discussed last. The
reader is referred to Table 4(XIV). b. RESULTS
1. Comparison of Stories Told by High- and by Low-scoring Men in Response to the Pictures from the Murray Series
PICTURE M I. Male subjects in both groups usually identify the characters as father and son or "older man" and "younger man. " Identification tends to be mainly with the son, who is said to be somber, sad, distressed. Many of the themes told to this picture describe the older man in the capacity of advisor or counselor. There is a greater tendency for low- than for high- scoring men to describe the younger man's reaction to this supervision as respectful (n Deference: Low scorers I], High scorers 8) and for high scorers to describe it as submissive (n Abasement: Low scorers I9, High scorers 30).
(p Dominance~ n Submissive Abasement): The hero is reprimanded by the father for having committed an antisocial act. He responds with feelings of shame and submission to the instructions of the older man. The father figure acts as a restraining force, not just as an advisor or counselor. There is often a nurturant aspect to the father's dominance, but the dominance is the stronger press. (M1: Low scorers, 2, r; High scorers, 8, g. )
There appears to be a tendency for both groups to describe fantasies of rebellion against the older man's advice (n Autonomy, Low scorers 25; High scorers I 8).
(p Nurturance-Dominance ~ n Autonomy-Rejection): The older man is advis- ing the younger one. The younger man rejects the older man's advice. The father is deeply hurt, or in some way shows genuine concern over the action of the younger man-a concern other than a desire to dominate the boy. (Mr: Low scorers 7, 6; High scorers 6, 7. )
However, there is a greater tendency for the high scorers to follow
? MURRAY PICTURES G1VEN TO MEN AND WOMEN
MEN WOMEN
? Credits. Picture 2: Courtesy of Life, Copyright Time, Inc. Picture 6: Courtesy of Fortune Magazine.
Photograph by Otto Hagel.
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this theme with punishment? for the rebellious younger man (3 of 7 high- scoring men, but no low-scoring men).
Another theme sometimes elicited by this picture is one in which both men are planning or plotting together. The low scorers more often than the high scorers describe a constructive enterprise (n Expression: Low scorers
IZ, High scorers 7; n Understanding: Low scorers 10, High scorers I; n Cog- nizance: Low scorers I 6; High scorers 5).
(n Understanding, n Nurturance): The hero strives for understanding and bet- terment of society. He attempts to right a wrong done to society. Rebellion is motivated by rational principle. There is close identification with the hero, who rebels against social injustice or who wants to right an injustice committed against a friend or relative. (M1: Low scorers 3, 6; High scorers zlh, r~. )
The high- more often than the low-scoring men depict a father who acts as a moral control over the actions of the son and causes the son to conform to his demands or be punished. The low scorers are more inclined to portray a relationship in which the father acts as an advisor whom the son respects, but the son does not necessarily submit to his wishes. Although high and low scorers alike describe heroes who behave contrary to the wishes of the father, a principled, constructive purpose initiating the rebellion is more commonly described by "lows," whereas the rebellion in the stories of "highs" is more often of a criminal, impulsive nature. Furthermore, the revolt is more likely to be rejected or given up in stories of high scorers than in those of low scorers.
These differences in fantasied relationship between father and son remind one of the difference in the childhood memories of the father pointed out in Chapter X. The reader will recall that the stern father who represented a "moral-model" and who was respected out of fear, was more frequently described in the childhood memories of the high-scoring men than in those of the low-scoring men. On the other hand, the low scorers more often re- ported that their fathers were "relaxed and mild" and supported "principled independence," a similar picture to the one drawn in the T. A. T. stories.
To what extent either of these sources of portrayed relationships offers a true picture of family relationship is still an open question, but it is im- portant to note that the needs expressed by the prejudiced men are in the direction of authoritarian relationships with father figures whereas those set forth by unprejudiced men tend to allow for individualized behavior. One may conclude from this that the low- as compared with the high-scoring men have less residual fears of punishment by their fathers, and that this accounts for""their being better able to accept fantasies of constructive autonomy.
PICTURE M7? Most of our male subjects describe the people portrayed in this picture as mother and son, and the identification is mainly with the son.
