Most of them pitied those that were thus
condemned
to die.
Diodorus Siculus - Historical Library
But Domitius replied, "You may obtain what you seek far more easily, and much more honourably, if you do not approach the senate in a hostile manner; for the senate will not be compelled, but entreated and petitioned, to bestow such a favour upon the Latins, who are their allies and confederates.
" 2 Pompaedius was struck by this, as with a divine admonition from heaven, and, convinced by what Domitius had said, he immediately returned home.
And thus Domitius, by his prudent advice, delivered his country from the dreadful misfortune that threatened it, addressing himself to Pompaedius much more effectively than Servilius the praetor did to the Picentes: for Servilius spoke to them not as to freemen and allies, but as to slaves, and insulted them with the greatest scorn and contempt imaginable.
He uttered such appalling threats, that he provoked the allies, to the ruin and destruction both of himself and others.
But Domitius on the contrary, by his mild and calm speech, allayed the fury and violence of the enraged rebels.
[14] G They shared the spoils with the soldiers, in order to give them a taste of the profits of war and make them more disposed to fight for freedom .
[15] G # Marius led his army into the plain of the Samnites, and encamped in front of the enemy. Pompaedius, who had been invested with the chief command of the Marsi, also advanced with his troops. As the two armies approached one another, their warlike attitude changed into a peaceful mood. 2 When they came into sight, the soldiers of each army recognized many of their hosts, their comrades, and finally many of those with whom they were bound by family ties. Natural sympathy therefore drove them to exchange kind words; they called each other by their names, and exhorted them not to defile themselves with the murder of their kinsmen. Putting aside their panoplies, which they held ready to fight, they stretched out their right hands, and cordially embraced. 3 Marius, when he saw this happening, also left the ranks; Pompaedius did the same, and the two leaders talked amicably. While these leaders were talking at length about peace and citizenship, both sides were filled with joy and hope, and instead of a battle, there was the appearance of a festival. By appropriate words the (? ) commanders encouraged a peaceful conclusion, and they all gladly abstained from bloodshed and fighting.
[16] G # There was one Agamemnon, a Cilician, who on account of his wicked deeds and murder of allies, was committed to prison in Asculum by the Romans. This man was released by the Picentes, and in gratitude for the kindness shown to him, fought resolutely on their side. Being inured to robberies from a boy, he joined with others of a similar nature, and ravaged the enemy's country.
[17] G Although he was not from an illustrious family and he lacked the resources for advancement, yet he unexpectedly achieved great repute and glory . . . Fortune tends towards what is fitting, and it involves those who plot evil against others in similar misfortunes of their own. They may act like tyrants for a time, but the crimes of these tyrants will eventually be punished.
[18] G A Cretan came to the consul Julius and offered to act as a traitor. "If by my help," he said, "you defeat your enemies, what reward will you give me? " Caesar replied, "I'll make you a citizen of Rome, and you will be in favour with me. " At these words, the Cretans laughed and said, "Citizenship is considered a nonsense amongst the Cretans. We aim at gain when we shoot our arrows; we only work on land and sea to get money, and so I have come here in search of money. As for political rights, grant that to those who are fighting for it and who are buying this nonsense with their blood. " The consul laughed at this and said to the man, "Well, if we are successful, I will give a reward of a thousand drachmae. "
[19] G # The people of Aesernia, pressed by famine, found some way of driving the slaves out of their city, because circumstances forced them to try anything and ensure their salvation by the destruction of others. Beset by this terrible misfortune, the slaves withdrew, but they found recompense for the cruelty of their masters in the kindness of their enemies.
2 G The people of Aesernia ate dogs and other animals; for their bodily needs forced them to act completely against convention, and to make use of abominable and unusual food.
3 G The soul of man partakes of the divine nature; sometimes it can predict the future, and by using natural images it can foresee what is going to occur. This is what happened to women of Pinna, who lamented their misfortune before it happened to them.
4 G The Italians led the children of the people of Pinna to the foot of the walls of the city, and threatened to kill them if they did not abandon their alliance with Rome. But the people of Pinna were prepared to suffer terribly, and replied : "If you deprive us of our children, we will produce some more easily, as long as we remain faithful to the Romans. "
5 G These Italians, despairing of taking the city by persuasion, performed an act of great cruelty. They brought the children up to the walls, and ordered those who were about to die to implore the mercy of their fathers, and to raise their hands to heaven, begging the sun, which oversees the life of all men, to save their innocent lives.
[20] G The inhabitants of the city of Pinna fell into most dreadful calamities on account of their constant fidelity to the Romans; for, being obstinately resolved not to desert the Romans, they were forced to put aside any sense of natural affection, and watch their children being slaughtered before their eyes.
[21] G Their warlike ardour was such that they could not be surpassed by anyone, in fearlessly braving all dangers. Although they were outnumbered the besiegers, they made up for their lack of numbers by their extraordinary courage.
[22] G The Italians, who had so often fought brilliantly on behalf of the Romans, now that they were fighting for themselves, showed even more bravery than in their previous victories. For their part, the Romans, who were fighting against their former subjects, did not want to appear to be outdone by their inferiors.
[23] G # Lamponius charged at Crassus, in the belief that the people ought not to fight for the leaders, but the leaders should fight for the people.
[24] G The Romans and Italians fought to be able to bring in the crops. They kept on slaughtering each other in their confrontations; for with the wheat close at hand and ready to be harvested, they strove to obtain this essential food by mutual bloodshed. The soldiers did not wait for a command from their leaders; nature spurred them on to acts of bravery, because lack of food compelled them. They all preferred to die gloriously by the sword of the enemy, rather than by hunger.
[25] G # Lucius Sulla bravely and gallantly performed most notable actions, and his fame and renown was celebrated all over the city. The people of Rome judged him worthy of the consulship, looking upon him as a man eminent for both his valour and his skill as a general; in summary, it was clear that he was likely to reach the highest pitch of glory.
[26] G Mithridates having conquered the Roman generals in Asia, and taken many prisoners, sent them all home with clothing and provisions for the journey. This mild treatment was reported everywhere, and the cities generally came flocking over to him; so that envoys came to him from all cities, inviting him by their public decrees to enter their territory, calling him their god and deliverer. Upon notice of the king's approach, the people came in crowds out of the several cities, wearing bright garments to greet him, and received him with great joy and acclamation.
[27] G # Mithridates' party swept all before them in Asia, and as there was nothing to stop them, all the cities revolted from the Romans. The Lesbians resolved not only to surrender themselves to the king, but also to deliver up Aquilius, who had fled to Mytilene, and was receiving treatment for an illness there. Therefore they sent to his lodgings some youths, chosen for their strength, who all rushed inside the house, and seized Aquilius and bound him, supposing he would be a splendid present to send, and very acceptable to the king. 2 . . . but he, though he was but as yet a youth, performed a most noble and heroic act ; for preferring death before disgrace and humiliating punishment, he pre-empted the men who were ready to hurry him away, and killed himself; by this desperate act he so shocked those that came to seize him, that they did not dare approach him. His valour and resolution, therefore, became famous everywhere; by putting an end to his own life, he had rescued himself with an undaunted courage from the torments awaiting him.
[28] G # When it came to a sea-fight, the Rhodians were outclassed in nothing except the number of their ships; and in all other respects they were far superior. They were the better pilots, and knew better how to arrange their ships and ply the oars; they had the braver soldiers, and the more expert commanders. The Cappadocians, on the other hand, were inexperienced and seldom exercised in sea-fights; and, what is a common cause of failure, they acted without any discipline. It is true, indeed, they were as eager to fight as the Rhodians, because they were to fight within sight of the king, and therefore wished to demonstrate their loyalty and affection to him. Since they only surpassed their enemies in the number of their ships, they used all the arts and contrivances they could devise to surround and hem them in.
[29] G # Marius went every day to the Campus, where he took part in military exercises. He wanted to correct the weakness and slowness of age by daily exercise and hard work.
