No More Learning

The southern parts of the Paropamisus belong to India and Ariana; the
northern parts towards the west belong to Bactriana [towards the east to
Sogdiana * *[433] Bactrian barbarians]. Having wintered there, with
India above to the right hand, and having founded a city, he crossed the
summits of the mountains into Bactriana. The road was bare of everything
except a few trees of the bushy terminthus;[434] the army was driven
from want of food to eat the flesh of the beasts of burthen, and that in
a raw state for want of firewood; but silphium grew in great abundance,
which promoted the digestion of this raw food. Fifteen days after
founding the city and leaving winter quarters, he came to Adrapsa[435]
(Darapsa? ), a city of Bactriana.

11. Chaarene is situated somewhere about this part of the country
bordering upon India. This, of all the places subject to the Parthians,
lies nearest to India. It is distant 10,000 or 9000 stadia[436] from
Bactriana,[437] through the country of the Arachoti, and the
above-mentioned mountainous tract. Craterus traversed this country,
subjugating those who refused to submit, and hastened with the greatest
expedition to form a junction with the king. Nearly about the same time
both armies, consisting of infantry, entered Carmania together, and at a
short interval afterwards Nearchus sailed with his fleet into the
Persian Gulf, having undergone great danger and distress from wandering
in his course, and among other causes, from great whales.

12. It is probable that those who sailed in the expedition greatly
exaggerated many circumstances; yet their statements prove the
sufferings to which they were exposed, and that their apprehensions were
greater than the real danger. That which alarmed them the most was the
magnitude of the whales, which occasioned great commotion in the sea
from their numbers; their blowing was attended with so great a darkness,
that the sailors could not see where they stood. But when the pilots
informed the sailors, who were terrified at the sight and ignorant of
the cause, that they were animals which might easily be driven away by
the sound of a trumpet, and by loud noises, Nearchus impelled the
vessels with violence in the direction of the impediment, and at the
same time frightened the animals with the sound of trumpets. The whales
dived, and again rose at the prow of the vessels, so as to give the
appearance of a naval combat; but they soon made off.

13. Those who now sail to India speak of the size of these animals and
their mode of appearance, but as coming neither in bodies nor
frequently, yet as repulsed by shouts and by the sound of trumpets. They
affirm that they do not approach the land, but that the bones of those
which die, bared of flesh, are readily thrown up by the waves, and
supply the Ichthyophagi with the above-mentioned material for the
construction of their cabins. According to Nearchus, the size of these
animals is three and twenty orguiæ in length. [438]

[CAS. 726] Nearchus says that he proved the confident belief of the
sailors in the existence of an island situated in the passage, and
destructive to those who anchored near it, to be false.

A bark in its course, when it came opposite to this island, was never
afterwards seen, and some men who were sent in search did not venture to
disembark upon the island, but shouted and called to the crew, when,
receiving no answer, they returned. But as all imputed this
disappearance to the island, Nearchus said that he himself sailed to it,
went ashore, disembarked with a part of his crew, and went round it. But
not discovering any trace of those of whom he was in search, he
abandoned the attempt, and informed his men that no fault was to be
imputed to the island (for otherwise destruction would have come upon
himself and those who disembarked with him), but that some other cause
(and innumerable others were possible) might have occasioned the loss of
the vessel.

14. Carmania is the last portion of the sea-coast which begins from the
Indus. Its first promontory projects towards the south into the Great
Sea. [439] After it has formed the mouth of the Persian Gulf towards the
promontory, which is in sight, of Arabia Felix, it bends towards the
Persian Gulf, and is continued till it touches Persia.

Carmania is large, situated in the interior, and extending itself
between Gedrosia and Persia, but stretches more to the north than
Gedrosia. This is indicated by its fertility, for it not only produces
everything, but the trees are of a large size, excepting however the
olive; it is also watered by rivers. Gedrosia also differs little from
the country of the Ichthyophagi, so that frequently there is no produce
from the ground. They therefore keep the annual produce in store for
several years.

Onesicritus says, that a river in Carmania brings down gold-dust; that
there are mines of silver, copper, and minium; and that there are two
mountains, one of which contains arsenic, the other salt.

There belongs to it a desert tract, which is contiguous to Parthia and
Parætacene. The produce of the ground is like that of Persia; and among
other productions the vine. The Carmanian vine, as we call it, often
bears bunches of grapes of two cubits in size; the seeds are very
numerous and very large; probably the plant grows in its native soil
with great luxuriance.

Asses, on account of the scarcity of horses, are generally made use of
even in war. They sacrifice an ass to Mars, who is the only deity
worshipped by them, for they are a warlike people. No one marries before
he has cut off the head of an enemy and presented it to the king, who
deposits the scull in the royal treasury. The tongue is minced and mixed
with flour, which the king, after tasting it, gives to the person who
brought it, to be eaten by himself and his family. That king is the most
highly respected, to whom the greatest number of heads are presented.

According to Nearchus, most of the customs and the language of the
inhabitants of Carmania resemble those of the Persians and Medes.

The passage across the mouth of the Persian Gulf does not occupy more
than one day.




CHAPTER III.


1. Next to Carmania is Persis. A great part of it extends along the
coast of the Gulf, which has its name from the country, but a much
larger portion stretches into the interior, and particularly in its
length, reckoned from the south, and Carmania to the north, and to the
nations of Media.