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The mother is usually said to be rejecting the son, and the mood expressed by the son is somber.
There are two main themes that appear more often in the stories of high- scoring men than in those of the low scorers. One of these, which deviates from the more common story of the rejecting mother, stresses tragic events leading up to the portrayed scene (p Aggression: Low scorers 7, High scorers
IS; p Death: Low scorers 5, High scorers 22; p Physical Danger: Low scorers o, High scorers 6).
(Environmental p Aggression, p Death-object, p Physical Danger~ n Succor- ance): Environmental factors (a death or fire; a rejecting or erring child, or a demand from an external force that forces the man to leave home) threaten both of the portrayed figures. They both respond with dejection. (M7: Low scorers Ilh, o; High scorers 4, 6. )
In the other predominantly "high" theme more direct mother-son rela- tionships are often described. In such cases the son is usually said to have committed a crime, and he is confessing or apologizing. (n Blamavoidance: Low scorers 9, High scorers I7; n Abasement: Low scorers 24, High scorers 32. )
(p Dominance~ n Submissive Abasement): The mother rejects the son or the son fears she will reject him (for an act of theft, murder, or an affair with a girl). He responds with guilt and anxiety and subsequent submission to his mother's wishes. (He tries to make amends for what he has done by apologizing and/or complying with his mother's wishes from then on. ) (M7: Low scorers, 4, 2; High scorers 4lh, 9lh. )
The mother-son conRict expressed by low scorers is most commonly said t. o arise out of the young man's demand for autonomy. He wants to do some- thing of which the mother disapproves (leave home, marry, or plan for a particular career). In some stories she is said to be annoyed with him because he has committed a minor crime. These subjects often indicate that the son feels he is justified to some extent at least in what he has done or what he intends to do. He is determined to do what he thinks right, or defend what he has done. There is usually some sign of regret that he is disappointing his mother by defying her wishes, yet he insists on his independence. (n Auton- omy: Low scorers 4I, High scorers 33; n Rejection: Low scorers 24, High scorers I2. )
Autonomous striving receives high scores in both groups, but in the stories of our prejudiced subjects it is intense at first but is later given up, whereas nonprejudiced subjects describe less violent, less destructive autonomy that carries through to the conclusion.
(p Dominance ~ n Autonomy): A possessive mother rejects her son because of his past activities or plans for the future, of which she disapproves (leaving home, conflict over mode of achievement, intended marriage, a theft). The son feels that
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he is justified to some extent at least in what he has done or intends to do. He is determined to do what he thinks right or defend what he has done. There may be a note of regret that he must disappoint his mother by defying her wishes. (M7: Low scorers I I, rr; High scorers 4? 3. )
The fantasies of low-scoring and of high-scoring men centering about the mother figure tend to be distinguishable in much the same way as their fantasies about the father figure; that is, the high-scoring men tend to describe a hero who is morally dependent upon the mother while the hero of the low- scoring men more often considers her advice but finally acts according to his own judgment. This differentiation is in accordance with the analysis of the interview material, which indicated a more realistic, less awesome por- trayal of the childhood mother by low than by high scorers.
Prejudiced subjects more often than the unprejudiced describe relations to parents, both fantasied and real (in the interviews), with more reference to the child's reacting because of fear or because of the compulsion of the parental demands for obedience. However, both the interviews and the T. A. T. indicate that the low-scoring subjects have a more critical attitude toward parental influences.
PICTURE 3. Male subjects in both groups tend to identify with a male hero in their stories to this picture. Usually the upper figure is so designated, the lower figure being described as his wife.
In the responses of low-scoring men to this picture there is much variability in the relationship between the two people portrayed. Often the woman is a nurturant mother figure who encourages and helps the man; sometimes he is the stronger and more dominant one who cares for her. In general, how- ever, there is a clear affiliative relationship in which hero and love object show a mutual sensitivity to and concern over the mood and feelings of the other.