2 G Gaius Marius was the most renowned person of his time, when he was young: he was ambitious of honour and glory, free from greed, and performed many noble acts, both in Africa and Europe, so that his name was famous, and celebrated everywhere. But when he reached old age, he coveted the riches of king Mithridates, and the wealth of the cities of Asia, and sought against the laws to have the province, which was allotted to Cornelius Sulla, transferred to himself. As a result, he suffered many calamities, and brought disgrace on his previous good reputation; 3 for he not only failed to obtain those riches which he coveted, but also he lost all his own possessions, when his property was confiscated because of his extraordinary greed. He was, moreover, condemned to death by his own country; but escaped that punishment by running away, and wandered solitarily and alone up and down Italy. At length he was forced out of Africa and reached Numidia, without any resources, servants or friends. Afterwards, when the civil wars broke out in Rome, he joined with the enemies of his fatherland, and, being victorious, he was not contented with his return home, but stirred up the flames of war. At length, having gained a seventh consulship, and by his own misfortunes learned the inconstancy of fortune, he was unwilling to put things to a hazard any more.
4 G # Therefore, foreseeing the impending war that Sulla would bring upon his country, he willingly departed from life; but he left behind him the seeds of a grievous war, which involved his son and country in most dreadful calamities. # His son, being forced to contend with an enemy more powerful than himself, perished most miserably in a vault, where he fled to hide himself. The people of Rome and cities of Italy descended into the cruel war that had long awaited them, and suffered many dreadful calamities. 5 # For two principal men of the city, Scaevola and Crassus, without any course of legal proceedings, were murdered in the senate; their cruel murder plainly demonstrated the extent of those miseries that then threatened both the city and all Italy: for the majority of the senators, and the most eminent men of the city, were slaughtered by Sulla, and no less than a hundred thousand soldiers were slain, either in mutinies or battles; and all these miseries were caused at the start by the greed of Marius.
[30] G Wealth, the subject of so much dispute amongst men, sometimes causes great misfortunes to those who long to gain it. It drives them to unjust and criminal actions; it provides fuel for licentiousness, and leads the unwise into shameful behaviour. Thus we see these men fall into the greatest misfortune, and bring disaster on their cities. 2 Such is the pernicious power of gold over men, when they foolishly over-value it. In their insatiable greed, they apply to everything these verses of the poets:
"Blessed gold, most beautiful gift to mortals, greater pleasure than a mother . . . "
And also:
"Let them call me wicked, as long as I make a profit. "
And these verses:
"Blessed gold, offshoot of the land, what desire you inflame in mortals! You are mightiest of all, you are tyrant of all. In a war you are more powerful even than Ares. You entice everything; the trees and wild animals may have followed Orpheus with his songs, but you lead the whole earth, the sea and all-finding Ares. "
3 G Yet how much better it would be to quote the poems which give the opposite advice:
"Lady wisdom , how I admire you! I would not wish the god to give me the bright gleam of gold, or a tyrant's power, if I cannot have wisdom. Furthest from Zeus stands the man who has amassed a fair treasure. "
Book 38 →
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Diodorus Siculus, Books 38 & 39
( fragments covering the period 87 - 72 B. C. )
In the traditional arrangement of the fragments of Diodorus, the fragments of books 38 and 39 are shown together, because it is not certain where the split between the two books occurred.
Click on the G symbols to go to the Greek text of the fragments.
Click on the # symbols to go to lists of other ancient sources which refer to the same events.
← Book 37
[1] G # The Romans sent envoys to Cinna to treat for peace. Cinna replied, "I left Rome as consul, and I will not return there as a private man. "
[2] G Metellus, with the army that he had, approached the camp of Cinna. They agreed, after talking together, that Cinna should remain as (? ) general, and Metellus was the first to acknowledge this title, but they were both blamed later for what they had done. When Marius met Cinna, he declared that, with victory almost won, they should not give up the power that had been divinely granted to them. Metellus, when he returned to Rome, had a violent quarrel with Octavius, who accused him of betraying the consuls and his country. 2 Octavius said that he would not in any way allow Cinna to become absolute master of Rome, and that even if he was abandoned by everyone, he would still act in a manner worthy of his command, together with like-minded men. Finally, he added that if he was left with no hope, he would set fire to his house, and by consigning himself and his wealth to the flames, die bravely as a free man.
[3] G When Cinna agreed to peace, upon condition that be might be restored to the consulship, Merula, who had been appointed consul in place of Cinna, proved himself to be a good citizen, and demonstrated his great love for his country. Addressing himself to the senate and people, and, stating what might most tend to the public good, he promised that he would promote concord. Since he had been chosen consul much against his will, he declared that he would now freely, of his own accord, give up his authority into the hands of Cinna; upon which he promptly surrendered his consulship, and became a private citizen. The senate then sent ambassadors to Cinna, and, having agreed with him upon the terms of peace, brought him back into the city as consul.
[4] G # Cinna and Marius called together a council of the principal leaders, and consulted what measures and methods should be taken to settle and confirm the peace. At length they resolved to put to death the most eminent persons amongst their opponents, who were most capable of challenging them; so that after their own group and party had been purged of enemies, they and their friends could govern for the future with more security, according to their own will and pleasure. 2 Then they completely disregarded all the former pacts and agreements; men were proscribed and butchered in every place, without any recourse to justice. At that time Quintus Lutatius Catulus, who had celebrated a glorious triumph for his victory over the Cimbri, and was greatly esteemed by the Roman people, was accused by a tribune of the plebs on a capital offence. 3 Fearing imminent danger from the accusation, he approached Marius, to entreat him to intercede for his deliverance. Marius, who he had been his friend formerly, but through some suspicion he now entertained of him, had become his enemy, merely replied, "You must die. " Upon this, Catulus perceived that he had no hope of preservation and sought to die without disgrace. He killed himself in a strange and unusual way; for he shut himself up in a newly plastered house, and caused a fire to be kindled, by the smoke of which, and the moist vapours from the lime, he was there stifled to death.
[5] G The civil war that broke out in Rome in the consulship of Sulla was (according to Livy and Diodorus) heralded by many omens. When the sky was cloudless and perfectly clear, a trumpet was heard making a sharp and plaintive sound, and all who heard it were struck with fear. The Etruscan soothsayers declared that this portent heralded a revolution in human affairs; they added that there are eight different races of men, each differing in their character and manner of life. The deity has assigned to each of them a certain period of time, which is the length of a great year. At the end of this period and the beginning of the following one, there appears some miraculous sign, either on earth or in heaven, from which the sages immediately know that a race of men has arisen with a different character and manner of life, and that the gods have less care for them than for previous men. Whether this is true or not, is something that I will not discuss here.
[6] G Cinna and Marius were soon punished by divine vengeance, after their massacre of citizens and their outrages against other men. Sulla, who was the only one remaining out of their enemies, destroyed the army of Mithridates in Boeotia, took Athens by storm, and made a treaty with Mithridates; then he took over the fleet of Mithridates and returned to Italy. In a very short time, he destroyed the armies of Cinna and Marius, and made himself master of Rome and all Italy. He slew all the bloodthirsty supporters of Cinna, and exterminated the family of Marius. Many reasonable men considered that the punishment of the perpetrators of so many murders was imposed by divine providence. Such a punishment ought to be a valuable lesson for those who follow the path of impiety, prompting them to turn away from their wickedness.
[7] G # Sulla, being in great need of money, ransacked three temples that were full of consecrated gold and silver; that is, the temple of Apollo at Delphi, the temple of Asclepius at Epidaurus, and the famous temple of Zeus at Olympia; from the last of these he carried away a vast treasure, for it had never before been violated. But as to the temple at Delphi, the Phocians, in the time of the Sacred War, had drained it of its wealth. When Sulla, therefore, had in this way amassed a great amount of gold and silver, and other treasure, he was sufficiently furnished with money to carry on the war in Italy. But having, without any fear or religious scruples, thus robbed the temples, he consecrated an area of land to the gods, to provide an annual income instead of the money; and he would often, in a joking manner, say that he was sure to be victorious in all encounters, because he had the support of the gods, who had contributed so much to his funds.
