At the
scrutiny
which was set on foot
while they proceeded.
while they proceeded.
William Smith - 1844 - Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities - c
turned to Euboea with an armament of 50 gallers
It was not improbably about this time that and 5000 heavy-armed soldiers, by which all re-
Pericles took some steps towards the realisation of sistance was overpowered. The land-owners of
a noble idea which he had forined, of uniting all the Chalcis (or at least some of them,-see Thirlwall,
Grecian states in one general confederation. He vol. iii
. p. 57) were stripped of their estates. On
got a decree passed for inviting all the Hellenic the Histiaeans, who had given deeper provocation
states in Europe and Asia to send deputies to aby murdering the whole crew of an Athenian
congress, to be held at Athens, to deliberate in the galley which fell into their hands, a severer ren-
first place about rebuilding the temples burnt by geance was inflicted. They were expelled from
the Persians, and providing the sacrifices vowed in their territory, on which was settled a colony of
the time of danger ; but also, and this was the 2000 Athenians, in a new town, Oreus, which
most important part of the scheme, about the means took the place of Histiaea. These events were fol-
of securing freedom and safety of narigation in lowed by the thirty years' truce, the Athenians
every direction, and of establishing a general peace consenting to evacuate Troezen, Pegae, Nisach
between the different Hellenic states. To bear and Achaea. The influence of the moderate
these proposals to the different states, twenty men counsels of Pericles may probably be traced in their
were selected of above fifty years of age, who were consenting to submit to such terms. The conjecture
sent in detachments of five in different directions. hazarded by Bishop Thirlwall (vol. iii. p. 44), that
But through the jealousy and counter machinations the treaty was the work of the party opposed to
of Sparta, the project came to nothing.
Pericles, seems improbable. It may at least be
In B. c. 448 the Phocians deprived the Delphians assumed that the terms were not opposed by
of the oversight of the temple and the guardianship Pericles. The moment when his deeply-rooted
of the treasures in it. In this they seem at least to and increasing influence had just been strengthened
have relied on the assistance of the Athenians, if by the brilliant success which had crowned his
the proceeding had not been suggested by them. exertions to rescue Athens from a most perilous
A Lacedaemonian force proceeded to Phocis, and position, would hardly have been chosen by his
restored the temple to the Delphians, who granted political opponents as one at which to set iheir
to Sparta the right of precedence in consulting the policy in opposition to his.
oracle. But as soon as the Lacedaemonians had After the death of Cimon the aristocratical party
retired, Pericles appeared before the city with an was headed by Thucydides, the son of Melesias.
Athenian army, replaced the Phocians in posses- He formed it into a more regular organization,
sion of the temple, and had the honour which producing a more marked separation between it
had been granted to the Lacedaemonians trans and the democratical party. Though a better po-
ferred to the Athenians (Thucyd. i. 112). Next litical tactician than Cimon, Thucydides was no
year (B. C. 447), when preparations were being match for Pericles, either as a politician or as an
made by Tolmides, to aid the democratical party orator, which, indeed, he acknowledged, when once,
in the towns of Boeotia in repelling the efforts and being asked by Archidamus whether he or Pericles
machinations of the oligarchical exiles, Pericles ope was the better wrestler, he replied that when he
posed the measure as rash and unseasonable. His threw Pericles the latter always managed to per-
advice was disregarded at the time; but when, a suade the spectators that he had never been down.
few days after, the news arrived of the disaster at the contest between the two parties was brought to
Coroneia, he gained great credit for his wise caution an issue in B. C. 444. Thucydides and his party
and foresight. The ill success which had attended opposed the lavish expenditure of the public treasure
the Athenians on this occasion seems to have on the magnificent and expensive buildings with
aroused the hopes of their enemies; and when the which Pericles was adorning the city, and on the
five years' truce had expired (B. C. 445), a general festivals and other amusements which he instituted
and concerted attack was made on them. Euboea for the amusement of the citizens. In reply to the
revolted ; and before Pericles, who had crossed clamour which was raised against him in the as-
over with an army to reduce it, could effect any- sembly, Pericles offered to discharge the expense of
thing decisive, news arrived of a revolution in Me- the works, on condition that the edifices should be
gara and of the massacre of the greater part of the inscribed with his name, not with that of the people
Athenian garrison, the rest of whom had fled to of Athens. The assembly with acclamation em-
Nisaea ; and intelligence was also brought of the powered bim to spend as much as he pleased. The
approach of a Lacedaemonian army under the com- contest was soon after decided by ostracism, and
mand of Pleistoanax, acting under the guidance of Pericles was left without a riral ; nor did any one
Cleandridas. Pericles, abandoning Euboea for the throughout the remainder of his political course
present, at once marched back to Athens. The
Peloponnesians had already begun to ravage the 832, with the Scholiast ; Thucyd. ii. 21). It
country ; Pericles, with his usual prudence, declined was probably this incident which gave rise to the
the risk of a battle ; he found a bribe a simpler story which Plutarch found in several writers, that
Pericles, for the purpose of postponing the Pelopon-
* When, some time after, in a transient out- nesian war, which he perceived to be inevitable,
break of ill-feeling, Pericles was called upon to sent ten talents yearly to Sparta, with which he
submit his accounts for inspection, there appeared bribed the most influential persons, and so kept the
an item of ten talents spent for a necessary purpose. Spartans quiet; a statement which, though pro-
As the purpose to which the sum had been applied bably incorrect, is worth noting, as indicating a
was tolerably well understood, the statement was belief that the war was at any rate not hurried on
allowed to pass without question (Aristoph. Nib. I by Pericles out of private motives.
## p. 195 (#211) ############################################
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PERICLES.
1
appear to contest his supremacy: Nothing could fleet. With the remaining ships, amounting to
be more dignified or noble than the attitude which 44 in number, Pericles attacked a Samian ficet of
under these circumstances he assumed towards the 70, as it was returning from Miletus, and gained
people. The boundless influence which he possessed the victory. Having received reinforcements, he
was never perverted by him to sinister or unworthy landed a body of troops, drove the Samians within
purposes. So far from being a mere selfish de- the walls, and proceeded to invest the town. A
magogue, he neither indulged nor courted the mul- victory, though probably a slight one, was gained
titude. “As long as he was at the head of the by the Samians under the command of Melissus
state in peace he administered its affairs with mo (MELISSUS), and Pericles, with 60 ships, sailed to
deration, and kept a safe guard over it, and it meet the Phoenician feet. In his absence, the
became in his time very great. Being powerful on force which he had left behind was defeated, and
the ground both of his reputation and of his judg- the Samians exerted themselves actively in intro-
ment, and having clearly shown himself thoroughly ducing supplies into the town. On the return of
incorruptible, he restrained the multitude with Pericles they were again closely besieged. An ad-
freedom, and was not so much led by it as himself ditional squadron of 40 ships was sent from Athens
led it, because he did not seek to acquire power by under the command of Hagnon, Phormion, and
unworthy means, bringing forward propositions Thucydides. The Samians, being again decisively
which would gratify the people, but on the ground defeated in a sea-fight, were closely blockaded.
of his high character being able to speak in oppo | Though Pericles is said to have made use of some
sition even to its angry feelings. And so, whenever new kinds of battering engines, the Samians held
he saw them insolently confident beyond what the out resolutely, and murmurs were heard among the
occasion justified, by his speeches he reduced them Athenian soldiers, whose dissolute habits (comp.
to a more wary temper, and when on the other Athen. xiii. p. 572, e. ) soon rendered them weary
hand they were unreasonably alarmed, he restored of the tedious process of blockade. There is a
them again to confidence. And there was in name story that, in order to pacify them, Pericles divided
a democracy, but in reality a government in the his army into eight parts, and directed them to cast
hands of the first man" (Thucyd. ii. 65). Aſter lots, the division which drew a white bean being
the ostracism of Thucydides the organized oppo- allowed to feast and enjoy themselves, while the
sition of the aristocratical party was broken up, others carried on the military operations. At the
though, as we shall see, the malevolence of the end of nine months the Samians capitulated, on
enemies of Pericles exposed him subsequently to condition that they should give up their ships, dis-
some troublesome contests.
mantle their fortifications, and pay the cost of the
A few years after the commencement of the 30 siege by instalments. Their submission was speedily
years' truce a war broke out between Samos and followed by that of the Byzantines. On his return
Miletus about the towns of Priene and Anaea. to Athens, Pericles celebrated with great magni-
The Milesians, being vanquished, applied for help ficence the obsequies of those who had fallen in
to Athens, and were backed by the democratical the war. He was chosen to deliver the customary
party in Samos itself. So favourable an opportunity oration. At its close the women who were present
for carrying out the policy which Athens pursued showered upon him their chaplets and garlands.
towards her allies was quite sufficient to render the Elpinice alone is said to have contrasted his hard-
intervention of Aspasia unnecessary for the purpose won triumph with the brilliant victories of her
of inducing Pericles to support the cause of the brother Cimon. Pericles had indeed good reason
Milesians. The Samians were commanded to to be proud of his success ; for Thucydides (viii.
desist from hostilities, and submit their dispute to 76) does not scruple to say that the Samians were
the decision of an Athenian tribunal. This they within a very little of wresting from the Athenians
showed themselves slow to do, and Pericles was their maritime supremacy.