It is of a threefold character, as we regard its natural condition and
the quality of the air. First, the coast, extending for about 4400 or
4300 stadia, is burnt up with heat; it is sandy, producing little except
palm trees, and terminates at the greatest river in those parts, the
name of which is Oroatis. [440] Secondly, the country above the coast
produces everything, and is a plain; it is excellently adapted for the
rearing of cattle, and abounds with rivers and lakes.

The third portion lies towards the north, and is bleak and mountainous.
On its borders live the camel-breeders.

[CAS. 727] Its length, according to Eratosthenes, towards the north and
Media,[441] is about 8000, or, including some projecting promontories,
9000 stadia; the remainder (from Media) to the Caspian Gates is not more
than 3000 stadia. The breadth in the interior of the country from Susa
to Persepolis is 4200 stadia, and thence to the borders of Carmania 1600
stadia more.

The tribes inhabiting this country are those called the Pateischoreis,
the Achæmenidæ, and Magi; these last affect a sedate mode of life; the
Curtii and Mardi are robbers, the rest are husbandmen.

2. Susis also is almost a part of Persis. It lies between Persis and
Babylonia, and has a very considerable city, Susa. For the Persians and
Cyrus, after the conquest of the Medes, perceiving that their own
country was situated towards the extremities, but Susis more towards the
interior, nearer also to Babylon and the other nations, there placed the
royal seat of the empire. They were pleased with its situation on the
confines of Persis, and with the importance of the city; besides the
consideration that it had never of itself undertaken any great
enterprise, had always been in subjection to other people, and
constituted a part of a greater body, except, perhaps, anciently in the
heroic times.

It is said to have been founded by Tithonus, the father of Memnon. Its
compass was 120 stadia. Its shape was oblong. The Acropolis was called
Memnonium. The Susians have the name also of Cissii. Æschylus[442] calls
the mother of Memnon, Cissia. Memnon is said to be buried near Paltus in
Syria, by the river Badas, as Simonides says in his Memnon, a
dithyrambic poem among the Deliaca. The wall of the city, the temples
and palaces, were constructed in the same manner as those of the
Babylonians, of baked brick and asphaltus, as some writers relate.
Polycletus however says, that its circumference was 200 stadia, and that
it was without walls.

3. They embellished the palace at Susa more than the rest, but they did
not hold in less veneration and honour the palaces at Persepolis and
Pasargadæ. [443] For in these stronger and hereditary places were the
treasure-house, the riches, and tombs of the Persians. There was another
palace at Gabæ, in the upper parts of Persia, and another on the
sea-coast, near a place called Taoce. [444]

This was the state of things during the empire of the Persians. But
afterwards different princes occupied different palaces; some, as was
natural, less sumptuous, after the power of Persis had been reduced
first by the Macedonians, and secondly still more by the Parthians. For
although the Persians have still a kingly government, and a king of
their own, yet their power is very much diminished, and they are subject
to the king of Parthia.

4. Susa is situated in the interior, upon the river Choaspes, beyond the
bridge; but the territory extends to the sea: and the sea-coast of this
territory, from the borders of the Persian coast nearly as far as the
mouths of the Tigris, is a distance of about 3000 stadia.

The Choaspes flows through Susis, terminating on the same coast, and has
its source in the territory of the Uxii. [445] For a rugged and
precipitous range of mountains lies between the Susians and Persis, with
narrow defiles, difficult to pass; they were inhabited by robbers, who
constantly exacted payment even from the kings themselves, at their
entrance into Persis from Susis.

Polycletus says, that the Choaspes, and the Eulæus,[446] and the Tigris
also enter a lake, and thence discharge themselves into the sea; that on
the side of the lake is a mart, as the rivers do not receive the
merchandise from the sea, nor convey it down to the sea, on account of
dams in the river, purposely constructed, and that the goods are
transported by land a distance of 800 stadia[447] to Susa; according to
others, the rivers which flow through Susis discharge themselves by the
intermediate canals of the Euphrates into the single stream of the
Tigris, which on this account has at its mouth the name of Pasitigris.

[CAS. 729] 5. According to Nearchus, the sea-coast of Susis is swampy,
and terminates at the river Euphrates; at its mouth is a village, which
receives the merchandise from Arabia; for the coast of Arabia approaches
close to the mouths of the Euphrates and the Pasitigris; the whole
intermediate space is occupied by a lake which receives the Tigris; on
sailing up the Pasitigris 150 stadia is the bridge of rafts leading to
Susa from Persis, and is distant from Susa 60 (600? ) stadia; the
Pasitigris is distant from the Oroatis about 2000 stadia; the ascent
through the lake to the mouth of the Tigris is 600 (6000? ) stadia;[448]
near the mouth stands the Susian village (Aginis), distant from Susa 500
stadia; the journey by water from the mouth of the Euphrates, up to
Babylon, through a well-inhabited tract of country, is a distance of
more than 3000 stadia.

Onesicritus says that all the rivers discharge themselves into the lake,
both the Euphrates and the Tigris; and that the Euphrates, again issuing
from the lake, discharges itself into the sea by a separate mouth.

6. There are many other narrow defiles in passing out through the
territory of the Uxii, and entering Persis. These Alexander forced in
his march through the country at the Persian Gates, and at other places,
when he was hastening to see the principal parts of Persis, and the
treasure-holds, in which wealth had been accumulated during the long
period that Asia was tributary to Persis.

He crossed many rivers, which flow through the country and discharge
themselves into the Persian Gulf.