[8] G # Fimbria, having out-paced Flaccus, and got a long way before him in his march, thought he had now gained a most convenient opportunity to undertake a bold venture; and therefore, to gain the support of the soldiers, he permitted them to ravage the land of their allies, as if it was enemy territory, and to seize anyone that they met. The soldiers very readily took advantage of this liberty, so that within a few days they had collected an abundance of wealth by their plundering. But those that had been spoiled of their goods went to meet the consul, and made bitter complaints to him concerning the injuries that they had received. The consul, who was much troubled at what had happened, commanded them to follow him, and he himself would see that restitution was made to everyone who had suffered. Accordingly with threats he ordered Fimbria to hand back to the owners immediately whatsoever had been taken away from them. Fimbria laid all the blame upon the soldiers, as if they had done this without his permission; but covertly he advised the soldiers not to obey the consul's command or allow what they had gained by force of arms, and the right of war, to be taken away from them. Therefore, when Flaccus commanded restitution to be made of their loot, adding threats to his commands, the soldiers refused to obey, so that a great tumult and mutiny arose in the army.
2 # Fimbria, having again crossed the Hellespont, encouraged his soldiers to commit looting and all kinds of outrages. He exacted money from the cities, and divided it amongst the soldiers, who, without any control on their actions, had the power to do whatever they pleased. Lured on by the hope of a large profit, they held Fimbria in great affection, as one who had deserved extremely well of the whole army. Moreover, when he captured any cities that resisted him, he gave them over to the plunder of his soldiers, and in this way he handed out Nicomedeia to be plundered by the soldiers.
3 The same Fimbria pretended that he had come as a friend to Cyzicus. But as soon as he entered there, he began to impeach the wealthiest of the citizens, and charge them with capital offences. To terrify the others, after he had passed sentence on two of them, he caused them to be whipped with rods, and executed them. He then seized their property, and so by the deaths of these two he instilled great fear into the others, who were forced to give him everything they had, as a ransom for their lives.
4 # Within a short time Fimbria embroiled the province in the sort of misfortunes that might be expected from a man who had in such an impious way grasped the power to do whatever he wished. He ravaged Phrygia like a hurricane, and dashed around the cities, overwhelming everyone he met. When he killed himself, by his single death he paid the debt for the many deaths that he had caused.
[9] G # Gnaeus Pompeius devoted himself to a military life, and inured himself to the hardships and fatigues of war, so that in a short time he was acknowledged as an expert in military matters. Casting off all sloth and idleness, he was always, night and day, doing something or other that was useful for the conduct of the war. He was very sparing in his diet, ate his food sitting, and altogether refrained from baths and other such luxurious activities. He allotted fewer hours for sleep than nature demanded, and spent the rest of the night in the concerns of a general, relating to the problems that he faced during the day; so that, by his habitual planning for the uncertain events of war, he became most accomplished in military activities. And therefore, in far less time than another could have prepared himself to take charge of an army that was already raised, in that time he raised an army, trained them, and disciplined them. And when the news of his remarkable exploits was brought to Rome, everybody at first, reflecting upon his youth rather than on his valour, supposed that the messengers were merely exaggerating in their accounts. But when these reports were confirmed by the clear evidence of events, the senate sent out Junius against him, whom he routed and put to flight.
[10] G # Gnaeus Pompeius got a fine reward for his virtue, and gained distinction for his valour. He continued to act in accordance with his previous achievements, and informed Sulla by letter of the increase in his power. Sulla admired the youth for many other reasons, and berated the senators who were with him, both reproaching them and urging them to be equally zealous. Sulla said that he was amazed that Pompeius, who was still extremely young, had snatched such a large army away from the enemy, but those who were far superior to him in age and reputation could hardly keep even their own servants in a dependable alliance.
[11] G # Adrianus, the governor of Utica, was burnt alive by the people of Utica, Although this was a dreadful crime, it did not result in any punishment, because the victim had acted so wickedly.
[12] G # Even many of those who had already completed their period of military service, as defined by the law, willingly volunteered to join the consul Marius, the son of Marius, when the young man set off to war. Because they were more advanced in years, they were eager to show their juniors what they could achieve through their military training and their experience of battle and the other dangers of war.
[13] G Throughout the cities and nations of Italy, there were numerous harsh investigations and attempts to discover their attitudes towards Marius and Sulla. They were therefore obliged to shift their pretended allegiance from one side to the other, and to appease whoever was present; but those who were responsible for raising troops for each of the factions were regularly competing with each other, and by their severe investigations they forced the cities to reveal their true opinions.
[14] G # Marius, because he lacked any necessary provisions, was abandoned by his soldiers. Marcus Perpenna, the governor of Sicily, alone remained faithful to him. Sulla sent envoys to him and urged him to join his party; but Perpenna, far from accepting this invitation, retained his strong attachment to Marius. He affirmed with threats that he would cross with all his forces from Sicily to Italy, and would rescue Marius from Praeneste.
[15] G # And now that the Marsic war was coming to an end, another great civil war arose in Rome, stirred up by Sulla and the young Gaius Marius, son of that Marius who had been seven times consul. In this strife many tens of thousands of men perished, until at length Sulla prevailed; and being created dictator, he called himself Epaphroditus {Felix}. This boastful title was not wholly inappropriate, because he prospered in all his wars, and died a natural death after his victories. But Marius, although he behaved with great gallantry in the war against Sulla, was at length routed, and fled with fifteen thousand men to Praeneste, where he was besieged for a long time. At length, being totally deserted, and seeing no way of escape, he earnestly entreated one of his faithful slaves to help him put an end to the misfortunes that surrounded him. After much persuasion, the slave at one stroke put an end to his master's life, and then immediately killed himself. And so at length ended this civil war. However, some remnants of Marius' party continued to give Sulla trouble for a while longer, until they too were suppressed, like the others.
[16] G # Scipio's army, which had been corrupted, went over to Sulla. Scipio thought that he was doomed, but Sulla sent to him a squadron of horsemen, to conduct him wherever he pleased. Thus after he had been forced in a moment to lay aside the symbols of his authority, he was subsequently, by the kindness of Sulla, brought as private citizen to the place he chose. But soon afterwards Scipio resumed the symbols of his authority, and again marched out with a considerable army.
[17] G # In the meantime, the most eminent persons in Rome were put to death on false accusations. Even Scaevola, the pontifex maximus, who had the highest reputation amongst the citizens, came to an unworthy end. The Romans were fortunate only in one thing, that this venerable priest did not withdraw into the most sacred precinct {the temple of Vesta}. For the cruelty of the murderers was such, that they would have laid him upon the very altar, and cut his throat there, so that by his own blood he would have extinguished that fire, which religious devotion has ceaselessly kept burning ever since ancient times.
[18] G To praise good men, and rebuke disreputable men, is the most effective way of encouraging others to act nobly.
2 G Men who were able to devise good plans, and to put their decisions into action . . .
[19] G # When the proscription lists were fixed up in the forum, a multitude of people promptly came flocking in to read them.
Most of them pitied those that were thus condemned to die. But one amongst them, a most malicious and insolent character, gloried over the miserable fate of the afflicted, and yelled out most spiteful remarks against them. Some incensed deity soon repaid him with a just revenge; for he happened to read his own name as one proscribed at the bottom of the list. He covered his head, and tried to run away through the thickest of the crowd; for he hoped in this way to escape detection and reach safety. But someone who stood nearby recognised him, and exposed him as one of the condemned; he was instantly surrounded and seized, and then put to death, to the great joy of all that heard it.
[20] G # Pompeius, seeing that Sicily had been deprived of justice for a long time, applied himself to the business of the law courts. He decided both public and private controversies, and discharged his duties with so much diligence and integrity, that no-one ever merited more commendation. Although he was only twenty-two years of age, at a time of life when he might have distracted by foolish youthful pleasures, yet he conducted himself with so much gravity and sobriety throughout his sojourn in Sicily, that the virtue of the young man was greatly admired by all the Sicilians.
[21] G The barbarian Spartacus showed himself to be grateful to someone who had helped him; for nature itself leads even barbarians, without any education, to reward their benefactors with proper gratitude.
[22] G A victory won through fighting brings honour both to the soldiers and to their leaders; but successes that are achieved through the skill of the general, bring renown solely to the general.
2 G An unstoppable impulse spread amongst the barbarians, prompting them to defect to the Romans.
[22a] G # Sertorius, seeing that he could do nothing to stop the natives from taking this course, took harsh measures against his allies. Some he killed after bringing accusations against them; others he put under guard; and he confiscated the property of the wealthiest of them. Although he gathered much silver and gold in this way, he did not put it into the common war-fund, but kept it for himself. He did not use it to supply the pay for his soldiers, or share it with his officers. He did not allow his council or advisers to share in judging capital offences, but he heard the cases by himself, and as the sole judge he pronounced the verdict. He did not deign to invite his officers to share his meals, and showed no kindness to his friends. In general, because his power had been brought low, he became savage and behaved like a tyrant towards everybody. As a result he was hated by the common people, and plotted against by his friends.