But the comparison
sent with a fleet of 40 galleys to enforce the com- with the Trojan War, if ever really made, was
mands of the Athenians. He established a demo- more likely to have come from some sycophantic
cratical constitution in Samos, and took 100 hos- partisan, than from Pericles himself. (Plut. l. c. ;
tages from the oligarchical party, which he lodged Thucyd. i. 115–117 ; Diod. xii. 27, 28 ; Suidas,
in Lemnos. He also levied a contribution of 80 s. v. Sapiwv o o nuos ; Aelian, V. H. ii. 9 ; Aristoph.
talents. The bribe of a talent from each of the Acharn. 850. )
hostages, with a large sum besides from the oligar- Between the Samian war, which terminated in
chical party and from Pissuthues, the satrap of B. C. 440, and the Peloponnesian war, which began
Sardes, is said to have been offered to Pericles to in B. C. 431, the Athenians were not engaged in
induce him to relinquish his intention, and of course any considerable military operations. On one
refused. He then returned, leaving a small gar- occasion, though the date is uncertain, Pericles
rison of Athenians in Samos. When he had left, conducted a great armament to the Euxine, ap-
a body of Samians, who had left the island as he parently with very little object beyond that of dis-
approached, having concerted measures with Pis- playing the power and maritime supremacy of the
suthnes, recovered the hostages, overpowered the Athenians, overawing the barbarians, and strength-
Athenian garrison and their political opponents, and ening the Athenian influence in the cities in that
renounced the Athenian alliance. A Phoenician quarter. Sinope was at the time under the power
fleet was promised to assist them ; the enemies of of the tyrant Timesilaus. Application was made
Athens in Greece were urged, though without to Pericles for assistance to expel the tyrant. A
success, to take up the cause of the Samians; and body of troops, which was left under the com-
Byzantium was induced to join in the revolt. mand of Lamachus, succeeded in effecting this
Pericles, with nine colleagues and a fleet of 60. object, and a body of 600 Athenians was after-
vessels, returned to put down the revolt Detach- wards sent to take possession of the confiscated
ments were sent to get reinforcements from the property of the tyrani and his partisans.
other allies, and to look out for the Phoenician While the Samian war was a consequence of
a
02
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196
PERICLES.
PERICLES.
1
the policy which Athens exercised towards her times and country, his political morality was cer-
allies, the issue of it tended greatly to confirm tainly not below that of the age ; nor would it
that direct authority which she exercised over be easy even in more modern times to point out
them. This policy did not originate with Pericles, a nation or statesman whose procedure in similar
but it was quite in accordance with his views, and circumstances would have been widely different.
was carried out by him in the most complete man- The empire which arose out of this consolida-
ner. By the commutation of military service for tion of the Athenian confederacy, was still further
tribute, many of the allied states had been strengthened by planting colonies, which com-
stripped of their means of defence in the time of monly stood to the parent state in that peculiar
Cimon. It appears, however, to have been on the relation which was understood by the term
proposition of Pericles that the treasure of the con- *Ampnû you. (Diet. of Ant. art. Colonia. ) Colonies
federacy was removed from Delos to Athens (about of this kind were planted at Orcus in Euboea,
R. C. 461; see Böckh, Public Econ. of Ath. at Chalcis, in Naxos, Andros, among the Thra-
bk. iii. c. 15), and openly appropriated to objects cians, and in the Thracian Chersonesus. The
which had no immediate connection with the pur settlement at Sinope has been already spoken of.
pose for which the confederacy was first formed, | The important colony of Thurii was founded in
and the contributions levied. In justification of B. C. 444. Amphipolis was founded by Hagnon
this procedure, Pericles urged that so long as the in B. c. 437. These colonies also served the very
Athenians fulfilled their part of the compact, by important purpose of drawing off from Athens a
securing the safety of their allies against the large part of the more troublesome and needy
attacks of the Persian power, they were not obliged citizens, whom it might have been found difficult
to render any account of the mode in which the to keep employed at a time when no military
money was expended ; and if they accomplished operations of any great magnitude were being
the object for which the alliance was formed with carried on. Pericles, however, was anxious rather
80 much vigour and skill as to have a surplus for a well consolidated empire than for an extensire
treasure remaining out of the funds contributed by dominion, and therefore refused to sanction those
the allies, they had a right to expend that surplus plans of extensive conquest which many of his
in any way they pleased. Under the administra- contemporaries bad begun to cherish. Such ai-
tion of Pericles the contributions were raised from tempts, surrounded as Athens was by jealous
460 to 600 talents. The greater part of this in- rivals and active enemies, he knew would be too
crease may have arisen from the commutation of vast to be attended with success.
service for money. There is nothing to show that Pericles thoroughly understood that the supre-
any of the states were more heavily burdened than macy which it was his object to secure for Athens
before (see Böckh, Public Econ. bk. iii. c. 15, rested on her maritime superiority. The Athenian
p. 400, 2nd ed. ). The direct sovereignty which the navy was one of the objects of his especial care.
Athenians claimed over their allies was also exer- A fleet of 60 gallers was sent out every year and
cised in most instances in establishing or support kept at sea for eight months, mainly, of course, for
ing democratical government, and in compelling all the purpose of training the crews, though the sub-
those who were reduced to the condition of subsistence this provided for the citizens who served
ject allies to refer, at all events, the more im- in the fleet was doubtless an item in his calcula-
portant of their judicial causes to the Athenian tions. To render the communication between
courts for trial (Böckh, iii, c. 16). Pericles was Athens and Peiraeeus still more secure, Pericles
not insensible to the real nature of the supremacy built a third wall between the two first built,
which Athens thus exercised. He admitted that parallel to the Peiraic wall.
it was of the nature of a tyranny (Thucyd. ii. The internal administration of Pericles is charac-
63). In defence of the assumption of it he would terised chiefly by the mode in which the public
doubtless hare urged, as the Athenian ambas- treasures were expended. The funds derired
badors did at Sparta, that the Athenians deserved from the tribute of the allies and other sources
their high position on account of their noble sacri- were devoted to a large extent to the erection of
fices in the cause of Greece, since any liberty which those magnificent temples and public buildings
the Greek states enjoyed was the result of that which rendered Athens the wonder and admiration
self-devotion ; that the supremacy was offered to of Greece. A detailed description of the splendid
them, not seized by force; and that it was the structures which crowned the Acropolis, belongs
jealousy and hostility of Sparta which rendered it rather to an account of Athens. The Propylaea,
necessary for the Athenians in self-defence to con- and the Parthenon, with its sculptured pediments
vert their hegemony into a dominion, which every and statue of Athene, exhibited a perfection of art
motive of national honour and interest urged them never before seen, and never since surpassed.
to maintain ; that the Athenians had been more Besides these, the Odeum, a theatre designed for
moderate in the exercise of their dominion than the musical entertainments which Pericles appended
could have been expected, or than any other state to the festivities of the Panathenaea, was con-
would have been under similar circumstances; and structed under his direction ; and the temples at
}
that the right of the Athenians had been tacitly Eleusis and other places in Attica, which had been
acquiesced in by the Lacedaemonians themselves destroyed by the Persians, were rebuilt. The
until actual causes of quarrel had arisen between rapidity with which these works were finished
them. (Thucyd. i. 73, &c. , especially 75, 76. ) excited astonishment. The Propylaea, the most
In point of fact, we find the Corinthians at an expensive of them, was finished in five years.
earlier period, in the congress held to deliberate Under the stimulus afforded by these works archi-
respecting the application of the Samians, openly tecture and sculpture reached their highest perfec-
laying down the maxim that each state had a tion, and some of the greatest artists of antiquity
right to punish its own allies. (Thucyd. i. 40. ) If were employed in erecting or adorning the build-
Pericles did not rise above the maxims of his l ings. The chief direction and oversight of the
## p. 197 (#213) ############################################
PERICLES.