Next to the Choaspes are the Copratas[449] and the Pasitigris, which has
its source in the country of the Uxii. There is also the river Cyrus,
which flows through Cœle Persis,[450] as it is called, near Pasargadæ.
The king changed his name, which was formerly Agradatus, to that of this
river. Alexander crossed the Araxes[451] close to Persepolis. Persepolis
was distinguished for the magnificence of the treasures which it
contained. The Araxes flows out of the Parætacene,[452] and receives the
Medus,[453] which has its source in Media. These rivers run through a
very fruitful valley, which, like Persepolis, lies close to Carmania
and to the eastern parts of the country. Alexander burnt the palace at
Persepolis, to avenge the Greeks, whose temples and cities the Persians
had destroyed by fire and sword.

7. He next came to Pasargadæ,[454] which also was an ancient royal
residence. Here he saw in a park the tomb of Cyrus. It was a small
tower, concealed within a thick plantation of trees solid below, but
above consisting of one story and a shrine which had a very narrow
opening; Aristobulus says, he entered through this opening, by order of
Alexander, and decorated the tomb. He saw there a golden couch, a table
with cups, a golden coffin, and a large quantity of garments and dresses
ornamented with precious stones. These objects he saw at his first
visit, but on a subsequent visit the place had been robbed, and
everything had been removed except the couch and the coffin which were
only broken. The dead body had been removed from its place; whence it
was evident that it was the act not of the Satrap,[455] but of robbers,
who had left behind what they could not easily carry off. And this
occurred although there was a guard of Magi stationed about the place,
who received for their daily subsistence a sheep, and every month a
horse. [456] The remote distance to which the army of Alexander had
advanced, to Bactra and India, gave occasion to the introduction of many
disorderly acts, and to this among others.

Such is the account of Aristobulus, who records the following
inscription on the tomb. “O MAN, I AM CYRUS,[457] I ESTABLISHED THE
PERSIAN EMPIRE AND WAS KING OF ASIA. GRUDGE ME NOT THEREFORE THIS
MONUMENT. ”

Onesicritus however says that the tower had ten stories, that Cyrus lay
in the uppermost, and that there was an inscription in Greek, cut in
Persian letters, “I CYRUS, KING OF KINGS, LIE HERE. ” And another
inscription to the same effect in the Persian language.

8. Onesicritus mentions also this inscription on the tomb of Darius: “I
WAS A FRIEND TO MY FRIENDS, I WAS THE FIRST OF HORSEMEN AND ARCHERS, I
EXCELLED AS HUNTER, I COULD DO EVERYTHING. ”

[CAS. 730] Aristus of Salamis, a writer of a much later age than these,
says, that the tower consisted of two stories, and was large; that it
was built at the time the Persians succeeded to the kingdom (of the
Medes); that the tomb was preserved; that the above-mentioned
inscription was in the Greek, and that there was another to the same
purport in the Persian language.

Cyrus held in honour Pasargadæ, because he there conquered, in his last
battle, Astyages the Mede, and transferred to himself the empire of
Asia; he raised it to the rank of a city, and built a palace in memory
of his victory.

9. Alexander transferred everything that was precious in Persis to Susa,
which was itself full of treasures and costly materials; he did not,
however, consider this place, but Babylon, as the royal residence, and
intended to embellish it. There too his treasure was deposited.

They say that, besides the treasures in Babylon and in the camp of
Alexander, which were not included in the sum, the treasure found at
Susa and in Persis was reckoned to amount to 40,000, and according to
some writers to 50,000, talents. But others say, that the whole
treasure, collected from all quarters, and transported to Ecbatana,
amounted to 180,000 talents, and that the 8,000 talents which Darius
carried away with him in his flight from Media became the booty of those
who put him to death.

10. Alexander preferred Babylon, because he saw that it far surpassed
the other cities in magnitude, and had other advantages. Although Susis
is fertile, it has a glowing and scorching atmosphere, particularly near
the city, as he (Aristobulus? ) says. Lizards and serpents at mid-day in
the summer, when the sun is at its greatest height, cannot cross the
streets of the city quick enough to prevent their being burnt to death
midway by the heat. This happens nowhere in Persis, although it lies
more towards the south.

Cold water for baths is suddenly heated by exposure to the sun. Barley
spread out in the sun is roasted[458] like barley prepared in ovens. For
this reason earth is laid to the depth of two cubits upon the roofs of
the houses. They are obliged to construct their houses narrow, on
account of the weight placed upon them, and from want of long beams,
but, as large dwellings are required to obviate the suffocating heat,
the houses are long.

The beam made of the palm tree has a peculiar property, for although it
retains its solidity, it does not as it grows old give way downwards,
but curves upwards with the weight, and is a better support to the roof.

The cause of the scorching heat is said to be high, overhanging
mountains on the north, which intercept the northern winds. These,
blowing from the tops of the mountains at a great height, fly over
without touching the plains, to the more southern parts of Susis. There
the air is still, particularly when the Etesian winds cool the other
parts of the country which are burnt up by heat.

11. Susis is so fertile in grain, that barley and wheat produce,
generally, one hundred, and sometimes two hundred fold. Hence the
furrows are not ploughed close together, for the roots when crowded
impede the sprouting of the plant.

The vine did not grow there before the Macedonians planted it, both
there and at Babylon. They do not dig trenches, but thrust down into the
ground iron-headed stakes, which when drawn out are immediately replaced
by the plants.