# His assassination was accomplished in the following way. The most influential of his officers, Perpenna and Tarquitius, conferred together and decided to kill Sertorius, because he had become a tyrant. Perpenna was chosen to be the leader of the plot, and he invited Sertorius to dinner, at the same time making sure that his fellow conspirators would be present at the meal. After Sertorius had arrived, the conspirators attacked him, and he was killed by Tarquitius and Antonius, who were sitting on either side of his couch.
[22b] G # As the result of a plot laid against him, Mithridates was almost captured by the Cyzicenes. This attempt was made by a Roman centurion, who had joined in the tunnelling work. Because both sides were digging tunnels in the area, they frequently encountered and even talked to each other; and from these encounters he became known to the king's men. Once, when he was caught on his own in the tunnels, one of the enemy pressed him to betray his allies, and he pretended to agree to the suggestion. When the king was informed of this, in his desire to capture the city he promised a reward and arranged a time to discuss the betrayal. Because the Roman demanded a surety for the agreement, the king sent men to settle it on his behalf. But the Roman said that he would not trust the agreement, unless the king gave him an oath in person. Mithridates considered that it was beneath his royal dignity to descend into the mines. But since the traitor said that he would not co-operate otherwise, and he was very eager to capture the city, Mithridates was forced to agree to the request. As a result the king would have been captured, if he had not been protected by one of his friends who, rightly suspecting a plot, produced a device that fitted in the tunnel and could quickly be opened and closed. When this had been placed in the tunnel, and Mithridates and his friends went in, the centurion . . . the men who intended to help him seize the king, drew his sword and rushed at the king. But just in time the king closed the gate, and so escaped the danger.
Book 40 →
Attalus' home page | 05. 01. 15 | Any comments?
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Diodorus Siculus, Book 40
( fragments covering the period 71 - ? 60 B. C. )
Click on the G symbols to go to the Greek text of the fragments.
Click on the # symbols to go to lists of other ancient sources which refer to the same events.
← Books 38 & 39
[1] G # Marcus Antonius agreed peace terms with the Cretans, which they observed for some time; but afterwards, they called together a council to consider what would be most advantageous for them. The older and more prudent amongst them advised to send envoys to Rome, to defend themselves against those accusations that were brought against them, and by fair words and entreaties, to achieve a reconciliation with the senate. To this end they despatched thirty men, chosen out of their most eminent citizens, as envoys, who privately visited the senators at their individual houses, and by courting them with fine words, won over those that had most influence in their meetings. 2 When they were introduced into the senate, they made their defence against the matters objected against them with great prudence; accurately setting forth their good services, and their support for Roman rule, they requested that they might be restored to their former friendship and alliance. The senate, pleased with what they said, issued a decree, by which they not only acquitted the Cretans of the crimes laid against them, but declared them confederates and friends of the state. But Lentulus, surnamed Spinther, vetoed the decree; and the Cretans then departed. 3 The senate were told on many occasions that the Cretans were joining with the pirates, and sharing in their robberies; and therefore they decreed that the Cretans should surrender all their ships to Rome, even down to a skiff of four oars; and provide three hundred eminent hostages; and send away Lasthenes and Panares; and jointly pay four thousand talents of silver. The Cretans, hearing what was decreed, went into a consultation about these commands imposed upon them. The more prudent amongst them advised that they should comply with all the instructions; but Lasthenes and his associates, fearing that they would be summoned to Rome, where they would be punished for the offences that they had committed, stirred up the people and urged them to maintain those liberties that they had enjoyed ever since time immemorial.
[1a] G Some of the citizens of Antioch, feeling contempt for Antiochus because of his defeat, stirred up the masses and proposed that the king should be banished from the city. There was a great tumult, but when the king prevailed, the leaders of the uprising took fright and fled from Syria. After reaching Cilicia, they decided to bring back Philippus, who was the son of Philippus son of Antiochus Grypus. Philippus agreed to their proposal, and went to meet Azizus the Arab, who willingly received him. Azizus put a diadem on Philippus' head, and restored him to the kingship.
[1b] G Since all his hopes rested on his alliance with Sampsiceramus, he summoned him to come with his forces. Sampsiceramus, who had secretly agreed with Azizus to kill the kings, came with his forces and sent for Antiochus. Antiochus went unsuspectingly in response, but after pretending to welcome him like a friend, Sampsiceramus seized the king; for the time being he held him captive, but later he killed him. In a similar way Azizus, in accordance with their agreement to divide up the kingdom of Syria between them, attempted to assassinate Philippus; but Philippus became aware of the plot, and fled to Antioch.
[2] G # While Pompeius was staying near Damascus in Syria, he was approached by Aristobulus the king of the Jews and his brother Hyrcanus, who were in dispute over who should be king. The most eminent of the Jews, more than two hundred in number, met the imperator and explained that their ancestors, when they rebelled from Demetrius, had sent envoys to the senate. In response, the senate granted them authority over the Jews, who were to be free and autonomous, under the leadership not of a king but of a high priest. But their current rulers, who had abolished their ancestral laws, had unjustly forced the citizens into subjection; with the help of a large number of mercenaries, they had procured the kingship through violence and much bloodshed. Pompeius postponed a decision about their dispute until later; but he strongly rebuked Hyrcanus and his associates for the lawless behaviour of the Jews and the wrongs they had committed against the Romans. He said that they deserved a stronger and harsher reprimand, but in conformity with the traditional clemency of the Romans, if they were obedient from now onwards, he would grant them forgiveness.
[3] G Since we are about to give an account of the war against the Jews, we consider it appropriate, before we proceed further, in the first place to relate the origin of this nation, and their customs. In ancient times a great plague occurred in Egypt, and many ascribed the cause of it to the gods, who were offended with them. For since the multitudes of strangers of different nationalities, who lived there, made use of their foreign rites in religious ceremonies and sacrifices, the ancient manner of worshipping the gods, practised by the ancestors of the Egyptians, had been quite lost and forgotten. 2 Therefore the native inhabitants concluded that, unless all the foreigners were driven out, they would never be free from their miseries. All the foreigners were forthwith expelled, and the most valiant and noble among them, under some notable leaders, were brought to Greece and other places, as some relate; the most famous of their leaders were Danaus and Cadmus. But the majority of the people descended into a country not far from Egypt, which is now called Judaea and at that time was altogether uninhabited.
3 The leader of this colony was one Moses, a very wise and valiant man, who, after he had possessed himself of the country, amongst other cities, built that now most famous city, Jerusalem, and the temple there, which is so greatly revered among them. He instituted the holy rites and ceremonies with which they worship God; and made laws for the methodical government of the state. He also divided the people into twelve tribes, which he regarded as the most perfect number; because it corresponds to the twelve months within a whole year. 4 He made no representation or image of gods, because he considered that nothing of a human shape was applicable to God; but that heaven, which surrounds the earth, was the only God, and that all things were in its power. But he so arranged the rites and ceremonies of the sacrifices, and the manner and nature of their customs, as that they should be wholly different from all other nations; for, as a result of the expulsion of his people, he introduced a most inhuman and unsociable manner of life. He also picked out the most accomplished men, who were best fitted to rule and govern the whole nation, and he appointed them to be priests, whose duty was continually to attend in the temple, and employ themselves in the public worship and service of God. 5 He also made them judges, for the decision of the most serious cases, and committed to their care the preservation of their laws and customs. Therefore they say that the Jews have never had any king; but that the leadership of the people has always been entrusted to a priest, who excels all the rest in prudence and virtue. They call him the chief priest, and they regard him as the messenger and interpreter of the mind and commands of God. 6 And they say that he, in all their public assemblies and other meetings, discloses what has been commanded; and the Jews are so compliant in these matters, that forthwith they prostrate themselves upon the ground, and adore him as the high priest, who has interpreted to them the will of God. At the end of the laws this is added: "This is what Moses has heard from God and proclaims to the Jews. " This lawgiver also laid down many excellent rules and instructions for military affairs, in which he trained the youth to be brave and steadfast, and to endure all miseries and hardships. 7 Moreover, he undertook many wars against the neighbouring nations, and gained much territory by force of arms, which he gave as allotments to his countrymen, in such a way as that everyone shared alike, except the priests, who had a larger portion than the rest; so that, because they had a larger income, they might continually attend upon the public worship of God without interruption. Neither was it lawful for any man to sell his allotment, lest, by the greed of those that bought the allotments, the others might be made poor and oppressed, and so the nation might suffer a shortage of manpower.