197
PERICLES.
02
me
3
public edifices was entrusted to Pheidias, under object, of leading the Athenians to value bighly
whose superintendence were employed his two their station and privileges as Athenian citizens,
pupils Alcamenes and Agoracritus, Ictinus and may doubtless be traced in the law which he got
Callicrates the architects of the Parthenon, Mne- passed at an early period, that the privileges of
sicles the architect of the Propylaea, Coroebus the citizenship should be confined to those whose
architect who began the temple at Eleusis, Calli- parents were both Athenians ; a law which was
machus, Metagenes, Xenocles and others. These called into exercise in B. C. 444, on the occasion of
works calling into activity, as they did in various a present of corn being sent by Psammetichus from
ways, almost every branch of industry and com- Egypt, to be distributed among the Athenian
merce at Athens, diffused universal prosperity citizens.
At the scrutiny which was set on foot
while they proceeded. Such a variety of instru- only about 14,000 were found to be genuine
ments and materials were now needed, that there Athenians, nearly 5000 being discovered to be
could hardly be an artisan in the city who would aliens. That he had not miscalculated the effect
not find scope for his industry and skill; and as likely to be produced on the minds of his fellow-
every art required the services of a number of citizens, is shown by the interest and pride which
subordinate labourers, every class of the labouring they took in the progress and beauty of the public
citizens found employment and support. This works. When it was a matter of discussion in the
however, though a most important object, and one assembly whether marble or ivory should be used
which Pericles had distinctly in view, was not the in the construction of the great statue of Athene,
only one which he set before himself in this ex- the latter was selected, apparently for scarcely any
penditure
. Independently of the gratification of other reason than that it was the more costly.
his personal taste, which in this respect accorded We have already seen that the bare idea of having
with that of the people, his internal and external their name disconnected with the works that
policy formed parts of one whole. While he raised | adorned their city, was sufficient to induce them to
Athens to that supremacy which in his judgment sanction Pericles in his lavish application of the
she deserved to possess, on account both of the public treasures. Pity, that an expenditure so
natural capabilities of the people and the glorious wise in its ends, and so magnificent in its kind,
sacrifices which they had made for the safety and should have been founded on an act of appro-
freedom not of themselves only but of Greece, the priation, which a strict impartiality cannot justify,
magnificent aspect which the city assumed under though a fair consideration of all the circumstances
his directions was designed to keep alive among of the age and people will find much to palliate it.
the people a present consciousness of their great. The honesty of the objections raised against it by
ness and power. (Comp. Demosth. Aristocr. p. the enemies of Pericles on the score of its injustice
689, Mid. p. 565. ) This feature of his policy is is very questionable. The issue of the opposition
distinctly expressed in the speech delivered by him of Thucydides and his party has already been
over the slain in the first winter of the Pelopon- noticed.
nesian war, a speech equally valuable as an em- It was not the mere device of a demagogue
bodiment of his views, whether the sentiments anxious to secure popularity, but a part of a settled
contained in it be, as is most probable, such as he policy, which led Pericles to provide amusement
actually delivered, or such as his contemporary for the people in the shape of religious festivals
Thucydides knew hiin to entertain (Thucyd. ii. and musical and dramatic entertainments. These
35—46). He calls upon the survivors to resolve were at the same time intended to prepare the
that the spirit they cherish towards their enemies citizens by cheerful relaxation and intellectual
shall be no less daring than that of those who had stimulus for enduring the exertions necessary for
fallen ; considering not alone the immediate benefit the greatness and well-being of the state, and to
resulting from repelling their eneinies, but rather lead them, as they became conscious of the enjoy.
the power of the city, contemplating it in reality ment as well as dignity of their condition, as
daily, and becoming lovers (épaotás) of it; and Athenian citizens, to be ready to put forth their
whenever it seems to them to be great, consider-most strenuous exertions in defending a position
ing that men acquired this magnificence by daring, which secured to them so many advantages.
and judging what was necessary, and maintaining (Thucyd. ii. 38, 40. ) The impulse that would be
a sense of honour in action (c. 43). The design of given to trade and commerce by the increase of
his policy was that Athens should be thoroughly requirements on the part of the Athenians was
prepared for war, while it contained within itself also an element in his calculations (Thucyd. ii.
every thing that could render the citizens satisfied 38). The drama especially characterised the age
with peace ; to make them conscious of their great- of Pericles (AESCHYLUS, SOPHOCLES; Dich. of
ness, and inspire them with that self-reliance and Ant. art. Comoedia, Tragoedia). From the comic
elastic vigour, which was a surer safeguard than all poets Pericles had to sustain numerous attacks.
the jealous measures resorted to by the Spartans Their ridicule of his personal peculiarity could
(c. 36-39). Nothing could well be further from excite nothing more than a passing laugh. More
the truth than the estimate Plato formed of the serious attempts were made by them to render his
policy of Pericles, if he makes Socrates express his position suspicious in the eyes of the people. They
own views, in saying that Pericles made the exaggerated his power, spoke of his party as
Athenians idle, and cowardly, and talkative, and Peisistratids, and called upon him to swear that he
money-loving, by first accustoming them to receive was not about to assume the tyranny. Cratinus
pay (Gorg. p. 515, e. ). The great object of threw out insinuations as to the tardiness with
Pencles was to get the Athenians to set before which the building of the third long wall to Peiraeeus
themselves a great ideal of what Athens and an proceeded. His connection with Aspasia was made
Athenian ought to be. His commendations of the the ground of frequent sallies (Schol. ad Plat. p.
national characteristics partook quite as much of the 391, ed. Bekker ; Plut. Per. 24). His high cha-
cature of exhortation as of that of praise. This racter and strict probity, however, rendered all
a
03
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198
PERICLES.
PERICLES.
these attacks harmless. But that Pericles was assistance against Corinth, one of their main argu-
the author of a law passed B. C. 440, restraining ments was that hostilities between the rival con-
the exhibition of comedy, is not probable. (Thirl federacies could not be postponed much longer.
wall, vol. iji. p. 83 ; Cic. de liep. iv. 10, 11. ) Pericles doubtless foresaw this when by his advice
The enemies of Pericles, unable to ruin his repu- a defensive alliance was contracted with the Cor-
tation by these means, attacked him through his crraeans, and ten galleys sent to assist them,
friends. A charge was brought against Pheidias under Lacedaemonius the son of Cimon, which
of appropriating part of the gold destined to adorn were only to be brought into action in case a de-
the statue of the goddess on the Acropolis ; and scent upon the territories of the Corcyraeans were
Menon, a workman who had been employed by threatened. Plutarch represents Pericles as send-
Pheidias, was suborned to support the charge ing so smull a force through jealousy of the family
[Menon). By the direction of Pericles, however, of Cimon. Pericles might safely have defied the
the golden ornaments had been so fixed as to rivalry of a much more formidable person than
admit of being taken off. Pericles challenged the Lacedaemonius. A larger squadron of 20 ships
accusers to weigh them. They sbrank from the was sent out not long after, in case the force first
test, but the probity of Pheidias was established. sent should prove too small
. (Thucyd. i. 31–54. )
This charge having been fruitless, a second at-The measures taken by the Athenians with re-
tack was made on him for having in the sculp- spect to Potidaea doubtless had the sanction of
ture on the shield of the goddess, representing Pericles, if they were not suggested by him.