Such is the character of the inland parts. The sea-coast is marshy and
without harbours; hence Nearchus says, that he met with no native
guides, when coasting with his fleet from India to Babylonia, for
nowhere could his vessels put in, nor was he able to procure persons who
could direct him by their knowledge and experience.

12. The part of Babylonia formerly called Sitacene, and afterwards
Apolloniatis,[459] is situated near Susis.

Above both, on the north and towards the east, are the Elymæi[460] and
the Parætaceni, predatory people relying for security on their situation
in a rugged and mountainous country. The Parætaceni lie more immediately
above the Apolloniatæ, and therefore annoy them the more. The Elymæi are
at war with this people and with the Susians, and the Uxii with the
Elymæi, but not so constantly at present as might be expected, on
account of the power of the Parthians, to whom all the inhabitants
[CAS. 732] of those regions are under subjection. When therefore the
Parthians are quiet, all are tranquil, and their subject nations. But
when, as frequently happens, there is an insurrection, which has
occurred even in our own times, the event is not the same to all, but
different to different people. For the disturbance has benefited some,
but disappointed the expectation of others.

Such is the nature of the countries of Persis and Susiana.

13. The manners and customs of the Persians are the same as those of the
Susians and the Medes, and many other people; and they have been
described by several writers, yet I must mention what is suitable to my
purpose.

The Persians do not erect statues nor altars, but, considering the
heaven as Jupiter, sacrifice on a high place. [461] They worship the sun
also, whom they call Mithras, the moon, Venus, fire, earth, winds, and
water. They sacrifice, having offered up prayers, in a place free from
impurities, and present the victim crowned. [462]

After the Magus, who directs the sacrifice, has divided the flesh, each
goes away with his share, without setting apart any portion to the gods;
for the god, they say, requires the soul of the victim, and nothing
more. Nevertheless, according to some writers, they lay a small piece of
the caul upon the fire.

14. But it is to fire and water especially that they offer sacrifice.
They throw upon the fire dry wood without the bark, and place fat over
it; they then pour oil upon it, and light it below; they do not blow the
flame with their breath, but fan it; those who have blown the flame with
their breath, or thrown any dead thing or dirt upon the fire, are put to
death.

They sacrifice to water by going to a lake, river, or fountain; having
dug a pit, they slaughter the victim over it, taking care that none of
the pure water near be sprinkled with blood, and thus be polluted. They
then lay the flesh in order upon myrtle or laurel branches; the Magi
touch it with slender twigs,[463] and make incantations, pouring oil
mixed with milk and honey, not into the fire, nor into the water, but
upon the earth. They continue their incantations for a long time,
holding in the hands a bundle of slender myrtle rods.

15. In Cappadocia (for in this country there is a great body of Magi,
called Pyræthi,[464] and there are many temples dedicated to the Persian
deities) the sacrifice is not performed with a knife, but the victim is
beaten to death with a log of wood, as with a mallet.

The Persians have also certain large shrines, called Pyrætheia. [465] In
the middle of these is an altar, on which is a great quantity of ashes,
where the Magi maintain an unextinguished fire. They enter daily, and
continue their incantation for nearly an hour, holding before the fire a
bundle of rods, and wear round their heads high turbans of felt,
reaching down on each side so as to cover the lips and the sides of the
cheeks. The same customs are observed in the temples of Anaïtis and of
Omanus. Belonging to these temples are shrines, and a wooden statue of
Omanus is carried in procession. These we have seen ourselves. [466]
Other usages, and such as follow, are related by historians.

16. The Persians never pollute a river with urine, nor wash nor bathe in
it; they never throw a dead body, nor anything unclean, into it. To
whatever god they intend to sacrifice, they first address a prayer to
fire.

17. They are governed by hereditary kings. Disobedience is punished by
the head and arms being cut off, and the body cast forth. They marry
many women, and maintain at the same time a great number of concubines,
with a view to a numerous offspring.

The kings propose annual prizes for a numerous family of children.
Children are not brought into the presence of their parents until they
are four years old.

Marriages are celebrated at the beginning of the vernal equinox. The
bridegroom passes into the bride-chamber, having previously eaten some
fruit, or camel’s marrow, but nothing else during the day.

18. From the age of five to twenty-four years they are taught to use the
bow, to throw the javelin, to ride, and to speak the truth. They have
the most virtuous preceptors, [CAS. 733] who interweave useful fables
in their discourses, and rehearse, sometimes with, sometimes without,
music, the actions of the gods and of illustrious men.

The youths are called to rise before day-break, at the sound of brazen
instruments, and assemble in one spot, as if for arming themselves or
for the chase. They are arranged in companies of fifty, to each of which
one of the king’s or a satrap’s son is appointed as leader, who runs,
followed at command by the others, an appointed distance of thirty or
forty stadia.

They require them to give an account of each lesson, when they practise
loud speaking, and exercise the breath and lungs. They are taught to
endure heat, cold, and rains; to cross torrents, and keep their armour
and clothes dry; to pasture animals, to watch all night in the open air,
and to eat wild fruits, as the terminthus,[467] acorns, and wild pears.

[These persons are called Cardaces, who live upon plunder, for “carda”
means a manly and warlike spirit. ][468]

The daily food after the exercise of the gymnasium is bread, a cake,
cardamum,[469] a piece of salt, and dressed meat either roasted or
boiled, and their drink is water.