8 G He also ordered the inhabitants to be careful in rearing their children, who are brought up with very little expense; and by that means the Jewish nation has always been very populous. As to their marriages and funerals, he instituted customs far different from all other people. But under the empires which rose up in later ages, especially during the rule of the Persians, and in the time of the Macedonians, who overthrew the Persians, through intermingling with foreign nations, many of the traditional customs among the Jews were altered . . . This is what Hecataeus of (? ) Abdera has related about the Jews.
[4] G This is a copy of the inscription that Pompeius set up, recording his achievements in Asia.
Pompeius Magnus, son of Gnaeus, imperator, freed the coasts of the world and all the islands within the Ocean from the attacks of pirates. He rescued from siege the kingdom of Ariobarzanes, Galatia and the territories and provinces beyond there, Asia and Bithynia. He protected Paphlagonia, Pontus, Armenia and Achaïa, also Iberia, Colchis, Mesopotamia, Sophene and Gordyene. He subjugated Dareius king of the Medes, Artoles king of the Iberians, Aristobulus king of the Jews, and Aretas king of the Nabataean Arabs, also Syria next to Cilicia, Judaea, Arabia, the province of Cyrenaica, the Achaei, Iozygi, Soani and Heniochi, and the other tribes that inhabit the coast between Colchis and Lake Maeotis, together with the kings of these tribes, nine in number, and all the nations that dwell between the Pontic Sea and the Red Sea. He extended the borders of the empire up to the borders of the world. He maintained the revenues of the Romans, and in some cases he increased them. He removed the statues and other images of the gods, and all the other treasure of the enemies, and dedicated to the goddess {Minerva} 12,060 pieces of gold and 307 talents of silver.
[5] G # In Rome, a certain Catilina, who was heavily in debt, and Lentulus, surnamed Sura, collected a mob and planned an uprising against the senate, as follows. A festival was due to occur, in which it was customary for those who had eminent patrons to send gifts to their patrons, and for this reason their houses were kept open throughout the night. Therefore they decided that on this occasion they would send assailants to the houses of the victims of the plot; the assailants would enter the houses without suspicion by pretending to bring gifts, but they would secretly be carrying swords, and when a few of them had gathered in each house, at one and the same time they would slaughter almost the whole senate. Although the plot had been carefully organised in this way, the senate was preserved from it by remarkable coincidence. For more than four hundred persons had been assigned to carry out the killing, but one of them happened to be in love with a girl, who often rebuffed him; and he told her that in a few days he would have mastery of her life. She was amazed by this statement, and could not understand why he made the threat; but since the youth persisted with his claim, while they were relaxing and drinking together, she pretended to be enjoying his company, and asked him to explain what he meant by his remark; and because he was in love with her, and wanted to please her, he told her the complete truth. At the time she kept quiet, pretending to be pleased with what she had heard; but on the following day she met with the wife of Cicero the consul, and privately informed her of what had happened and of what the youth had said. When the conspiracy had been revealed in this way, Cicero, partly by menacing threats and partly by gentle persuasion, learned all the details of the plot from them.
[5a] G # Lucius Sergius, surnamed Catilina, being heavily in debt, planned an uprising. Marcus Cicero, the consul, composed a speech about the anticipated troubles. Catilina was summoned to the meeting, and Cicero made the accusation to his face; but Catilina said that in no way would he admit his guilt by going into voluntary exile without a trial. Cicero put the question to the senators, whether they considered that Catilina should be banished from the city. When most of them kept quiet, because they were reluctant to condemn Catilina in his presence, Cicero tried another ploy, to reveal the true opinion of the senate. He put a second question to the senators, whether they would command Quintus Catulus to leave Rome. With one voice, they all exclaimed that they did not agree and that they were unhappy with the suggestion. Turning back to Catilina, Cicero pointed out how loudly the senators objected, if they did not consider it right for someone to go into exile; so it was clear from their previous silence that they agreed that Catilina should go into exile. Catilina said that he would ponder on this privately, and he withdrew from the meeting.
2 G According to the proverb, less is the enemy of more.
[6] G Vergilius, Lucian and Galen mention this Cleopatra, and Plutarch as well, and also Diodorus, Georgius the chronicler and others.
[7] G See Diodorus, 1. 5'1. {The start of the Caesar's Gallic wars has been chosen by Diodorus to be the end of his history}
2 G See Diodorus, 3. 38'. 2-3. {Diodorus will give an account of the most northerly regions of Europe, when he describes the exploits of Caesar}
3 G See Diodorus, 5. 21'2. {Diodorus will describe Caesar's invasion of Britain at the appropriate time}
4 G See Diodorus, 5. 22'1. {Diodorus will record the customs and peculiarities of the British when he comes to describe Caesar's invasion of Britain}
[8] G Some of the books were filched and published before they had been corrected and properly completed, when we were not yet fully satisfied with what had been written. We disown these books. To prevent the books that have appeared from damaging the reputation of the entire History, we have decided to compose a summary that will disprove such errors. We have arranged the work in forty books; in the first six we have related the events and myths of the times before the Trojan war; in these books we have not accurately defined the dates, because no fixed chronology is available . . .
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[14] G They shared the spoils with the soldiers, in order to give them a taste of the profits of war and make them more disposed to fight for freedom .
[15] G # Marius led his army into the plain of the Samnites, and encamped in front of the enemy. Pompaedius, who had been invested with the chief command of the Marsi, also advanced with his troops. As the two armies approached one another, their warlike attitude changed into a peaceful mood. 2 When they came into sight, the soldiers of each army recognized many of their hosts, their comrades, and finally many of those with whom they were bound by family ties. Natural sympathy therefore drove them to exchange kind words; they called each other by their names, and exhorted them not to defile themselves with the murder of their kinsmen. Putting aside their panoplies, which they held ready to fight, they stretched out their right hands, and cordially embraced. 3 Marius, when he saw this happening, also left the ranks; Pompaedius did the same, and the two leaders talked amicably. While these leaders were talking at length about peace and citizenship, both sides were filled with joy and hope, and instead of a battle, there was the appearance of a festival. By appropriate words the (? ) commanders encouraged a peaceful conclusion, and they all gladly abstained from bloodshed and fighting.
[16] G # There was one Agamemnon, a Cilician, who on account of his wicked deeds and murder of allies, was committed to prison in Asculum by the Romans. This man was released by the Picentes, and in gratitude for the kindness shown to him, fought resolutely on their side. Being inured to robberies from a boy, he joined with others of a similar nature, and ravaged the enemy's country.
[17] G Although he was not from an illustrious family and he lacked the resources for advancement, yet he unexpectedly achieved great repute and glory . . . Fortune tends towards what is fitting, and it involves those who plot evil against others in similar misfortunes of their own. They may act like tyrants for a time, but the crimes of these tyrants will eventually be punished.
[18] G A Cretan came to the consul Julius and offered to act as a traitor. "If by my help," he said, "you defeat your enemies, what reward will you give me? " Caesar replied, "I'll make you a citizen of Rome, and you will be in favour with me. " At these words, the Cretans laughed and said, "Citizenship is considered a nonsense amongst the Cretans. We aim at gain when we shoot our arrows; we only work on land and sea to get money, and so I have come here in search of money. As for political rights, grant that to those who are fighting for it and who are buying this nonsense with their blood. " The consul laughed at this and said to the man, "Well, if we are successful, I will give a reward of a thousand drachmae. "
[19] G # The people of Aesernia, pressed by famine, found some way of driving the slaves out of their city, because circumstances forced them to try anything and ensure their salvation by the destruction of others. Beset by this terrible misfortune, the slaves withdrew, but they found recompense for the cruelty of their masters in the kindness of their enemies.
2 G The people of Aesernia ate dogs and other animals; for their bodily needs forced them to act completely against convention, and to make use of abominable and unusual food.