the battle with the Amazons, introduced portraits (Thucyd. i. 56, &c. ) After war had been declared
of himself and Pericles. To support this charge, by the congress of the Peloponnesian alliance, as
again Menon was brought forward, and Pheidias the members of it were not in a condition to com-
was cast into prison as having shown dishonour to mence hostilities immediately, various embassies
the national religion. According to Plutarch he were sent to Athens, manifestly rather with the
died there, either by poison, or by a natural death. intention of multiplying causes of hostility, than
The next attack was intended to wound Peri- with a sincere intention to prevent the outbreak
cles on a still more sensitive side. The connection of war. The first demand made was, that the
between Pericles and Aspasia, and the great as | Athenians should banish all that remained of the
cendancy which she had over him, has already accursed family of the Alcmaeonids. This was
been spoken of in the article ASPASIA. (Respect- clearly aimed at Pericles, who by his mother's
ing the benefit which the oratory of Pericles was side was connected with that house. The design
supposed to have derived from her instructions of the Lacedaemonians was to render Pericles an
see Plat. Mener. p. 235, e. 236, a. ) The comic object of odium when the difficulties of the war
poet Hermippus instituted a prosecution against came to be felt by the Athenians, by making it
her, on the ground of impiety, and of pandering appear that he was the obstacle in the way of
to the vices of Pericles by corrupting the Athe- peace. (Thucyd. i. 127. ) The demand was dis-
nian women ; a charge beyond all doubt as slan- regarded, and the Lacedaemonians in their turn
derous as that made against Pheidias of doing directed to free themselves from the pollution con-
the same under pretence of admitting Athe tracted by the death of Pausanias. Subsequent
nian ladies to view the progress of his works demands were made that the Athenians should
(Thirlwall, iii. pp. 87, 89). Apparently, while this raise the siege of Potidaea, restore Aegina to inde
trial was pending, Diopeithes got a decree passed pendence, and especially repeal the decree against
that those who denied the existence of the gods, the Megarians, by which the latter were excluded,
or introduced new opinions about celestial phaeno on pain of death, from the agora of Athens, and
mena, should be informed against and impeached from all ports in the Athenian dominions. One of
according to the process termed cioargenla (Dict. the scandalous stories of the time represented this
of Ant. art. Eisangelia). This decree was aimed decree as having been procured by Pericles from
at Anaxagoras, and through him at Pericles. private motives, some Megarians having carried off
Another decree was proposed by Dracontides, that two girls belonging to the train of Aspasia. (Aris-
Pericles should give in an account of his expendi- toph. Acharn. 500. ) There was quite sufficient
ture of the public money before the Prytanes, who ground for the decree in the long-standing enmity
were to conduct the trial with peculiar solemnity. between the Athenians and Megarians, which,
On the amendment of Agnon it was decreed that just before the decree was passed on the motion of
the trial should take place before 1500 dicasts. Charinus, had been inflamed by the murder of an
Aspasia was acquitted, though Pericles was obliged Athenian herald, who had been sent to obtain
to descend to entreaties and tears to save her. The satisfaction from the Megarians for their having
fate of Anaxagoras is uncertain (ANAX AGORAS). encroached upon the consecrated land that lay be
Of the proceedings against Pericles himself we tween the territories of the two states. This de-
hear nothing further. (Plut. l. c. ; Athen. xiii. mand of the Lacedaemonians was succeeded by
p. 589, where several of the gossiping stories one that the Athenians should leave all Greek
about Pericles will be found ; Diod. xii. 39; Diog. states independent, that is, that Athens should
Laërt. ii. 12. ) It was the opinion entertained by relinquish her empire, intimations being given that
many ancient writers that the dread of the im- peace might be expected if these conditions were
pending prosecution was at least one of the mo- complied with. An assembly was held to deli-
tives which induced Pericles to hurry on the out-berate on the answer to be giren to the Lacedae-
break of the war with Sparta. That this unworthy monians. The true motives which actuated Peri-
charge was a false one is abundantly evident from cles in resisting these demands are given by Thu-
the impartial and emphatic statements of Thucy- cydides in the speech which he puts into his
dides. ' The honesty of Pericles was unimpeach- mouth on the occasion (i. 140—144). Pericles
able, and the outbreak of hostilities inevitable, judged rightly in telling the Athenians that the
When the Corcyraeans applied to Athens for demands made of them, especially that about Me
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gar, which was most insisted on, were mere pre- | lands were left unravaged, he would give them up
texts by which the Lacedaemonians were trying to be the property of the state (Thucyd. ii. 13).
the spirit and resolution of the Athenians ; and He took the opportunity at the same tinie of giving
that in that point of view, involving the whole prin- the Athenians an account of the resources they had
ciple of submission to Sparta, it became of the at their command. Acting upon his advice they
utmost importance not to yield. He pointed out conveyed their moveable property into the city,
the advantages which Athens, as the head of a transporting their cattle and beasts of burden to
compact dominion, possessed over a disjointed Euboea. When the Peloponnesian army advanced
league like that of the Peloponnesians, which, more desolating Attica, the Athenians were clamorous to
over, had not at its immediate command the re- be led out against the enemy, and were angry with
sources necessary for carrying on the war, and Pericles because he steadily adhered to the policy
would find the greatest difficulty in raising them; he had recommended. He would hold no assembly
showed how impossible it was that the Pelopon- or meeting of any kind. He, however, kept close
nesians should be able to cope with the Athenians guard on the walls, and sent out cavalry to protect
by sca, and how utterly fruitless their attack the lands near the city. While the Peloponnesian
would be while Athens remained mistress of the army was in Attica, a fleet of 100 ships was
The course which he recommended there- sent round Peloponnesus. (Thucyd. ii. 18, &c. )
fore was, that the Athenians should not attempt The foresight of Pericles may probably be traced
to defend their territory when invaded, but retire in the setting apart 1000 talents, and 100 of the
within the city, and devote all their attention best sailing galleys of the year, to be employed
to securing the strength and efficiency of their only in case of an attack being made on Athens
navy, with which they could make severe retalia- by sea. Any one proposing to appropriate them
tions on the territories of their enemies ; since a to any other purpose was to suffer death. Another
victory by land would be of no service, and defeat fleet of thirty ships was sent along the coasts of
would immediately be followed by the revolt of Locris and Euboea : and in this same summer the
their subject allies. He warned them, however, population of Aegina was expelled, and Athenian
that they must be content with defending wbat colonists sent to take possession of the island. An
they already possessed, and must not attempt to alliance was also entered into with Sitalces, king
extend their dominion. War, he bade them ob- of Thrace. In the autumn Pericles in person led
serve, could not be avoided ; and they would the an army into Megaris, and ravaged most of the
less feel the ill effects of it, if they met their an- country. The decree against Megara before spoken
tagonists with alacrity. At his suggestion the of enacted that the Athenian generals on entering
Athenians gave for answer to the Lacedaemonian office should swear to invade Megaris twice a year
ambassadors, that they would rescind the decree (Plut. l. c. ; Thucyd. iv. 66). In the winter (B. C.
against Megara if the Lacedaemonians would cease 431–430), on the occasion of paying funeral ho-
to exclude strangers from intercourse with their nours to those who had fallen in the course of the
citizens ; that they would leave their allies inde- hostilities, Pericles was chosen to deliver the ora-
pendent if they were so at the conclusion of the tion. (Thucyd. ii. 35–46. ) In the summer of
treaty, and if Sparta would grant real independence the next year, when the Peloponnesians invaded
to her allies ; and that they were still willing to Attica, Pericles pursued the same policy as before.
submit their differences to arbitration.
In this summer the plague made its appearance in
In one sense, indeed, Pericles may be looked Athens (Thucyd. ii. 48, &c. ). An armament of
upon as the author of the Peloponnesian war, in- 100 ships (Thucyd. ii. 56) was conducted by
asmuch as it was mainly his enlightened policy Pericles in person to the coast of Peloponnesus.
which had raised Athens to that degree of power An eclipse of the sun which happened just before
which produced in the Lacedaemonians the jea- the fleet set sail afforded Pericles an opportunity
lousy and alarm which Thucydides (i. 23) dis- of applying the astronomical knowledge which he
tinctly affirms to have been the real cause of the had derived from Anaxagoras in quieting the alarm
Peloponnesian war. How accurately Pericles had which it occasioned. (Plut. Per. 35. )
calculated the resources of Athens, and how wisely The Athenians, being exposed to the devastation
he had discerned her true policy in the war, was of the war and the plague at the same time, not
rendered manifest by the spirited struggle which unnaturally began to turn their thoughts to peace,
she maintained even when the Peloponnesians and looked upon Pericles as the author of all their
were supplied with Persian gold, and by the irre- distresses, inasmuch as he had persuaded them to
parable disasters into which she was plunged by go to war. Pericles was unable to prevent the
her departure from the policy enjoined by Pericles. sending of an embassy to Sparta, with proposals
In the spring of B. C.