(Mutual Nurturance-Succorance Sex relationship-fusion of n Nurturance, n Suc- corance, n Sex, n Affiliation): Two people (husband and wife, usually) are em- bracing each other. They are glad to be together ("to see each other after a long separation") or both are sad (because they have to be separated). This theme is not preceded by an aggressive press such as an argument between them, the fear of death, affliction, or physical danger. Affiliation and Sex are expressed in the mutuality of the Nurturance-Succorance. (3: Low scorers I4, I6; High scorers 7, 2. )
Closer investigation of the stories of low scorers who produce this thema shows that when a joyful event such as a reunion is described, the woman usually plays the more active role. She is the one who protects and nurtures the man, the latter enjoying a more passive role. When the event is unpleasant or sad, a situation such as departure, the man is usually the one to give the woman support and reassurance and to deal forcefully with the situation.
The high-scoring men more often fantasy the man as the dominant person
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in the heterosexual relationship. They are inclined to identify with the role of a benevolent but despotic father, demonstrating no real dependence on the woman. The man is likely to be described as the master, while the woman is weak and dependent. This division of masculine and feminine roles is often sharply made, no overlapping of roles being allowed. At the same time the high-scoring man is likely to reject the woman because of her dependency. He describes her as being fickle, flighty or burdensome.
(Male n Dominance~Female n Succorance): There is no overlapping of roles. She is dependent and weak; he is the source of strength and he refrains from ex- pressing any dependence on her. ("She is on the verge of hysterics; so he comforts her. " "She is relying on strength from her husband to pull her through. " "He com- forts her and hides his own feelings. ") (3: Low scorers 3, 2? 2; High scorers 7, 4? )
The woman becomes obstreperous. He comforts her in order to quiet her and subdue her aggression. ("He's comforting her. They have quarrelled, as they often do over some trivial matter. " "She nagged at him. He got mad. Now he's comforting her. ") (3: Low scorers o, o; High scorers 3, 2. ) ?
Although the situational factor in the stories of high-scoring subjects is somewhat variable, reference to dangerous situations resulting in death and affliction are very common (p Death-hero: Low scorers 4, High scorers q; p Affliction: Low scorers o; High scorers 9). Usually the high scorers de- scribe episodes which cause the woman to exhibit her weakness and the man his strength and superior capabilities. Even when the focus is on the husband's departure for war, ideas of fear are usually projected onto the woman. She
is the one who "fears for his safety. "
It appears, then, that the low- and high-scoring groups conceptualize dif-
ferent types of heterosexual relationship. The low-scoring men tend to identify mainly with a flexible male role that is varied with different situa- tions, the heterosexual adjustment of hero and love object being on the basis of reciprocal dependency stemming from their mutual need of companion- ship and sympathy, and of someone to care for; whereas the high-scoring men characteristically identify wjth a dominant, heroic role, the woman being subservient. In contrast to stories of low-scoring men, in which women serve as helpful companions, the high-scoring men more often conceive of the woman's function as one of serving the man's needs, and he resents any demands placed upon him by her.
The implications derived from the differences in content of the stories told by low- and high-scoring men in response to Picture Mr-that the "highs" tend to be more fearful of asserting themselves in the face of the father's opposition than are the "lows"-suggest one aspect at least of the differences in motivation behind the fantasied roles described in response to the present picture. The high-scoring men apparently can identify with the father's role in certain situations. They seem to compensate for feelings
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of inadequacy precipitated by the father, by adopting the role-at least in fantasy-of a dominant, authoritarian individual in relationships with people less threatening than the father.
From the interview material we would have reason to believe that the authoritarian sex role described by the prejudiced men in the T. A. T. is not limited to their fantasies. The quantitative results in Chapter XI, indicating that they tend to adhere to exploitive-manipulative and power-oriented attitudes toward sex objects, corroborate our findings here. The interview data for unprejudiced men are also in keeping with T. A. T. results. Their interviews reveal appreciation of more relaxed, equalitarian modes of love- seeking.