Their mode of hunting is by throwing spears from horseback, or with
the bow or the sling.
In the evening they are employed in planting trees, cutting roots,
fabricating armour, and making lines and nets. The youth do not eat the
game, but carry it home. The king gives rewards for running, and to the
victors in the other contests of the pentathla (or five games). The
youths are adorned with gold, esteeming it for its fiery appearance.
They do not ornament the dead with gold, nor apply fire to them, on
account of its being an object of veneration.

19. They serve as soldiers in subordinate stations, and in those of
command from twenty to fifty years of age, both on foot and on
horseback. They do not concern themselves with the public markets, for
they neither buy nor sell. They are armed with a romb-shaped shield.
Besides quivers, they have battle-axes and short swords. On their heads
they wear a cap rising like a tower. The breastplate is composed of
scales of iron.

The dress of the chiefs consists of triple drawers, a double tunic with
sleeves reaching to the knees; the under garment is white, the upper of
a variegated colour. The cloak for summer is of a purple or violet
colour, but for winter of a variegated colour. The turbans are similar
to those of the Magi; and a deep double shoe. The generality of people
wear a double tunic reaching to the half of the leg. A piece of fine
linen is wrapped round the head. Each person has a bow and a sling.

The entertainments of the Persians are expensive. They set upon their
table entire animals in great number, and of various kinds. Their
couches, drinking-cups, and other articles are so brilliantly ornamented
that they gleam with gold and silver.

20. Their consultations on the most important affairs are carried on
while they are drinking, and they consider the resolutions made at that
time more to be depended upon than those made when sober.

On meeting persons of their acquaintance, and of equal rank with
themselves, on the road, they approach and kiss them, but to persons of
an inferior station they offer the cheek, and in that manner receive the
kiss. But to persons of still lower condition they only bend the body.

Their mode of burial is to smear the bodies over with wax, and then to
inter them. The Magi are not buried, but the birds are allowed to devour
them. These persons, according to the usage of the country, espouse even
their mothers.

Such are the customs of the Persians.

21. The following, mentioned by Polvcletus, are perhaps customary
practices:

At Susa each king builds in the citadel, as memorials of the
administration of his government, a dwelling for himself,
treasure-houses, and magazines for tribute collected (in kind).

From the sea-coast they obtain silver, from the interior the [CAS. 735]
produce of each province, as dyes, drugs, hair, wool, or anything else
of this sort, and cattle. The apportionment of the tribute was settled
by Darius [Longimanus, who was a very handsome person with the exception
of the length of his arms, which reached to his knees]. [470] The greater
part both of gold and silver is wrought up, and there is not much in
coined money. The former they consider as best adapted for presents, and
for depositing in store-houses. So much coined money as suffices for
their wants they think enough; but, on the other hand, money is coined
in proportion to what is required for expenditure. [471]

22. Their habits are in general temperate. But their kings, from the
great wealth which they possessed, degenerated into a luxurious way of
life. They sent for wheat from Assos in Æolia, for Chalybonian[472] wine
from Syria, and water from the Eulæus, which is the lightest of all, for
an Attic cotylus measure of it weighs less by a drachm (than the same
quantity of any other water).

23. Of the barbarians the Persians were the best known to the Greeks,
for none of the other barbarians who governed Asia governed Greece. The
barbarians were not acquainted with the Greeks, and the Greeks were but
slightly acquainted, and by distant report only, with the barbarians. As
an instance, Homer was not acquainted with the empire of the Syrians nor
of the Medes, for otherwise as he mentions the wealth of Egyptian Thebes
and of Phœnicia, he would not have passed over in silence the wealth of
Babylon, of Ninus, and of Ecbatana.

The Persians were the first people that brought Greeks under their
dominion; the Lydians (before them) did the same, they were not however
masters of the whole, but of a small portion only of Asia, that within
the river Halys; their empire lasted for a short time, during the reigns
of Crœsus and Alyattes; and they were deprived of what little glory they
had acquired, when conquered by the Persians.

The Persians, (on the contrary, increased in power and,) as soon as they
had destroyed the Median empire, subdued the Lydians and brought the
Greeks of Asia under their dominion. At a later period they even passed
over into Greece and were worsted in many great battles, but still they
continued to keep possession of Asia, as far as the places on the
sea-coast, until they were completely subdued by the Macedonians.

24. The founder of their empire was Cyrus. He was succeeded by his son
Cambyses, who was put to death by the Magi. The seven Persians who
killed the Magi delivered the kingdom into the hands of Darius, the son
of Hystaspes. The succession terminated with Arses, whom Bagous the
eunuch having killed set up Darius, who was not of the royal family.
Alexander overthrew Darius, and reigned himself twelve years. [473] The
empire of Asia was partitioned out among his successors, and transmitted
to their descendants, but was dissolved after it had lasted about two
hundred and fifty years. [474]

At present the Persians are a separate people, governed by kings, who
are subject to other kings; to the kings of Macedon in former times, but
now to those of Parthia.




BOOK XVI. [CAS. 736]

SUMMARY


The sixteenth Book contains Assyria, in which are the great
cities Babylon and Nisibis; Adiabene, Mesopotamia, all Syria;
Phœnicia, Palestine; the whole of Arabia; all that part of
India which touches upon Arabia; the territory of the
Saracens, called by our author Scenitis; and the whole country
bordering the Dead and Red Seas.




CHAPTER I.