It was not improbably about this time that and 5000 heavy-armed soldiers, by which all re-
Pericles took some steps towards the realisation of sistance was overpowered. The land-owners of
a noble idea which he had forined, of uniting all the Chalcis (or at least some of them,-see Thirlwall,
Grecian states in one general confederation. He vol. iii
. p. 57) were stripped of their estates. On
got a decree passed for inviting all the Hellenic the Histiaeans, who had given deeper provocation
states in Europe and Asia to send deputies to aby murdering the whole crew of an Athenian
congress, to be held at Athens, to deliberate in the galley which fell into their hands, a severer ren-
first place about rebuilding the temples burnt by geance was inflicted. They were expelled from
the Persians, and providing the sacrifices vowed in their territory, on which was settled a colony of
the time of danger ; but also, and this was the 2000 Athenians, in a new town, Oreus, which
most important part of the scheme, about the means took the place of Histiaea. These events were fol-
of securing freedom and safety of narigation in lowed by the thirty years' truce, the Athenians
every direction, and of establishing a general peace consenting to evacuate Troezen, Pegae, Nisach
between the different Hellenic states. To bear and Achaea. The influence of the moderate
these proposals to the different states, twenty men counsels of Pericles may probably be traced in their
were selected of above fifty years of age, who were consenting to submit to such terms. The conjecture
sent in detachments of five in different directions. hazarded by Bishop Thirlwall (vol. iii. p. 44), that
But through the jealousy and counter machinations the treaty was the work of the party opposed to
of Sparta, the project came to nothing.
Pericles, seems improbable. It may at least be
In B. c. 448 the Phocians deprived the Delphians assumed that the terms were not opposed by
of the oversight of the temple and the guardianship Pericles. The moment when his deeply-rooted
of the treasures in it. In this they seem at least to and increasing influence had just been strengthened
have relied on the assistance of the Athenians, if by the brilliant success which had crowned his
the proceeding had not been suggested by them. exertions to rescue Athens from a most perilous
A Lacedaemonian force proceeded to Phocis, and position, would hardly have been chosen by his
restored the temple to the Delphians, who granted political opponents as one at which to set iheir
to Sparta the right of precedence in consulting the policy in opposition to his.
oracle. But as soon as the Lacedaemonians had After the death of Cimon the aristocratical party
retired, Pericles appeared before the city with an was headed by Thucydides, the son of Melesias.
Athenian army, replaced the Phocians in posses- He formed it into a more regular organization,
sion of the temple, and had the honour which producing a more marked separation between it
had been granted to the Lacedaemonians trans and the democratical party. Though a better po-
ferred to the Athenians (Thucyd. i. 112). Next litical tactician than Cimon, Thucydides was no
year (B. C. 447), when preparations were being match for Pericles, either as a politician or as an
made by Tolmides, to aid the democratical party orator, which, indeed, he acknowledged, when once,
in the towns of Boeotia in repelling the efforts and being asked by Archidamus whether he or Pericles
machinations of the oligarchical exiles, Pericles ope was the better wrestler, he replied that when he
posed the measure as rash and unseasonable. His threw Pericles the latter always managed to per-
advice was disregarded at the time; but when, a suade the spectators that he had never been down.
few days after, the news arrived of the disaster at the contest between the two parties was brought to
Coroneia, he gained great credit for his wise caution an issue in B. C. 444. Thucydides and his party
and foresight. The ill success which had attended opposed the lavish expenditure of the public treasure
the Athenians on this occasion seems to have on the magnificent and expensive buildings with
aroused the hopes of their enemies; and when the which Pericles was adorning the city, and on the
five years' truce had expired (B. C. 445), a general festivals and other amusements which he instituted
and concerted attack was made on them. Euboea for the amusement of the citizens. In reply to the
revolted ; and before Pericles, who had crossed clamour which was raised against him in the as-
over with an army to reduce it, could effect any- sembly, Pericles offered to discharge the expense of
thing decisive, news arrived of a revolution in Me- the works, on condition that the edifices should be
gara and of the massacre of the greater part of the inscribed with his name, not with that of the people
Athenian garrison, the rest of whom had fled to of Athens. The assembly with acclamation em-
Nisaea ; and intelligence was also brought of the powered bim to spend as much as he pleased. The
approach of a Lacedaemonian army under the com- contest was soon after decided by ostracism, and
mand of Pleistoanax, acting under the guidance of Pericles was left without a riral ; nor did any one
Cleandridas. Pericles, abandoning Euboea for the throughout the remainder of his political course
present, at once marched back to Athens. The
Peloponnesians had already begun to ravage the 832, with the Scholiast ; Thucyd. ii. 21). It
country ; Pericles, with his usual prudence, declined was probably this incident which gave rise to the
the risk of a battle ; he found a bribe a simpler story which Plutarch found in several writers, that
Pericles, for the purpose of postponing the Pelopon-
* When, some time after, in a transient out- nesian war, which he perceived to be inevitable,
break of ill-feeling, Pericles was called upon to sent ten talents yearly to Sparta, with which he
submit his accounts for inspection, there appeared bribed the most influential persons, and so kept the
an item of ten talents spent for a necessary purpose. Spartans quiet; a statement which, though pro-
As the purpose to which the sum had been applied bably incorrect, is worth noting, as indicating a
was tolerably well understood, the statement was belief that the war was at any rate not hurried on
allowed to pass without question (Aristoph. Nib. I by Pericles out of private motives.
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appear to contest his supremacy: Nothing could fleet. With the remaining ships, amounting to
be more dignified or noble than the attitude which 44 in number, Pericles attacked a Samian ficet of
under these circumstances he assumed towards the 70, as it was returning from Miletus, and gained
people. The boundless influence which he possessed the victory. Having received reinforcements, he
was never perverted by him to sinister or unworthy landed a body of troops, drove the Samians within
purposes. So far from being a mere selfish de- the walls, and proceeded to invest the town. A
magogue, he neither indulged nor courted the mul- victory, though probably a slight one, was gained
titude. “As long as he was at the head of the by the Samians under the command of Melissus
state in peace he administered its affairs with mo (MELISSUS), and Pericles, with 60 ships, sailed to
deration, and kept a safe guard over it, and it meet the Phoenician feet. In his absence, the
became in his time very great. Being powerful on force which he had left behind was defeated, and
the ground both of his reputation and of his judg- the Samians exerted themselves actively in intro-
ment, and having clearly shown himself thoroughly ducing supplies into the town. On the return of
incorruptible, he restrained the multitude with Pericles they were again closely besieged. An ad-
freedom, and was not so much led by it as himself ditional squadron of 40 ships was sent from Athens
led it, because he did not seek to acquire power by under the command of Hagnon, Phormion, and
unworthy means, bringing forward propositions Thucydides. The Samians, being again decisively
which would gratify the people, but on the ground defeated in a sea-fight, were closely blockaded.
of his high character being able to speak in oppo | Though Pericles is said to have made use of some
sition even to its angry feelings. And so, whenever new kinds of battering engines, the Samians held
he saw them insolently confident beyond what the out resolutely, and murmurs were heard among the
occasion justified, by his speeches he reduced them Athenian soldiers, whose dissolute habits (comp.
to a more wary temper, and when on the other Athen. xiii. p. 572, e. ) soon rendered them weary
hand they were unreasonably alarmed, he restored of the tedious process of blockade. There is a
them again to confidence. And there was in name story that, in order to pacify them, Pericles divided
a democracy, but in reality a government in the his army into eight parts, and directed them to cast
hands of the first man" (Thucyd. ii. 65). Aſter lots, the division which drew a white bean being
the ostracism of Thucydides the organized oppo- allowed to feast and enjoy themselves, while the
sition of the aristocratical party was broken up, others carried on the military operations. At the
though, as we shall see, the malevolence of the end of nine months the Samians capitulated, on
enemies of Pericles exposed him subsequently to condition that they should give up their ships, dis-
some troublesome contests.
mantle their fortifications, and pay the cost of the
A few years after the commencement of the 30 siege by instalments. Their submission was speedily
years' truce a war broke out between Samos and followed by that of the Byzantines. On his return
Miletus about the towns of Priene and Anaea. to Athens, Pericles celebrated with great magni-
The Milesians, being vanquished, applied for help ficence the obsequies of those who had fallen in
to Athens, and were backed by the democratical the war. He was chosen to deliver the customary
party in Samos itself. So favourable an opportunity oration. At its close the women who were present
for carrying out the policy which Athens pursued showered upon him their chaplets and garlands.
towards her allies was quite sufficient to render the Elpinice alone is said to have contrasted his hard-
intervention of Aspasia unnecessary for the purpose won triumph with the brilliant victories of her
of inducing Pericles to support the cause of the brother Cimon. Pericles had indeed good reason
Milesians. The Samians were commanded to to be proud of his success ; for Thucydides (viii.
desist from hostilities, and submit their dispute to 76) does not scruple to say that the Samians were
the decision of an Athenian tribunal. This they within a very little of wresting from the Athenians
showed themselves slow to do, and Pericles was their maritime supremacy.