PICTURE M5. Except in rare cases there is consistent identification by all the male subjects with the man in the picture. The description of events leading up to the portrayed situation, in stories of low and high scorers alike, often involves an impulsive sexual act. Aggressive behavior on the part of the hero is described more often by low- than by high-scoring men; but the expression is more intense and more commonly rejected in stories of high than in those of low scorers (n Aggression: Low scorers z8, High scorers 8; on Aggression: Low scorers 6, High scorers 14). Some high-scoring subjects ignore the woman in the background and attribute the man's dejection to overindulgence in liquor.
The main difference between the stories of one group and those of the other lies in the story-teller's attitude toward what the hero has done and why he has done it. The more aggressive stories of murder and rape are often explained by low-scoring men on the basis of temporary maladjustments that could occur in the life of anyone, e. g. , "He has difficulty in adjusting to civilian life after his army experiences. " These story-tellers rarely condemn the hero. Rather they tend to identify with his problems, describing his feelings and thoughts about the situation. The hero is usually portrayed as dejected, guilt-ridden, and concerned about the welfare of the girl involved.
(n Sex, n Aggression~ n Abasement-intrapunitive type): The hero is reproach- ing himself for having harmed the girl as the result of an impulsive sexual act. The girl is never rejected; in fact there is often an expression of affection for her. The hero is not rejected by the story-teller. Rather there are signs of sympathy for the hero's problems. (M5: Low scorers 8, 6; High scorers 2, 1J2. )
The high scorers who describe the same situational factors as the above often attribute the action to inherent criminal tendencies, referring to the hero by such phrases as "a fiend" or a "sex maniac. " Although detailed de- scription of the crime may be given, references to the hero's feelings or thoughts about what has happened are comparatively rare. Suicide or punish- ment by authorities is the most common ending to these stories.
(on Aggression): The central character is rejected for being a criminal or a low
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character, and the picture is condemned as sordid. The story deals with an intense aggressive episode in which the story character has indulged preceding the pictured scene. He has committed a major crime (rape, murder, robbery) and the result is one of serious damage. (1V1s: Low scorers o, 1; High scorers 2, 4%. )
Subjects from both groups sometimes tell less aggressive stories dealing mainly with the sensual aspects of the picture. In these stories, the low scorers also tend to be more accepting of sensual indulgence than are high scorers. Three nonprejudiced men tell stories of the pleasures of "wine, women, and song," but none of the prejudiced men approach such a theme. There are, however, many stories by prejudiced men which center around a con- demnation of passive sensuality.
(on Sex, Sentience~ on Abasement, giving up of self-respect): The hero has yielded to sensual impulses because of innate weakness or a disappointing experi- ence. (He has become a drunkard or indulged in sexual activities with a whore. ) He is guilt-ridden, loses all self-respect, and becomes worthless to society. (Ms: Low scorers 6, 5; High scorers 12%, 10%. )
The low scorers, then, tend to identify with a hero who either finds no harm in a little overindulgence of sensuality or who blames himself for his transgressions, whereas the high scorers more often reject the hero for such behavior and predict for him a future of moral degradation. 2 The T. A. T. stories are in keeping with the evidence from the interviews (see Chapter XI) that the low-scoring men are better able to accept id impulses than are high-scoring men. They are, furthermore, consistent with interview data (see Chapter XII) indicating that intrapunitiveness tends to be more com- mon in low than in high scorers.
PICTURE 8. The content of all the stories elicited by this picture implies a recognition, on the part of the subject, of the contrasting active and passive roles of the two figures presented. In most of the stories of high- and low- scoring subjects alike the situation described is either a hypnotic session or a scene of death or illness. Many of the subjects elaborate very little beyond a description of the setting. Where further content is offered, there is a tend- ency for high more often than for low scorers to attribute permanent af- fliction and death to their heroes (p Affiiction: Low scorers, 16, High scorers, 23; Death-hero: low scorers, 6, High scorers 10) and to give emphasis to
themes of exploitation by the dominant figure.
{n Coercive Dominance ~ n Submissive Abasement): The hypnotist uses his powers for the purpose of exploiting the hypnotized person. (He is trying to secure information that will be held against the hypnotized man, or he is hypnotizing him for the purpose of being able to control the man's actions. ) Although there is usually some identification with the victim, and the hypnotist may be rejected, the story
2 The variable n Abasement does not differentiate stories told by high- and low-scoring subjects in response to this picture (Low scorers 51; High scorers 49) because, according to the scheme of analysis used in this study, this variable includes both intragression and moral degradation.