3 G The soul of man partakes of the divine nature; sometimes it can predict the future, and by using natural images it can foresee what is going to occur. This is what happened to women of Pinna, who lamented their misfortune before it happened to them.
4 G The Italians led the children of the people of Pinna to the foot of the walls of the city, and threatened to kill them if they did not abandon their alliance with Rome. But the people of Pinna were prepared to suffer terribly, and replied : "If you deprive us of our children, we will produce some more easily, as long as we remain faithful to the Romans. "
5 G These Italians, despairing of taking the city by persuasion, performed an act of great cruelty. They brought the children up to the walls, and ordered those who were about to die to implore the mercy of their fathers, and to raise their hands to heaven, begging the sun, which oversees the life of all men, to save their innocent lives.
[20] G The inhabitants of the city of Pinna fell into most dreadful calamities on account of their constant fidelity to the Romans; for, being obstinately resolved not to desert the Romans, they were forced to put aside any sense of natural affection, and watch their children being slaughtered before their eyes.
[21] G Their warlike ardour was such that they could not be surpassed by anyone, in fearlessly braving all dangers. Although they were outnumbered the besiegers, they made up for their lack of numbers by their extraordinary courage.
[22] G The Italians, who had so often fought brilliantly on behalf of the Romans, now that they were fighting for themselves, showed even more bravery than in their previous victories. For their part, the Romans, who were fighting against their former subjects, did not want to appear to be outdone by their inferiors.
[23] G # Lamponius charged at Crassus, in the belief that the people ought not to fight for the leaders, but the leaders should fight for the people.
[24] G The Romans and Italians fought to be able to bring in the crops. They kept on slaughtering each other in their confrontations; for with the wheat close at hand and ready to be harvested, they strove to obtain this essential food by mutual bloodshed. The soldiers did not wait for a command from their leaders; nature spurred them on to acts of bravery, because lack of food compelled them. They all preferred to die gloriously by the sword of the enemy, rather than by hunger.
[25] G # Lucius Sulla bravely and gallantly performed most notable actions, and his fame and renown was celebrated all over the city. The people of Rome judged him worthy of the consulship, looking upon him as a man eminent for both his valour and his skill as a general; in summary, it was clear that he was likely to reach the highest pitch of glory.
[26] G Mithridates having conquered the Roman generals in Asia, and taken many prisoners, sent them all home with clothing and provisions for the journey. This mild treatment was reported everywhere, and the cities generally came flocking over to him; so that envoys came to him from all cities, inviting him by their public decrees to enter their territory, calling him their god and deliverer. Upon notice of the king's approach, the people came in crowds out of the several cities, wearing bright garments to greet him, and received him with great joy and acclamation.
[27] G # Mithridates' party swept all before them in Asia, and as there was nothing to stop them, all the cities revolted from the Romans. The Lesbians resolved not only to surrender themselves to the king, but also to deliver up Aquilius, who had fled to Mytilene, and was receiving treatment for an illness there. Therefore they sent to his lodgings some youths, chosen for their strength, who all rushed inside the house, and seized Aquilius and bound him, supposing he would be a splendid present to send, and very acceptable to the king. 2 . . . but he, though he was but as yet a youth, performed a most noble and heroic act ; for preferring death before disgrace and humiliating punishment, he pre-empted the men who were ready to hurry him away, and killed himself; by this desperate act he so shocked those that came to seize him, that they did not dare approach him. His valour and resolution, therefore, became famous everywhere; by putting an end to his own life, he had rescued himself with an undaunted courage from the torments awaiting him.
[28] G # When it came to a sea-fight, the Rhodians were outclassed in nothing except the number of their ships; and in all other respects they were far superior. They were the better pilots, and knew better how to arrange their ships and ply the oars; they had the braver soldiers, and the more expert commanders. The Cappadocians, on the other hand, were inexperienced and seldom exercised in sea-fights; and, what is a common cause of failure, they acted without any discipline. It is true, indeed, they were as eager to fight as the Rhodians, because they were to fight within sight of the king, and therefore wished to demonstrate their loyalty and affection to him. Since they only surpassed their enemies in the number of their ships, they used all the arts and contrivances they could devise to surround and hem them in.
[29] G # Marius went every day to the Campus, where he took part in military exercises. He wanted to correct the weakness and slowness of age by daily exercise and hard work.
2 G Gaius Marius was the most renowned person of his time, when he was young: he was ambitious of honour and glory, free from greed, and performed many noble acts, both in Africa and Europe, so that his name was famous, and celebrated everywhere. But when he reached old age, he coveted the riches of king Mithridates, and the wealth of the cities of Asia, and sought against the laws to have the province, which was allotted to Cornelius Sulla, transferred to himself. As a result, he suffered many calamities, and brought disgrace on his previous good reputation; 3 for he not only failed to obtain those riches which he coveted, but also he lost all his own possessions, when his property was confiscated because of his extraordinary greed. He was, moreover, condemned to death by his own country; but escaped that punishment by running away, and wandered solitarily and alone up and down Italy. At length he was forced out of Africa and reached Numidia, without any resources, servants or friends. Afterwards, when the civil wars broke out in Rome, he joined with the enemies of his fatherland, and, being victorious, he was not contented with his return home, but stirred up the flames of war. At length, having gained a seventh consulship, and by his own misfortunes learned the inconstancy of fortune, he was unwilling to put things to a hazard any more.
4 G # Therefore, foreseeing the impending war that Sulla would bring upon his country, he willingly departed from life; but he left behind him the seeds of a grievous war, which involved his son and country in most dreadful calamities. # His son, being forced to contend with an enemy more powerful than himself, perished most miserably in a vault, where he fled to hide himself. The people of Rome and cities of Italy descended into the cruel war that had long awaited them, and suffered many dreadful calamities. 5 # For two principal men of the city, Scaevola and Crassus, without any course of legal proceedings, were murdered in the senate; their cruel murder plainly demonstrated the extent of those miseries that then threatened both the city and all Italy: for the majority of the senators, and the most eminent men of the city, were slaughtered by Sulla, and no less than a hundred thousand soldiers were slain, either in mutinies or battles; and all these miseries were caused at the start by the greed of Marius.
[30] G Wealth, the subject of so much dispute amongst men, sometimes causes great misfortunes to those who long to gain it. It drives them to unjust and criminal actions; it provides fuel for licentiousness, and leads the unwise into shameful behaviour. Thus we see these men fall into the greatest misfortune, and bring disaster on their cities. 2 Such is the pernicious power of gold over men, when they foolishly over-value it. In their insatiable greed, they apply to everything these verses of the poets:
"Blessed gold, most beautiful gift to mortals, greater pleasure than a mother . . . "
And also:
"Let them call me wicked, as long as I make a profit. "
And these verses:
"Blessed gold, offshoot of the land, what desire you inflame in mortals! You are mightiest of all, you are tyrant of all. In a war you are more powerful even than Ares. You entice everything; the trees and wild animals may have followed Orpheus with his songs, but you lead the whole earth, the sea and all-finding Ares. "
3 G Yet how much better it would be to quote the poems which give the opposite advice:
"Lady wisdom , how I admire you! I would not wish the god to give me the bright gleam of gold, or a tyrant's power, if I cannot have wisdom. Furthest from Zeus stands the man who has amassed a fair treasure. "
Book 38 →
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Diodorus Siculus, Books 38 & 39
( fragments covering the period 87 - 72 B. C. )
In the traditional arrangement of the fragments of Diodorus, the fragments of books 38 and 39 are shown together, because it is not certain where the split between the two books occurred.
Click on the G symbols to go to the Greek text of the fragments.
Click on the # symbols to go to lists of other ancient sources which refer to the same events.
← Book 37
[1] G # The Romans sent envoys to Cinna to treat for peace. Cinna replied, "I left Rome as consul, and I will not return there as a private man. "
[2] G Metellus, with the army that he had, approached the camp of Cinna. They agreed, after talking together, that Cinna should remain as (? ) general, and Metellus was the first to acknowledge this title, but they were both blamed later for what they had done. When Marius met Cinna, he declared that, with victory almost won, they should not give up the power that had been divinely granted to them. Metellus, when he returned to Rome, had a violent quarrel with Octavius, who accused him of betraying the consuls and his country. 2 Octavius said that he would not in any way allow Cinna to become absolute master of Rome, and that even if he was abandoned by everyone, he would still act in a manner worthy of his command, together with like-minded men. Finally, he added that if he was left with no hope, he would set fire to his house, and by consigning himself and his wealth to the flames, die bravely as a free man.