But the comparison
sent with a fleet of 40 galleys to enforce the com- with the Trojan War, if ever really made, was
mands of the Athenians. He established a demo- more likely to have come from some sycophantic
cratical constitution in Samos, and took 100 hos- partisan, than from Pericles himself. (Plut. l. c. ;
tages from the oligarchical party, which he lodged Thucyd. i. 115–117 ; Diod. xii. 27, 28 ; Suidas,
in Lemnos. He also levied a contribution of 80 s. v. Sapiwv o o nuos ; Aelian, V. H. ii. 9 ; Aristoph.
talents. The bribe of a talent from each of the Acharn. 850. )
hostages, with a large sum besides from the oligar- Between the Samian war, which terminated in
chical party and from Pissuthues, the satrap of B. C. 440, and the Peloponnesian war, which began
Sardes, is said to have been offered to Pericles to in B. C. 431, the Athenians were not engaged in
induce him to relinquish his intention, and of course any considerable military operations. On one
refused. He then returned, leaving a small gar- occasion, though the date is uncertain, Pericles
rison of Athenians in Samos. When he had left, conducted a great armament to the Euxine, ap-
a body of Samians, who had left the island as he parently with very little object beyond that of dis-
approached, having concerted measures with Pis- playing the power and maritime supremacy of the
suthnes, recovered the hostages, overpowered the Athenians, overawing the barbarians, and strength-
Athenian garrison and their political opponents, and ening the Athenian influence in the cities in that
renounced the Athenian alliance. A Phoenician quarter. Sinope was at the time under the power
fleet was promised to assist them ; the enemies of of the tyrant Timesilaus. Application was made
Athens in Greece were urged, though without to Pericles for assistance to expel the tyrant. A
success, to take up the cause of the Samians; and body of troops, which was left under the com-
Byzantium was induced to join in the revolt. mand of Lamachus, succeeded in effecting this
Pericles, with nine colleagues and a fleet of 60. object, and a body of 600 Athenians was after-
vessels, returned to put down the revolt Detach- wards sent to take possession of the confiscated
ments were sent to get reinforcements from the property of the tyrani and his partisans.
other allies, and to look out for the Phoenician While the Samian war was a consequence of
a
02
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196
PERICLES.
PERICLES.
1
the policy which Athens exercised towards her times and country, his political morality was cer-
allies, the issue of it tended greatly to confirm tainly not below that of the age ; nor would it
that direct authority which she exercised over be easy even in more modern times to point out
them. This policy did not originate with Pericles, a nation or statesman whose procedure in similar
but it was quite in accordance with his views, and circumstances would have been widely different.
was carried out by him in the most complete man- The empire which arose out of this consolida-
ner. By the commutation of military service for tion of the Athenian confederacy, was still further
tribute, many of the allied states had been strengthened by planting colonies, which com-
stripped of their means of defence in the time of monly stood to the parent state in that peculiar
Cimon. It appears, however, to have been on the relation which was understood by the term
proposition of Pericles that the treasure of the con- *Ampnû you. (Diet. of Ant. art. Colonia. ) Colonies
federacy was removed from Delos to Athens (about of this kind were planted at Orcus in Euboea,
R. C. 461; see Böckh, Public Econ. of Ath. at Chalcis, in Naxos, Andros, among the Thra-
bk. iii. c. 15), and openly appropriated to objects cians, and in the Thracian Chersonesus. The
which had no immediate connection with the pur settlement at Sinope has been already spoken of.
pose for which the confederacy was first formed, | The important colony of Thurii was founded in
and the contributions levied. In justification of B. C. 444. Amphipolis was founded by Hagnon
this procedure, Pericles urged that so long as the in B. c. 437. These colonies also served the very
Athenians fulfilled their part of the compact, by important purpose of drawing off from Athens a
securing the safety of their allies against the large part of the more troublesome and needy
attacks of the Persian power, they were not obliged citizens, whom it might have been found difficult
to render any account of the mode in which the to keep employed at a time when no military
money was expended ; and if they accomplished operations of any great magnitude were being
the object for which the alliance was formed with carried on. Pericles, however, was anxious rather
80 much vigour and skill as to have a surplus for a well consolidated empire than for an extensire
treasure remaining out of the funds contributed by dominion, and therefore refused to sanction those
the allies, they had a right to expend that surplus plans of extensive conquest which many of his
in any way they pleased. Under the administra- contemporaries bad begun to cherish. Such ai-
tion of Pericles the contributions were raised from tempts, surrounded as Athens was by jealous
460 to 600 talents. The greater part of this in- rivals and active enemies, he knew would be too
crease may have arisen from the commutation of vast to be attended with success.
service for money. There is nothing to show that Pericles thoroughly understood that the supre-
any of the states were more heavily burdened than macy which it was his object to secure for Athens
before (see Böckh, Public Econ. bk. iii. c. 15, rested on her maritime superiority. The Athenian
p. 400, 2nd ed. ). The direct sovereignty which the navy was one of the objects of his especial care.
Athenians claimed over their allies was also exer- A fleet of 60 gallers was sent out every year and
cised in most instances in establishing or support kept at sea for eight months, mainly, of course, for
ing democratical government, and in compelling all the purpose of training the crews, though the sub-
those who were reduced to the condition of subsistence this provided for the citizens who served
ject allies to refer, at all events, the more im- in the fleet was doubtless an item in his calcula-
portant of their judicial causes to the Athenian tions. To render the communication between
courts for trial (Böckh, iii, c. 16). Pericles was Athens and Peiraeeus still more secure, Pericles
not insensible to the real nature of the supremacy built a third wall between the two first built,
which Athens thus exercised. He admitted that parallel to the Peiraic wall.
it was of the nature of a tyranny (Thucyd. ii. The internal administration of Pericles is charac-
63). In defence of the assumption of it he would terised chiefly by the mode in which the public
doubtless hare urged, as the Athenian ambas- treasures were expended. The funds derired
badors did at Sparta, that the Athenians deserved from the tribute of the allies and other sources
their high position on account of their noble sacri- were devoted to a large extent to the erection of
fices in the cause of Greece, since any liberty which those magnificent temples and public buildings
the Greek states enjoyed was the result of that which rendered Athens the wonder and admiration
self-devotion ; that the supremacy was offered to of Greece. A detailed description of the splendid
them, not seized by force; and that it was the structures which crowned the Acropolis, belongs
jealousy and hostility of Sparta which rendered it rather to an account of Athens. The Propylaea,
necessary for the Athenians in self-defence to con- and the Parthenon, with its sculptured pediments
vert their hegemony into a dominion, which every and statue of Athene, exhibited a perfection of art
motive of national honour and interest urged them never before seen, and never since surpassed.
to maintain ; that the Athenians had been more Besides these, the Odeum, a theatre designed for
moderate in the exercise of their dominion than the musical entertainments which Pericles appended
could have been expected, or than any other state to the festivities of the Panathenaea, was con-
would have been under similar circumstances; and structed under his direction ; and the temples at
}
that the right of the Athenians had been tacitly Eleusis and other places in Attica, which had been
acquiesced in by the Lacedaemonians themselves destroyed by the Persians, were rebuilt. The
until actual causes of quarrel had arisen between rapidity with which these works were finished
them. (Thucyd. i. 73, &c. , especially 75, 76. ) excited astonishment. The Propylaea, the most
In point of fact, we find the Corinthians at an expensive of them, was finished in five years.
earlier period, in the congress held to deliberate Under the stimulus afforded by these works archi-
respecting the application of the Samians, openly tecture and sculpture reached their highest perfec-
laying down the maxim that each state had a tion, and some of the greatest artists of antiquity
right to punish its own allies. (Thucyd. i. 40. ) If were employed in erecting or adorning the build-
Pericles did not rise above the maxims of his l ings. The chief direction and oversight of the
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PERICLES.