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ends without escape or counte'raction on the part of the victim. (8: Low scorers 3, 1; High scorers 5, 5? )
The low-scoring men, on the other hand, tend to minimize the aggressive, dominant aspects usually suggested by the picture. Two low- but no high- scoring men tell stories in which hypnotism is used for purposes of aiding the psychological well-being of the patient.
Another predominantly "low" story is distinguished by the sequence of themes rather than by the content alone. The story-teller begins by indicat- ing the possibility that the picture portrays an aggressive act on the part of the "hypnotist," but he does not elaborate this interpretation. Instead, he proceeds to minimize the intensity of the story content.
(Denial of n Aggression): The story-teller rejects the picture as unpleasant, or rejects the unpleasant possibilities for a story, or shows some confusion when the picture is first presented. He offers several suggestions of possible plots, involving aggressive intentions on the part of the hypnotist (death, an exploitive hypnotist, a potential crime), but these ideas are rejected. The intensity of the story content is then minimized. ("It is merely a stage demonstration of no consequence. " "It is a doctor and a patient," or "It could be a priest saying a blessing over a sick man, or it may be a doctor and patient or most anything. ") (8: Low scorers 5, 4; High scorers 1, 2. )
The elements which, in stories to Picture 8, appear to be more character- istic of high than of low scorers are similar to those that have already been seen to differentiate the story content of the two groups of subjects. The tendency of high- more often than low-scoring men to stress dominance- submission relationships was indicated in stories to Pictures M1, 3, M7, and it appears here again. Also, the greater incidence in "high" stories of refer- ences to death and affliction was noted before in the discussion of responses to Picture 3? The impunitive manner of dealing with the aggressive aspect of this picture, exhibited in stories of some low-scoring men, has not been apparent in their responses to the pictures discussed previously. The tend- ency of the low scorers to describe their heroes as intrapunitive, i. e. , to tell stories in which the hero blames himself for his transgressions, was evident in the production of low scorers elicited by Picture Ms. It will be remembered that the high scorers tended to condemn the characters instead. The differ- ence in the way in which aggression is dealt with by these two groups of subjects-intra- or impunitively by low scorers and extrapunitively by high scorers-is reflected in the T. A. T. as well as in the interview data (see Chap- ter XI).
These findings may appear to be in contradiction to our previous remarks that the stories of low scorers describe more rebelliousness on the part of the hero. One might suspect that the trends toward obsessiveness suggested by the impunitive expressions would not be found in the same individual who describes fantasies of demands for independence. If the personality structure
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were essentially that of an obsessive nature, perhaps fantasies of decisive action could not be expressed. Apparently, however, the obsessiveness is limited to certain areas; the same group of men responding impunitively to Picture 8, almost without exception produce stories to Pictures M r and M7 (father-son and mother-son) in which heroes demand their autonomous rights despite parental pressures. The type of hero reaction described appar- ently depends on the stimulus value of the picture. Perhaps the factor dis- tinguishing Picture 8 from Mr and M7 is that the latter more readily allow for a choice of autonomy than does the former, in which the contrasting roles of dominance-submission are more clearly depicted.
As will be noted in the discussion of stories produced by men in response to Picture 6 (see page 527), low-scoring men are likely to refrain from de- scribing rebellious activity when such action is not practical in view of the pictured situation.
PICTURE ro. This picture was included in our series because it was ex- pected that most of our subjects would make some kind of identification with a "religious" person and thereby add to our understanding of the com- parative satisfactions derived from religious practices by our two groups. We anticipated differences similar to those found independently in the ques- tionnaire and interview responses (see Chapters VI, XVIII), the low scorers. being more concerned with principles, the high scorers with the authoritarian, conventional, and ritualistic aspects of religious practice. Although differ- ences of this kind were found in the stories of those individuals who re- sponded to the religious elements of the picture, many of our subjects, both high and low scorers (about half of the male subjects), appeared to be unin- spired by the picture; they limited their responses to mere descriptions of the picture. It would seem that for these subjects there was not an adequate medium for identification. Of those men who elaborated their stories beyond what was given in the picture, a few in each of the two compared groups told stories in which a soldier in battle faced an immediate crisis and sought help from God.