1. ASSYRIA is contiguous to Persia and Susiana. This name is given to
Babylonia, and to a large tract of country around; this tract contains
Aturia,[475] in which is Nineveh, the Apolloniatis, the Elymæi, the
Parætacæ, and the Chalonitis about Mount Zagrum,[476]—the plains about
Nineveh, namely, Dolomene, Calachene, Chazene, and Adiabene,—the nations
of Mesopotamia, bordering upon the Gordyæi;[477] the Mygdones about
Nisibis, extending to the Zeugma[478] of the Euphrates, and to the great
range of country on the other side that river, occupied by Arabians, and
by those people who are properly called Syrians in the present age. This
last people extend as far as the Cilicians, Phœnicians, and Jews, to the
sea opposite the Sea of Egypt, and to the Bay of Issus.

2. The name of Syrians seems to extend from Babylonia as far as the Bay
of Issus, and, anciently, from this bay to the Euxine.

Both tribes of the Cappadocians, those near the Taurus and those near
the Pontus, are called to this time Leuco-Syrians (or White
Syrians),[479] as though there existed a nation of Black Syrians. These
are the people situated beyond the Taurus, and I extend the name of
Taurus as far as the Amanus. [480]

When the historians of the Syrian empire say that the Medes were
overthrown by the Persians, and the Syrians by the Medes, they mean no
other Syrians than those who built the royal palaces at Babylon and
Nineveh; and Ninus, who built Nineveh in Aturia, was one of these
Syrians. His wife, who succeeded her husband, and founded Babylon, was
Semiramis. These sovereigns were masters of Asia. Many other works of
Semiramis, besides those at Babylon, are extant in almost every part of
this continent, as, for example, artificial mounds, which are called
mounds of Semiramis, and walls[481] and fortresses, with subterraneous
passages; cisterns for water; roads[482] to facilitate the ascent of
mountains; canals communicating with rivers and lakes; roads and
bridges.

The empire they left continued with their successors to the time of [the
contest between] Sardanapalus and Arbaces. [483] It was afterwards
transferred to the Medes.

3. The city Nineveh was destroyed immediately upon the overthrow of the
Syrians. [484] It was much larger than Babylon, and situated in the plain
of Aturia. Aturia borders upon the places about Arbela; between these is
the river Lycus. [485] Arbela and the parts about it[486] belong to
Babylonia. In the country on the other side of the Lycus are the plains
of Aturia, which surround Nineveh. [487]

[CAS. 737] In Aturia is situated Gaugamela, a village where Darius was
defeated and lost his kingdom. This place is remarkable for its name,
which, when interpreted, signifies the Camel’s House. Darius, the son of
Hystaspes, gave it this name, and assigned (the revenues of) the place
for the maintenance of a camel, which had undergone the greatest
possible labour and fatigue in the journey through the deserts of
Scythia, when carrying baggage and provision for the king. The
Macedonians, observing that this was a mean village, but Arbela a
considerable settlement (founded, as it is said, by Arbelus, son of
Athmoneus), reported that the battle was fought and the victory obtained
near Arbela, which account was transmitted to historians.

4. After Arbela and the mountain Nicatorium[488] (a name which
Alexander, after the victory at Arbela, superadded), is the river
Caprus,[489] situated at the same distance from Arbela as the Lycus. The
country is called Artacene. [490] Near Arbela is the city Demetrias; next
is the spring of naphtha, the fires, the temple of the goddess
Anæa,[491] Sadracæ, the palace of Darius, son of Hystaspes, the
Cyparisson, or plantation of Cypresses, and the passage across the
Caprus, which is close to Seleucia and Babylon.

5. Babylon itself also is situated in a plain. The wall is 385[492]
stadia in circumference, and 32 feet in thickness. The height of the
space between the towers is 50, and of the towers 60 cubits. The roadway
upon the walls will allow chariots with four horses when they meet to
pass each other with ease. Whence, among the seven wonders of the world,
are reckoned this wall and the hanging garden: the shape of the garden
is a square, and each side of it measures four plethra. It consists of
vaulted terraces, raised one above another, and resting upon cube-shaped
pillars. These are hollow and filled with earth to allow trees of the
largest size to be planted. The pillars, the vaults, and the terraces
are constructed of baked brick and asphalt.

The ascent to the highest story is by stairs, and at their side are
water engines, by means of which persons, appointed expressly for the
purpose, are continually employed in raising water from the Euphrates
into the garden. For the river, which is a stadium in breadth, flows
through the middle of the city, and the garden is on the side of the
river. The tomb also of Belus is there. At present it is in ruins,
having been demolished, as it is said, by Xerxes. It was a quadrangular
pyramid of baked brick, a stadium in height, and each of the sides a
stadium in length. Alexander intended to repair it. It was a great
undertaking, and required a long time for its completion (for ten
thousand men were occupied two months in clearing away the mound of
earth), so that he was not able to execute what he had attempted, before
disease hurried him rapidly to his end. None of the persons who
succeeded him attended to this undertaking; other works also were
neglected, and the city was dilapidated, partly by the Persians, partly
by time, and, through the indifference of the Macedonians to things of
this kind, particularly after Seleucus Nicator had fortified Seleucia on
the Tigris near Babylon, at the distance of about 300 stadia.