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me
3
public edifices was entrusted to Pheidias, under object, of leading the Athenians to value bighly
whose superintendence were employed his two their station and privileges as Athenian citizens,
pupils Alcamenes and Agoracritus, Ictinus and may doubtless be traced in the law which he got
Callicrates the architects of the Parthenon, Mne- passed at an early period, that the privileges of
sicles the architect of the Propylaea, Coroebus the citizenship should be confined to those whose
architect who began the temple at Eleusis, Calli- parents were both Athenians ; a law which was
machus, Metagenes, Xenocles and others. These called into exercise in B. C. 444, on the occasion of
works calling into activity, as they did in various a present of corn being sent by Psammetichus from
ways, almost every branch of industry and com- Egypt, to be distributed among the Athenian
merce at Athens, diffused universal prosperity citizens.
At the scrutiny which was set on foot
while they proceeded. Such a variety of instru- only about 14,000 were found to be genuine
ments and materials were now needed, that there Athenians, nearly 5000 being discovered to be
could hardly be an artisan in the city who would aliens. That he had not miscalculated the effect
not find scope for his industry and skill; and as likely to be produced on the minds of his fellow-
every art required the services of a number of citizens, is shown by the interest and pride which
subordinate labourers, every class of the labouring they took in the progress and beauty of the public
citizens found employment and support. This works. When it was a matter of discussion in the
however, though a most important object, and one assembly whether marble or ivory should be used
which Pericles had distinctly in view, was not the in the construction of the great statue of Athene,
only one which he set before himself in this ex- the latter was selected, apparently for scarcely any
penditure
. Independently of the gratification of other reason than that it was the more costly.
his personal taste, which in this respect accorded We have already seen that the bare idea of having
with that of the people, his internal and external their name disconnected with the works that
policy formed parts of one whole. While he raised | adorned their city, was sufficient to induce them to
Athens to that supremacy which in his judgment sanction Pericles in his lavish application of the
she deserved to possess, on account both of the public treasures. Pity, that an expenditure so
natural capabilities of the people and the glorious wise in its ends, and so magnificent in its kind,
sacrifices which they had made for the safety and should have been founded on an act of appro-
freedom not of themselves only but of Greece, the priation, which a strict impartiality cannot justify,
magnificent aspect which the city assumed under though a fair consideration of all the circumstances
his directions was designed to keep alive among of the age and people will find much to palliate it.
the people a present consciousness of their great. The honesty of the objections raised against it by
ness and power. (Comp. Demosth. Aristocr. p. the enemies of Pericles on the score of its injustice
689, Mid. p. 565. ) This feature of his policy is is very questionable. The issue of the opposition
distinctly expressed in the speech delivered by him of Thucydides and his party has already been
over the slain in the first winter of the Pelopon- noticed.
nesian war, a speech equally valuable as an em- It was not the mere device of a demagogue
bodiment of his views, whether the sentiments anxious to secure popularity, but a part of a settled
contained in it be, as is most probable, such as he policy, which led Pericles to provide amusement
actually delivered, or such as his contemporary for the people in the shape of religious festivals
Thucydides knew hiin to entertain (Thucyd. ii. and musical and dramatic entertainments. These
35—46). He calls upon the survivors to resolve were at the same time intended to prepare the
that the spirit they cherish towards their enemies citizens by cheerful relaxation and intellectual
shall be no less daring than that of those who had stimulus for enduring the exertions necessary for
fallen ; considering not alone the immediate benefit the greatness and well-being of the state, and to
resulting from repelling their eneinies, but rather lead them, as they became conscious of the enjoy.
the power of the city, contemplating it in reality ment as well as dignity of their condition, as
daily, and becoming lovers (épaotás) of it; and Athenian citizens, to be ready to put forth their
whenever it seems to them to be great, consider-most strenuous exertions in defending a position
ing that men acquired this magnificence by daring, which secured to them so many advantages.
and judging what was necessary, and maintaining (Thucyd. ii. 38, 40. ) The impulse that would be
a sense of honour in action (c. 43). The design of given to trade and commerce by the increase of
his policy was that Athens should be thoroughly requirements on the part of the Athenians was
prepared for war, while it contained within itself also an element in his calculations (Thucyd. ii.
every thing that could render the citizens satisfied 38). The drama especially characterised the age
with peace ; to make them conscious of their great- of Pericles (AESCHYLUS, SOPHOCLES; Dich. of
ness, and inspire them with that self-reliance and Ant. art. Comoedia, Tragoedia). From the comic
elastic vigour, which was a surer safeguard than all poets Pericles had to sustain numerous attacks.
the jealous measures resorted to by the Spartans Their ridicule of his personal peculiarity could
(c. 36-39). Nothing could well be further from excite nothing more than a passing laugh. More
the truth than the estimate Plato formed of the serious attempts were made by them to render his
policy of Pericles, if he makes Socrates express his position suspicious in the eyes of the people. They
own views, in saying that Pericles made the exaggerated his power, spoke of his party as
Athenians idle, and cowardly, and talkative, and Peisistratids, and called upon him to swear that he
money-loving, by first accustoming them to receive was not about to assume the tyranny. Cratinus
pay (Gorg. p. 515, e. ). The great object of threw out insinuations as to the tardiness with
Pencles was to get the Athenians to set before which the building of the third long wall to Peiraeeus
themselves a great ideal of what Athens and an proceeded. His connection with Aspasia was made
Athenian ought to be. His commendations of the the ground of frequent sallies (Schol. ad Plat. p.
national characteristics partook quite as much of the 391, ed. Bekker ; Plut. Per. 24). His high cha-
cature of exhortation as of that of praise. This racter and strict probity, however, rendered all
a
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198
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PERICLES.
these attacks harmless. But that Pericles was assistance against Corinth, one of their main argu-
the author of a law passed B. C. 440, restraining ments was that hostilities between the rival con-
the exhibition of comedy, is not probable. (Thirl federacies could not be postponed much longer.
wall, vol. iji. p. 83 ; Cic. de liep. iv. 10, 11. ) Pericles doubtless foresaw this when by his advice
The enemies of Pericles, unable to ruin his repu- a defensive alliance was contracted with the Cor-
tation by these means, attacked him through his crraeans, and ten galleys sent to assist them,
friends. A charge was brought against Pheidias under Lacedaemonius the son of Cimon, which
of appropriating part of the gold destined to adorn were only to be brought into action in case a de-
the statue of the goddess on the Acropolis ; and scent upon the territories of the Corcyraeans were
Menon, a workman who had been employed by threatened. Plutarch represents Pericles as send-
Pheidias, was suborned to support the charge ing so smull a force through jealousy of the family
[Menon). By the direction of Pericles, however, of Cimon. Pericles might safely have defied the
the golden ornaments had been so fixed as to rivalry of a much more formidable person than
admit of being taken off. Pericles challenged the Lacedaemonius. A larger squadron of 20 ships
accusers to weigh them. They sbrank from the was sent out not long after, in case the force first
test, but the probity of Pheidias was established. sent should prove too small
. (Thucyd. i. 31–54. )
This charge having been fruitless, a second at-The measures taken by the Athenians with re-
tack was made on him for having in the sculp- spect to Potidaea doubtless had the sanction of
ture on the shield of the goddess, representing Pericles, if they were not suggested by him.