The low scorers who actually projected a story with some content tended to interpret the scene portrayed as expressive of a hero thoughtfully evaluat- ing life and religion and/or reacting with sensitive imaginative enjoyment to music or art. (n Sentience: Low scorers 37; High scorers r6. )
(n Sentence, n Cognizance): The hero is considering the problem of what religion, life, God really mean. Religion and/or music serves to give him emotional support, peace, and serenity. He is sensitive and imaginative, thoughtful, gets real enjoyment from playing the violin, and seeking the meaning of life. (10: Low scorers 2;2, 4; High scorers o, 2. )
The high scorers often identify with a hero who is afflicted with a disease such as infantile paralysis or suffering from the aggressions of an evil force such as "the Nazis," and who seeks refuge in religion (p Affliction: Low
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scorers 4, High scorers 10; ? n Abasement: Low scorers 4, High scorers 19; n Deference: Low scorers 19, High scorers 28).
(p Physical Danger-'>> n Submissive Abasement): The hero is left totally helpless in the face of a crisis. Counteractive aggression is suppressed, taking the form of submissive abasement. ( ro: Low scorers o, o; High scorers 2, 4. )
(p Physical Danger, Affliction-'>> Deference to supernatural forces): The hero, who is the victim of infantile paralysis or of some mysterious physical force, seeks refuge in religion. He becomes a believer. He "gets religion. " ( ro: Low scorers 2, o; High scorers 2, 5. )
These differences suggest patterns of reaction to the idea of God and the supernatural that are similar to those found in parent-child relationships. Those subjects who respond to the religious appeal of the picture generally depict the hero's behavior in the way that is most characteristic of their fantasied responses to parental dominance: the low scorers describe autono- mous but deferent intellectual consideration, the high scorers apprehension and submission.
The more frequent reference by prejudiced than by unprejudiced men to death and affliction is apparent here as it was in stories to Pictures 8 and M7. One might say that the' feelings of victimization so commonly ex- pressed by high scorers in their interviews (see Chapter XI) are likewise an important feature of the fantasy life of these men. The finding from the interviews that subjects in this group tend, more often than the low scorers, to conceptualize the "world as a jungle" (see Chapter XI) is also borne out by the fact that in their T. A. T. stories, especially those elicited by the present picture and by Picture M7, they place more emphasis on the variable p Physical Danger.
2. Comparison of Stories Told by High- and by Low-scoring Women in Response to the Pictures from the Murray Series
PICTURE Fl. Picture Fr elicited different types of themes than did Mr. The stories for Fr center around the "old man" in the picture, btft: since he is the only figure present, the theme of parent-child relationship, so common in the case of Mr, appears in only a few cases. Stories are mainly concerned with the father figure, with his attributes and interactions with his environment.
The high- more often than the low-scoring women tell stories about a man who is sad and completely defeated, who has been severely rejected or has lost all that he spent his life striving for. (p Rejection: Low scorers 9, High scorers 15; p Affliction: Low scorers o, High scorers 11; p Bad Luck: Low scorers o, High scorers 12; p Death of Hero: Low scorers r6, High scorers 27; p Lac~: Low scorers 1 0 , High scorers 15; p Loss: Low scorers ro, High scorers 17; n Succorance: Low scorers 21; High scorers 41. )
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(p Failure, p Loss, p Lack, p Rejection, p Affliction and/or Death~ n Succor- ance): The hero is sad, feels defeated because he has lost or never had money or status, because he is old and sick, or because he has been rejected by all his friends. (Fr: Low scorers 8, 6; High scorers r6, I7*? )
The low-scoring women tend to describe a father figure who is a philoso- pher or scholar, one who is constructively thoughtful and sensitive to the broader aspects of his environment. (n Cognizance: Low scorers 27, High scorers 7; n Exposition: Low scorers g, High scorers 3; n Nurturance: Low scorers 12, High scorers s; n Understanding: Low scorers rg, High scorers
IJ).