Both this prince and all his successors directed their care to that
city, and transferred to it the seat of empire. At present it is larger
than Babylon; the other is in great part deserted, so that no one would
hesitate to apply to it what one of the comic writers said of
Megalopolitæ in Arcadia,

“The great city is a great desert. ”

On account of the scarcity of timber, the beams and pillars of the
houses were made of palm wood. They wind ropes of twisted reed round the
pillars, paint them over with colours, and draw designs upon them; they
cover the doors with a coat of asphaltus. These are lofty, and all the
houses are vaulted on account of the want of timber. For the country is
bare, a great part of it is covered with shrubs, and produces [CAS.
739] nothing but the palm. This tree grows in the greatest abundance in
Babylonia. It is found in Susiana also in great quantity, on the Persian
coast, and in Carmania.

They do not use tiles for their houses, because there are no great
rains. The case is the same in Susiana and in Sitacene.

6. In Babylon a residence was set apart for the native philosophers
called Chaldæans, who are chiefly devoted to the study of astronomy.
Some, who are not approved of by the rest, profess to understand
genethlialogy, or the casting of nativities. There is also a tribe of
Chaldæans, who inhabit a district of Babylonia, in the neighbourhood of
the Arabians, and of the sea called the Persian Sea. [493] There are
several classes of the Chaldæan astronomers. Some have the name of
Orcheni, some Borsippeni, and many others, as if divided into sects, who
disseminate different tenets on the same subjects. The mathematicians
make mention of some individuals among them, as Cidenas, Naburianus, and
Sudinus. Seleucus also of Seleuceia is a Chaldæan, and many other
remarkable men.

7. Borsippa is a city sacred to Diana and Apollo. Here is a large linen
manufactory. Bats of much larger size than those in other parts abound
in it. They are caught and salted for food.

8. The country of the Babylonians is surrounded on the east by the
Susans, Elymæi, and Parætaceni; on the south by the Persian Gulf, and
the Chaldæans as far as the Arabian Meseni; on the west by the Arabian
Scenitæ as far as Adiabene and Gordyæa; on the north by the Armenians
and Medes as far as the Zagrus, and the nations about that river.

9. The country is intersected by many rivers, the largest of which are
the Euphrates and the Tigris: next to the Indian rivers, the rivers in
the southern parts of Asia are said to hold the second place. The Tigris
is navigable upwards from its mouth to Opis,[494] and to the present
Seleuceia. Opis is a village and a mart for the surrounding places. The
Euphrates also is navigable up to Babylon, a distance of more than 3000
stadia. The Persians, through fear of incursions from without, and for
the purpose of preventing vessels from ascending these rivers,
constructed artificial cataracts. Alexander, on arriving there,
destroyed as many of them as he could, those particularly [on the Tigris
from the sea] to Opis. But he bestowed great care upon the canals; for
the Euphrates, at the commencement of summer, overflows. It begins fill
in the spring, when the snow in Armenia melts: the ploughed land,
therefore, would be covered with water and be submerged, unless the
overflow of the superabundant water were diverted by trenches and
canals, as in Egypt the water of the Nile is diverted. Hence the origin
of canals. Great labour is requisite for their maintenance, for the soil
is deep, soft, and yielding, so that it would easily be swept away by
the stream; the fields would be laid bare, the canals filled, and the
accumulation of mud would soon obstruct their mouths. Then, again, the
excess of water discharging itself into the plains near the sea forms
lakes, and marshes, and reed-grounds, supplying the reeds with which all
kinds of platted vessels are woven; some of these vessels are capable of
holding water, when covered over with asphaltus; others are used with
the material in its natural state. Sails are also made of reeds; these
resemble mats or hurdles.

10. It is not, perhaps, possible to prevent inundations of this kind
altogether, but it is the duty of good princes to afford all possible
assistance. The assistance required is to prevent excessive overflow by
the construction of dams, and to obviate the filling of rivers, produced
by the accumulation of mud, by cleansing the canals, and removing
stoppages at their mouths. The cleansing of the canals is easily
performed, but the construction of dams requires the labour of numerous
workmen. For the earth being soft and yielding, does not support the
superincumbent mass, which sinks, and is itself carried away, and thus a
difficulty arises in making dams at the mouth. Expedition is necessary
in closing the canals to prevent all the water flowing out. When the
canals dry up in the summer time, they cause the river to dry up also;
and if the river is low (before the canals are closed), it cannot supply
the canals in time with water, of which the country, burnt up and
scorched, requires a very large quantity; [CAS. 740] for there is no
difference, whether the crops are flooded by an excess or perish by
drought and a failure of water. The navigation up the rivers (a source
of many advantages) is continually obstructed by both the
above-mentioned causes, and it is not possible to remedy this unless the
mouths of the canals were quickly opened and quickly closed, and the
canals were made to contain and preserve a mean between excess and
deficiency of water.

11. Aristobulus relates that Alexander himself, when he was sailing up
the river, and directing the course of the boat, inspected the canals,
and ordered them to be cleared by his multitude of followers; he
likewise stopped up some of the mouths, and opened others. He observed
that one of these canals, which took a direction more immediately to the
marshes, and to the lakes in front of Arabia, had a mouth very difficult
to be dealt with, and which could not be easily closed on account of the
soft and yielding nature of the soil; he (therefore) opened a new mouth
at the distance of 30 stadia, selecting a place with a rocky bottom, and
to this the current was diverted. But in doing this he was taking
precautions that Arabia should not become entirely inaccessible in
consequence of the lakes and marshes, as it was already almost an island
from the quantity of water (which surrounded it). For he contemplated
making himself master of this country; and he had already provided a
fleet and places of rendezvous; and had built vessels in Phœnicia and at
Cyprus, some of which were in separate pieces, others were in parts,
fastened together by bolts. These, after being conveyed to Thapsacus in
seven distances of a day’s march, were then to be transported down the
river to Babylon. He constructed other boats in Babylonia, from cypress
trees in the groves and parks, for there is a scarcity of timber in
Babylonia. Among the Cossæi, and some other tribes, the supply of timber
is not great.