the battle with the Amazons, introduced portraits (Thucyd. i. 56, &c. ) After war had been declared
of himself and Pericles. To support this charge, by the congress of the Peloponnesian alliance, as
again Menon was brought forward, and Pheidias the members of it were not in a condition to com-
was cast into prison as having shown dishonour to mence hostilities immediately, various embassies
the national religion. According to Plutarch he were sent to Athens, manifestly rather with the
died there, either by poison, or by a natural death. intention of multiplying causes of hostility, than
The next attack was intended to wound Peri- with a sincere intention to prevent the outbreak
cles on a still more sensitive side. The connection of war. The first demand made was, that the
between Pericles and Aspasia, and the great as | Athenians should banish all that remained of the
cendancy which she had over him, has already accursed family of the Alcmaeonids. This was
been spoken of in the article ASPASIA. (Respect- clearly aimed at Pericles, who by his mother's
ing the benefit which the oratory of Pericles was side was connected with that house. The design
supposed to have derived from her instructions of the Lacedaemonians was to render Pericles an
see Plat. Mener. p. 235, e. 236, a. ) The comic object of odium when the difficulties of the war
poet Hermippus instituted a prosecution against came to be felt by the Athenians, by making it
her, on the ground of impiety, and of pandering appear that he was the obstacle in the way of
to the vices of Pericles by corrupting the Athe- peace. (Thucyd. i. 127. ) The demand was dis-
nian women ; a charge beyond all doubt as slan- regarded, and the Lacedaemonians in their turn
derous as that made against Pheidias of doing directed to free themselves from the pollution con-
the same under pretence of admitting Athe tracted by the death of Pausanias. Subsequent
nian ladies to view the progress of his works demands were made that the Athenians should
(Thirlwall, iii. pp. 87, 89). Apparently, while this raise the siege of Potidaea, restore Aegina to inde
trial was pending, Diopeithes got a decree passed pendence, and especially repeal the decree against
that those who denied the existence of the gods, the Megarians, by which the latter were excluded,
or introduced new opinions about celestial phaeno on pain of death, from the agora of Athens, and
mena, should be informed against and impeached from all ports in the Athenian dominions. One of
according to the process termed cioargenla (Dict. the scandalous stories of the time represented this
of Ant. art. Eisangelia). This decree was aimed decree as having been procured by Pericles from
at Anaxagoras, and through him at Pericles. private motives, some Megarians having carried off
Another decree was proposed by Dracontides, that two girls belonging to the train of Aspasia. (Aris-
Pericles should give in an account of his expendi- toph. Acharn. 500. ) There was quite sufficient
ture of the public money before the Prytanes, who ground for the decree in the long-standing enmity
were to conduct the trial with peculiar solemnity. between the Athenians and Megarians, which,
On the amendment of Agnon it was decreed that just before the decree was passed on the motion of
the trial should take place before 1500 dicasts. Charinus, had been inflamed by the murder of an
Aspasia was acquitted, though Pericles was obliged Athenian herald, who had been sent to obtain
to descend to entreaties and tears to save her. The satisfaction from the Megarians for their having
fate of Anaxagoras is uncertain (ANAX AGORAS). encroached upon the consecrated land that lay be
Of the proceedings against Pericles himself we tween the territories of the two states. This de-
hear nothing further. (Plut. l. c. ; Athen. xiii. mand of the Lacedaemonians was succeeded by
p. 589, where several of the gossiping stories one that the Athenians should leave all Greek
about Pericles will be found ; Diod. xii. 39; Diog. states independent, that is, that Athens should
Laërt. ii. 12. ) It was the opinion entertained by relinquish her empire, intimations being given that
many ancient writers that the dread of the im- peace might be expected if these conditions were
pending prosecution was at least one of the mo- complied with. An assembly was held to deli-
tives which induced Pericles to hurry on the out-berate on the answer to be giren to the Lacedae-
break of the war with Sparta. That this unworthy monians. The true motives which actuated Peri-
charge was a false one is abundantly evident from cles in resisting these demands are given by Thu-
the impartial and emphatic statements of Thucy- cydides in the speech which he puts into his
dides. ' The honesty of Pericles was unimpeach- mouth on the occasion (i. 140—144). Pericles
able, and the outbreak of hostilities inevitable, judged rightly in telling the Athenians that the
When the Corcyraeans applied to Athens for demands made of them, especially that about Me
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PERICLES.
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gar, which was most insisted on, were mere pre- | lands were left unravaged, he would give them up
texts by which the Lacedaemonians were trying to be the property of the state (Thucyd. ii. 13).
the spirit and resolution of the Athenians ; and He took the opportunity at the same tinie of giving
that in that point of view, involving the whole prin- the Athenians an account of the resources they had
ciple of submission to Sparta, it became of the at their command. Acting upon his advice they
utmost importance not to yield. He pointed out conveyed their moveable property into the city,
the advantages which Athens, as the head of a transporting their cattle and beasts of burden to
compact dominion, possessed over a disjointed Euboea. When the Peloponnesian army advanced
league like that of the Peloponnesians, which, more desolating Attica, the Athenians were clamorous to
over, had not at its immediate command the re- be led out against the enemy, and were angry with
sources necessary for carrying on the war, and Pericles because he steadily adhered to the policy
would find the greatest difficulty in raising them; he had recommended. He would hold no assembly
showed how impossible it was that the Pelopon- or meeting of any kind. He, however, kept close
nesians should be able to cope with the Athenians guard on the walls, and sent out cavalry to protect
by sca, and how utterly fruitless their attack the lands near the city. While the Peloponnesian
would be while Athens remained mistress of the army was in Attica, a fleet of 100 ships was
The course which he recommended there- sent round Peloponnesus. (Thucyd. ii. 18, &c. )
fore was, that the Athenians should not attempt The foresight of Pericles may probably be traced
to defend their territory when invaded, but retire in the setting apart 1000 talents, and 100 of the
within the city, and devote all their attention best sailing galleys of the year, to be employed
to securing the strength and efficiency of their only in case of an attack being made on Athens
navy, with which they could make severe retalia- by sea. Any one proposing to appropriate them
tions on the territories of their enemies ; since a to any other purpose was to suffer death. Another
victory by land would be of no service, and defeat fleet of thirty ships was sent along the coasts of
would immediately be followed by the revolt of Locris and Euboea : and in this same summer the
their subject allies. He warned them, however, population of Aegina was expelled, and Athenian
that they must be content with defending wbat colonists sent to take possession of the island. An
they already possessed, and must not attempt to alliance was also entered into with Sitalces, king
extend their dominion. War, he bade them ob- of Thrace. In the autumn Pericles in person led
serve, could not be avoided ; and they would the an army into Megaris, and ravaged most of the
less feel the ill effects of it, if they met their an- country. The decree against Megara before spoken
tagonists with alacrity. At his suggestion the of enacted that the Athenian generals on entering
Athenians gave for answer to the Lacedaemonian office should swear to invade Megaris twice a year
ambassadors, that they would rescind the decree (Plut. l. c. ; Thucyd. iv. 66). In the winter (B. C.
against Megara if the Lacedaemonians would cease 431–430), on the occasion of paying funeral ho-
to exclude strangers from intercourse with their nours to those who had fallen in the course of the
citizens ; that they would leave their allies inde- hostilities, Pericles was chosen to deliver the ora-
pendent if they were so at the conclusion of the tion. (Thucyd. ii. 35–46. ) In the summer of
treaty, and if Sparta would grant real independence the next year, when the Peloponnesians invaded
to her allies ; and that they were still willing to Attica, Pericles pursued the same policy as before.
submit their differences to arbitration.
In this summer the plague made its appearance in
In one sense, indeed, Pericles may be looked Athens (Thucyd. ii. 48, &c. ). An armament of
upon as the author of the Peloponnesian war, in- 100 ships (Thucyd. ii. 56) was conducted by
asmuch as it was mainly his enlightened policy Pericles in person to the coast of Peloponnesus.
which had raised Athens to that degree of power An eclipse of the sun which happened just before
which produced in the Lacedaemonians the jea- the fleet set sail afforded Pericles an opportunity
lousy and alarm which Thucydides (i. 23) dis- of applying the astronomical knowledge which he
tinctly affirms to have been the real cause of the had derived from Anaxagoras in quieting the alarm
Peloponnesian war. How accurately Pericles had which it occasioned. (Plut. Per. 35. )
calculated the resources of Athens, and how wisely The Athenians, being exposed to the devastation
he had discerned her true policy in the war, was of the war and the plague at the same time, not
rendered manifest by the spirited struggle which unnaturally began to turn their thoughts to peace,
she maintained even when the Peloponnesians and looked upon Pericles as the author of all their
were supplied with Persian gold, and by the irre- distresses, inasmuch as he had persuaded them to
parable disasters into which she was plunged by go to war. Pericles was unable to prevent the
her departure from the policy enjoined by Pericles. sending of an embassy to Sparta, with proposals
In the spring of B. C.