(n Cognizance, n Understanding): The hero is a philosopher reflecting upon the ways of mankind, or upon life's pleasures and inconsistencies; or he is a scholar who desires to contribute to knowledge. He may be attempting to counteract in- justice that has been directed at society as a whole, toward a particular social group or toward a friend-but not in response to personal press of aggression or dominance.
(Fr: Low scorers 8, 12; High scorers r, s*-)
It appears that the nonprejudiced women tend more to admire and accept elderly men-who might be termed "father figures"-than do the prejudiced women. The former usually make a more positive identification with the male figure presented in this picture, attributing to him positive successful striving, whereas the latter more often make a negative identification with the father figure, describing him as an unsuccessful, miserable individual.
PICTURE F7. This picture is regularly interpreted as portraying two women, one old and one young. The identification is most often with the younger woman.
Prejudiced women tend to reject the older woman in the picture as an unpleasant individual. She is often described as representing disagreeable characteristics that come with old age, and she is depicted as domineering, aggressive, selfish and manipulative of the younger woman, who is forced to submit to her demands. These trends are not clear in the scoring of need- press variables because many of the same variables are attributed to the older womal\ in stories of high scorers and to the younger person in stories of low scorers. Although total scores from some variables, e. g. , n Aggression, are equally weighted for the F7 stories of high and low scorers, the constellation of variables in which they appear varies considerably. The following thema variables indicates that the high more often than the low scorers reject old age.
(op Old Age ~ on Aggression, Dominance): A story of contrast between youth and old age. The older woman is a product of the imagination of the figure in the foreground. The heroine is worrying about old age. Old women are conceived of as being mean and ugly. (F7: Low scorers r, r; High scorers 3, 5. )
The old woman is a dominant, aggressive mother or a witch who exploits others for her own gain. She dominates her daughter's life. She schemes to get her daughter
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519
married off. She forces others to submit to her. (F7: Low scorers 2, 2; High scorers 4? 5? )
Low scorers more often center their stories around the younger woman. The older woman in the picture is usually said to be either the same person as the younger one, portrayed later in life when she has gained the satisfac- tion of success, or the mother of the younger woman. Descriptions of mother- daughter relationship vary. The mother may be overprotective, causing the daughter to seek to escape from her; she may be a sympathizing, encouraging mother who aids the daughter in attempts for success; or she may be rejective of the daughter for the daughter's selfish behavior. Stories are often told of a woman seeking a successful career, attempting to compete with men, and sometimes even to dominate and exploit them (n Acquisition: Low scorers 20, High scorers 3; n Autonomy: Low scorers r6, High scorers 7; n Dominance: Low scorers 17, High scorers 3). In those stories of low-scor- ing women in which the central character (the young woman) is described as domineering, she is usually denounced for this quality. This rejection is particularly interesting in view of the fact that low scorers rarely condemn their characters. It would seem that although they are able to accept their fantasies of competition and professional success, the hostility, in the form of deceit and exploitation, that may be a part of these fantasies, is unaccept- able.
(p Old Age~ n Achievement, n Nurturance): The older woman is a product of the imagination of the younger woman or it is the same woman depicted at two stages of her career. She is often an artist or career woman for whom old age brings happiness and the satisfaction of success. (F7: Low scorers 4, 7; High scorers r, I. )
(on Dominance-toward men): The younger woman is sometimes rejected for her insincerity, her lack of understanding, or her attempts to exploit men. The older woman is sensitive to her environment and r~jects the daughter's lack of sensitivity. (F7: Low scorers 5, 5; High scorers r, r. )
Low scorers differ from high scorers in their conceptions of both youth and old age. The low scorers tend to depict constructive striving as belong- ing to the period of youth, while the aged person enjoys the fruits of the earlier efforts. High scorers more often picture youth as a period of helpless- ness in which the girl is led by the aging mother, and old age as a period of life to be dreaded because with it comes loss of the personal charms of youth.