[3] G When Cinna agreed to peace, upon condition that be might be restored to the consulship, Merula, who had been appointed consul in place of Cinna, proved himself to be a good citizen, and demonstrated his great love for his country. Addressing himself to the senate and people, and, stating what might most tend to the public good, he promised that he would promote concord. Since he had been chosen consul much against his will, he declared that he would now freely, of his own accord, give up his authority into the hands of Cinna; upon which he promptly surrendered his consulship, and became a private citizen. The senate then sent ambassadors to Cinna, and, having agreed with him upon the terms of peace, brought him back into the city as consul.
[4] G # Cinna and Marius called together a council of the principal leaders, and consulted what measures and methods should be taken to settle and confirm the peace. At length they resolved to put to death the most eminent persons amongst their opponents, who were most capable of challenging them; so that after their own group and party had been purged of enemies, they and their friends could govern for the future with more security, according to their own will and pleasure. 2 Then they completely disregarded all the former pacts and agreements; men were proscribed and butchered in every place, without any recourse to justice. At that time Quintus Lutatius Catulus, who had celebrated a glorious triumph for his victory over the Cimbri, and was greatly esteemed by the Roman people, was accused by a tribune of the plebs on a capital offence. 3 Fearing imminent danger from the accusation, he approached Marius, to entreat him to intercede for his deliverance. Marius, who he had been his friend formerly, but through some suspicion he now entertained of him, had become his enemy, merely replied, "You must die. " Upon this, Catulus perceived that he had no hope of preservation and sought to die without disgrace. He killed himself in a strange and unusual way; for he shut himself up in a newly plastered house, and caused a fire to be kindled, by the smoke of which, and the moist vapours from the lime, he was there stifled to death.
[5] G The civil war that broke out in Rome in the consulship of Sulla was (according to Livy and Diodorus) heralded by many omens. When the sky was cloudless and perfectly clear, a trumpet was heard making a sharp and plaintive sound, and all who heard it were struck with fear. The Etruscan soothsayers declared that this portent heralded a revolution in human affairs; they added that there are eight different races of men, each differing in their character and manner of life. The deity has assigned to each of them a certain period of time, which is the length of a great year. At the end of this period and the beginning of the following one, there appears some miraculous sign, either on earth or in heaven, from which the sages immediately know that a race of men has arisen with a different character and manner of life, and that the gods have less care for them than for previous men. Whether this is true or not, is something that I will not discuss here.
[6] G Cinna and Marius were soon punished by divine vengeance, after their massacre of citizens and their outrages against other men. Sulla, who was the only one remaining out of their enemies, destroyed the army of Mithridates in Boeotia, took Athens by storm, and made a treaty with Mithridates; then he took over the fleet of Mithridates and returned to Italy. In a very short time, he destroyed the armies of Cinna and Marius, and made himself master of Rome and all Italy. He slew all the bloodthirsty supporters of Cinna, and exterminated the family of Marius. Many reasonable men considered that the punishment of the perpetrators of so many murders was imposed by divine providence. Such a punishment ought to be a valuable lesson for those who follow the path of impiety, prompting them to turn away from their wickedness.
[7] G # Sulla, being in great need of money, ransacked three temples that were full of consecrated gold and silver; that is, the temple of Apollo at Delphi, the temple of Asclepius at Epidaurus, and the famous temple of Zeus at Olympia; from the last of these he carried away a vast treasure, for it had never before been violated. But as to the temple at Delphi, the Phocians, in the time of the Sacred War, had drained it of its wealth. When Sulla, therefore, had in this way amassed a great amount of gold and silver, and other treasure, he was sufficiently furnished with money to carry on the war in Italy. But having, without any fear or religious scruples, thus robbed the temples, he consecrated an area of land to the gods, to provide an annual income instead of the money; and he would often, in a joking manner, say that he was sure to be victorious in all encounters, because he had the support of the gods, who had contributed so much to his funds.
[8] G # Fimbria, having out-paced Flaccus, and got a long way before him in his march, thought he had now gained a most convenient opportunity to undertake a bold venture; and therefore, to gain the support of the soldiers, he permitted them to ravage the land of their allies, as if it was enemy territory, and to seize anyone that they met. The soldiers very readily took advantage of this liberty, so that within a few days they had collected an abundance of wealth by their plundering. But those that had been spoiled of their goods went to meet the consul, and made bitter complaints to him concerning the injuries that they had received. The consul, who was much troubled at what had happened, commanded them to follow him, and he himself would see that restitution was made to everyone who had suffered. Accordingly with threats he ordered Fimbria to hand back to the owners immediately whatsoever had been taken away from them. Fimbria laid all the blame upon the soldiers, as if they had done this without his permission; but covertly he advised the soldiers not to obey the consul's command or allow what they had gained by force of arms, and the right of war, to be taken away from them. Therefore, when Flaccus commanded restitution to be made of their loot, adding threats to his commands, the soldiers refused to obey, so that a great tumult and mutiny arose in the army.
2 # Fimbria, having again crossed the Hellespont, encouraged his soldiers to commit looting and all kinds of outrages. He exacted money from the cities, and divided it amongst the soldiers, who, without any control on their actions, had the power to do whatever they pleased. Lured on by the hope of a large profit, they held Fimbria in great affection, as one who had deserved extremely well of the whole army. Moreover, when he captured any cities that resisted him, he gave them over to the plunder of his soldiers, and in this way he handed out Nicomedeia to be plundered by the soldiers.
3 The same Fimbria pretended that he had come as a friend to Cyzicus. But as soon as he entered there, he began to impeach the wealthiest of the citizens, and charge them with capital offences. To terrify the others, after he had passed sentence on two of them, he caused them to be whipped with rods, and executed them. He then seized their property, and so by the deaths of these two he instilled great fear into the others, who were forced to give him everything they had, as a ransom for their lives.
4 # Within a short time Fimbria embroiled the province in the sort of misfortunes that might be expected from a man who had in such an impious way grasped the power to do whatever he wished. He ravaged Phrygia like a hurricane, and dashed around the cities, overwhelming everyone he met. When he killed himself, by his single death he paid the debt for the many deaths that he had caused.
[9] G # Gnaeus Pompeius devoted himself to a military life, and inured himself to the hardships and fatigues of war, so that in a short time he was acknowledged as an expert in military matters. Casting off all sloth and idleness, he was always, night and day, doing something or other that was useful for the conduct of the war. He was very sparing in his diet, ate his food sitting, and altogether refrained from baths and other such luxurious activities. He allotted fewer hours for sleep than nature demanded, and spent the rest of the night in the concerns of a general, relating to the problems that he faced during the day; so that, by his habitual planning for the uncertain events of war, he became most accomplished in military activities. And therefore, in far less time than another could have prepared himself to take charge of an army that was already raised, in that time he raised an army, trained them, and disciplined them. And when the news of his remarkable exploits was brought to Rome, everybody at first, reflecting upon his youth rather than on his valour, supposed that the messengers were merely exaggerating in their accounts. But when these reports were confirmed by the clear evidence of events, the senate sent out Junius against him, whom he routed and put to flight.
[10] G # Gnaeus Pompeius got a fine reward for his virtue, and gained distinction for his valour. He continued to act in accordance with his previous achievements, and informed Sulla by letter of the increase in his power. Sulla admired the youth for many other reasons, and berated the senators who were with him, both reproaching them and urging them to be equally zealous. Sulla said that he was amazed that Pompeius, who was still extremely young, had snatched such a large army away from the enemy, but those who were far superior to him in age and reputation could hardly keep even their own servants in a dependable alliance.
[11] G # Adrianus, the governor of Utica, was burnt alive by the people of Utica, Although this was a dreadful crime, it did not result in any punishment, because the victim had acted so wickedly.
[12] G # Even many of those who had already completed their period of military service, as defined by the law, willingly volunteered to join the consul Marius, the son of Marius, when the young man set off to war. Because they were more advanced in years, they were eager to show their juniors what they could achieve through their military training and their experience of battle and the other dangers of war.