The pretext for the war, says Aristobulus, was that the Arabians were
the only people who did not send their ambassadors to Alexander; but the
true reason was his ambition to be lord of all.

When he was informed that they worshipped two deities only, Jupiter and
Bacchus, who supply what is most requisite for the subsistence of
mankind, he supposed that, after his conquests, they would worship him
as a third, if he permitted them to enjoy their former national
independence. Thus was Alexander employed in clearing the canals, and in
examining minutely the sepulchres of the kings, most of which are
situated among the lakes.

12. Eratosthenes, when he is speaking of the lakes near Arabia, says,
that the water, when it cannot find an outlet, opens passages
under-ground, and is conveyed through these as far as the
Cœle-Syrians,[495] it is also compressed and forced into the parts near
Rhinocolura[496] and Mount Casius,[497] and there forms lakes and deep
pits. [498] But I know not whether this is probable. For the overflowings
of the water of the Euphrates, which form the lakes and marshes near
Arabia, are near the Persian Sea. But the isthmus which separates them
is neither large nor rocky, so that it was more probable that the water
forced its way in this direction into the sea, either under the ground,
or across the surface, than that it traversed so dry and parched a soil
for more than 6000 stadia; particularly, when we observe, situated
midway in this course, Libanus, Antilibanus, and Mount Casius. [499]

[CAS. 742] Such, then, are the accounts of Eratosthenes and
Aristobulus.

13. But Polycleitus says, that the Euphrates does not overflow its
banks, because its course is through large plains; that of the mountains
(from which it is supplied), some are distant 2000, and the Cossæan
mountains scarcely 1000 stadia, that they are not very high, nor covered
with snow to a great depth, and therefore do not occasion the snow to
melt in great masses, for the most elevated mountains are in the
northern parts above Ecbatana; towards the south they are divided,
spread out, and are much lower; the Tigris also receives the greater
part of the water [which comes down from them], and thus overflows its
banks. [500]

The last assertion is evidently absurd, because the Tigris descends into
the same plains (as the Euphrates); and the above-mentioned mountains
are not of the same height, the northern being more elevated, the
southern extending in breadth, but are of a lower altitude. The quantity
of snow is not, however, to be estimated by altitude only, but by
aspect. The same mountain has more snow on the northern than on the
southern side, and the snow continues longer on the former than on the
latter. As the Tigris therefore receives from the most southern parts of
Armenia, which are near Babylon, the water of the melted snow, of which
there is no great quantity, since it comes from the southern side, it
should overflow in a less degree than the Euphrates, which receives the
water from both parts (northern and southern); and not from a single
mountain only, but from many, as I have mentioned in the description of
Armenia. To this we must add the length of the river, the large tract of
country which it traverses in the Greater and in the Lesser Armenia, the
large space it takes in its course in passing out of the Lesser Armenia
and Cappadocia, after issuing out of the Taurus in its way to Thapsacus
(forming the boundary between Syria below and Mesopotamia), and the
large remaining portion of country as far as Babylon and to its mouth, a
course in all of 36,000 stadia.

This, then, on the subject of the canals (of Babylonia).

14. Babylonia produces barley in larger quantity than any other[501]
country, for a produce of three hundred-fold is spoken of. The palm tree
furnishes everything else, bread, wine, vinegar, and meal; all kinds of
woven articles are also procured from it. Braziers use the stones of the
fruit instead of charcoal. When softened by being soaked in water, they
are food for fattening oxen and sheep.

It is said that there is a Persian song in which are reckoned up 360
useful properties of the palm.

They employ for the most part the oil of sesamum, a plant which is rare
in other places.

15. Asphaltus is found in great abundance in Babylonia. Eratosthenes
describes it as follows.

The liquid asphaltus, which is called naphtha, is found in Susiana; the
dry kind, which can be made solid, in Babylonia. There is a spring of it
near the Euphrates. When this river overflows at the time of the melting
of the snow, the spring also of asphaltus is filled, and overflows into
the river, where large clods are consolidated, fit for buildings
constructed of baked bricks. Others say that the liquid kind also is
found in Babylonia. With respect to the solid kind, I have described its
great utility in the construction of buildings. They say that boats (of
reeds) are woven,[502] which, when besmeared with asphaltus, are firmly
compacted. The liquid kind, called naphtha, is of a singular nature.
When it is brought near the fire, the fire catches it; and if a body
smeared over with it is brought near the fire, it burns with a flame,
which it is impossible to extinguish, except with a large quantity of
water; with a small quantity it burns more violently, but it may be
smothered and extinguished by mud, vinegar, alum, and glue. It is said
that Alexander, as an experiment, ordered naphtha to be poured over a
boy in a bath, and a lamp to be brought near his body. The boy became
enveloped in flames, and would have perished if the bystanders had not
mastered the fire by pouring upon him a great quantity of water, and
thus saved his life.

Poseidonius says that there are springs of naphtha in Babylonia, some of
which produce white, others black, naphtha; the first of these, I mean
the white naphtha, which attracts flame, [CAS.