In stories told to this picture and to Picture Fr, the high- more often than the low-scoring women describe parental figures as either weak and ineffec- tive or as demanding and threatening. The hostility toward parental figures emphasized in these descriptions might well underlie the trend in these high- scoring subjects toward the comparative lack of genuine affection for their
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own parents that is described in Chapter X. Feelings both of hostility and love are more frankly expressed in the interviews of low scorers according to the data presented in Chapter X. However, parental figures appearing in the expressed fantasies of these subjects tend to be admired unambivalently. It is probably the greater ability to deal with hostile feelings that makes it possible for low- more than for high-scoring women to enjoy fantasies of the more pleasant aspects of parental behavior, rather than to dwell on, and to regard as characteristic of the parent, those aspects of the behavior which they regard as disagreeable.
PICTURE 3? Women, for the most part, describe the characters portrayed in this picture in much the same way as do the men (upper figure, male; lower figure, female). Also like the men, the women usually interpret the expres- sions on both faces as somber and indicative of a crucial situation. The causa- tive factor is often the man's departure for or return from the army.
Six low-scoring subjects and 3 high-scoring ones identify the characters as father and son. Stories of 3 low but no high scorers center around the boy's problem of breaking home ties and accepting the role of an independent adult. In these stories the father is sympathetic and encouraging. In the father- son stories of high-scoring women, the father tends to be more authoritarian and less nurturant.
Besides producing numerous stories in which departure and reunion is said to precipitate the immediate scene, the low-scoring women sometimes attribute the somberness depicted to the worry of parents over a child. In either case the reaction described involves sensitivity to the feelings of the other by each of the characters depicted. In most cases the more nurturant figure is the man, but in a few stories the woman is assigned a protective role.
(Female-n Succorance, n Affiliation): A description is given of the joy felt by a man and woman because they are together after a long separation: (or) They are sad because they have to be separated. There is no fear of death or affliction pro- jected into the story. Although the man is usually the more nurturant, mutual dependency and strong affiliation are expressed. (3: Low scorers 6, 9; High scorers 4' J. )
The man is sympathizing with the woman's joys or sorrows created by a crucial situation involving a child, close friend, or relative. (The situation is natural death, a child running away from home, or success achieved by their child. ) Here the woman is the somewhat more dependent. (3: Low scorers 3:Y2, 9; High scorers, 2? 2, 5? )
High-scoring women, like low-scoring women, tell stories in which the woman is the more dependent. However, the intensity of the personal rela- tionships is usually not as great in "high" stories as in "low" stories. Prejudiced women more often elaborate descriptions of disastrous situational factors, such as personal affliction or threat from the physical environment, that prompts the woman to seek the aid of the man, or, sometimes, they imagine
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such dangers confronting the husband. Stories of a husband or son leaving for the army are often accompanied by an expression on the part of the woman of fearfulness lest the man be harmed. Several of the high scorers' stories of the man's return from war describe his afflictions. (p Affliction: Low scorers 3, High scorers w; p Physical Danger: Low scorers 6, High scorers I 6).
(p Death, p Affliction directed at male figure): The man is leaving for war. She fears that he will be killed or injured and that she will never see him again: (or) He has just come back from war, severely injured. (3: Low scorers 3, 5; High scorers 5? II. ) .
Both prejudiced and unprejudiced women apparently fantasy a role of de- pendency upon their male partners. However, in the case of the high-scor- ing women, the relationships involve less intensity of personal feelings than is found in those of the low scorers. The commonly fantasied death and injury to the man, in stories of the prejudiced subjects, suggest that un- derlying hostilities are present that prevent expression of more genuine affection.
PICTURE F5. The woman in this picture is usually described as sad by both low- and high-scoring women. She is experiencing feelings of guilt, fear, and/or shame. There is a small group of subjects, mainly low scorers, who minimize the intensity of the disphoric tone by saying that the heroine is only putting on an act, or that she has a temporary illness which she will soon overcome (4 low scorers, I high scorer). (It is interesting to note the similarity of the defense used by these women against masochistic behavior to that used by some of the low-scoring men against aggressive behavior.