[13] G Throughout the cities and nations of Italy, there were numerous harsh investigations and attempts to discover their attitudes towards Marius and Sulla. They were therefore obliged to shift their pretended allegiance from one side to the other, and to appease whoever was present; but those who were responsible for raising troops for each of the factions were regularly competing with each other, and by their severe investigations they forced the cities to reveal their true opinions.
[14] G # Marius, because he lacked any necessary provisions, was abandoned by his soldiers. Marcus Perpenna, the governor of Sicily, alone remained faithful to him. Sulla sent envoys to him and urged him to join his party; but Perpenna, far from accepting this invitation, retained his strong attachment to Marius. He affirmed with threats that he would cross with all his forces from Sicily to Italy, and would rescue Marius from Praeneste.
[15] G # And now that the Marsic war was coming to an end, another great civil war arose in Rome, stirred up by Sulla and the young Gaius Marius, son of that Marius who had been seven times consul. In this strife many tens of thousands of men perished, until at length Sulla prevailed; and being created dictator, he called himself Epaphroditus {Felix}. This boastful title was not wholly inappropriate, because he prospered in all his wars, and died a natural death after his victories. But Marius, although he behaved with great gallantry in the war against Sulla, was at length routed, and fled with fifteen thousand men to Praeneste, where he was besieged for a long time. At length, being totally deserted, and seeing no way of escape, he earnestly entreated one of his faithful slaves to help him put an end to the misfortunes that surrounded him. After much persuasion, the slave at one stroke put an end to his master's life, and then immediately killed himself. And so at length ended this civil war. However, some remnants of Marius' party continued to give Sulla trouble for a while longer, until they too were suppressed, like the others.
[16] G # Scipio's army, which had been corrupted, went over to Sulla. Scipio thought that he was doomed, but Sulla sent to him a squadron of horsemen, to conduct him wherever he pleased. Thus after he had been forced in a moment to lay aside the symbols of his authority, he was subsequently, by the kindness of Sulla, brought as private citizen to the place he chose. But soon afterwards Scipio resumed the symbols of his authority, and again marched out with a considerable army.
[17] G # In the meantime, the most eminent persons in Rome were put to death on false accusations. Even Scaevola, the pontifex maximus, who had the highest reputation amongst the citizens, came to an unworthy end. The Romans were fortunate only in one thing, that this venerable priest did not withdraw into the most sacred precinct {the temple of Vesta}. For the cruelty of the murderers was such, that they would have laid him upon the very altar, and cut his throat there, so that by his own blood he would have extinguished that fire, which religious devotion has ceaselessly kept burning ever since ancient times.
[18] G To praise good men, and rebuke disreputable men, is the most effective way of encouraging others to act nobly.
2 G Men who were able to devise good plans, and to put their decisions into action . . .
[19] G # When the proscription lists were fixed up in the forum, a multitude of people promptly came flocking in to read them.
Most of them pitied those that were thus condemned to die. But one amongst them, a most malicious and insolent character, gloried over the miserable fate of the afflicted, and yelled out most spiteful remarks against them. Some incensed deity soon repaid him with a just revenge; for he happened to read his own name as one proscribed at the bottom of the list. He covered his head, and tried to run away through the thickest of the crowd; for he hoped in this way to escape detection and reach safety. But someone who stood nearby recognised him, and exposed him as one of the condemned; he was instantly surrounded and seized, and then put to death, to the great joy of all that heard it.
[20] G # Pompeius, seeing that Sicily had been deprived of justice for a long time, applied himself to the business of the law courts. He decided both public and private controversies, and discharged his duties with so much diligence and integrity, that no-one ever merited more commendation. Although he was only twenty-two years of age, at a time of life when he might have distracted by foolish youthful pleasures, yet he conducted himself with so much gravity and sobriety throughout his sojourn in Sicily, that the virtue of the young man was greatly admired by all the Sicilians.
[21] G The barbarian Spartacus showed himself to be grateful to someone who had helped him; for nature itself leads even barbarians, without any education, to reward their benefactors with proper gratitude.
[22] G A victory won through fighting brings honour both to the soldiers and to their leaders; but successes that are achieved through the skill of the general, bring renown solely to the general.
2 G An unstoppable impulse spread amongst the barbarians, prompting them to defect to the Romans.
[22a] G # Sertorius, seeing that he could do nothing to stop the natives from taking this course, took harsh measures against his allies. Some he killed after bringing accusations against them; others he put under guard; and he confiscated the property of the wealthiest of them. Although he gathered much silver and gold in this way, he did not put it into the common war-fund, but kept it for himself. He did not use it to supply the pay for his soldiers, or share it with his officers. He did not allow his council or advisers to share in judging capital offences, but he heard the cases by himself, and as the sole judge he pronounced the verdict. He did not deign to invite his officers to share his meals, and showed no kindness to his friends. In general, because his power had been brought low, he became savage and behaved like a tyrant towards everybody. As a result he was hated by the common people, and plotted against by his friends.
# His assassination was accomplished in the following way. The most influential of his officers, Perpenna and Tarquitius, conferred together and decided to kill Sertorius, because he had become a tyrant. Perpenna was chosen to be the leader of the plot, and he invited Sertorius to dinner, at the same time making sure that his fellow conspirators would be present at the meal. After Sertorius had arrived, the conspirators attacked him, and he was killed by Tarquitius and Antonius, who were sitting on either side of his couch.
[22b] G # As the result of a plot laid against him, Mithridates was almost captured by the Cyzicenes. This attempt was made by a Roman centurion, who had joined in the tunnelling work. Because both sides were digging tunnels in the area, they frequently encountered and even talked to each other; and from these encounters he became known to the king's men. Once, when he was caught on his own in the tunnels, one of the enemy pressed him to betray his allies, and he pretended to agree to the suggestion. When the king was informed of this, in his desire to capture the city he promised a reward and arranged a time to discuss the betrayal. Because the Roman demanded a surety for the agreement, the king sent men to settle it on his behalf. But the Roman said that he would not trust the agreement, unless the king gave him an oath in person. Mithridates considered that it was beneath his royal dignity to descend into the mines. But since the traitor said that he would not co-operate otherwise, and he was very eager to capture the city, Mithridates was forced to agree to the request. As a result the king would have been captured, if he had not been protected by one of his friends who, rightly suspecting a plot, produced a device that fitted in the tunnel and could quickly be opened and closed. When this had been placed in the tunnel, and Mithridates and his friends went in, the centurion . . . the men who intended to help him seize the king, drew his sword and rushed at the king. But just in time the king closed the gate, and so escaped the danger.
Book 40 →
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Diodorus Siculus, Book 40
( fragments covering the period 71 - ? 60 B. C. )
Click on the G symbols to go to the Greek text of the fragments.
Click on the # symbols to go to lists of other ancient sources which refer to the same events.
← Books 38 & 39
[1] G # Marcus Antonius agreed peace terms with the Cretans, which they observed for some time; but afterwards, they called together a council to consider what would be most advantageous for them. The older and more prudent amongst them advised to send envoys to Rome, to defend themselves against those accusations that were brought against them, and by fair words and entreaties, to achieve a reconciliation with the senate. To this end they despatched thirty men, chosen out of their most eminent citizens, as envoys, who privately visited the senators at their individual houses, and by courting them with fine words, won over those that had most influence in their meetings. 2 When they were introduced into the senate, they made their defence against the matters objected against them with great prudence; accurately setting forth their good services, and their support for Roman rule, they requested that they might be restored to their former friendship and alliance. The senate, pleased with what they said, issued a decree, by which they not only acquitted the Cretans of the crimes laid against them, but declared them confederates and friends of the state. But Lentulus, surnamed Spinther, vetoed the decree; and the Cretans then departed. 3 The senate were told on many occasions that the Cretans were joining with the pirates, and sharing in their robberies; and therefore they decreed that the Cretans should surrender all their ships to Rome, even down to a skiff of four oars; and provide three hundred eminent hostages; and send away Lasthenes and Panares; and jointly pay four thousand talents of silver. The Cretans, hearing what was decreed, went into a consultation about these commands imposed upon them. The more prudent amongst them advised that they should comply with all the instructions; but Lasthenes and his associates, fearing that they would be summoned to Rome, where they would be punished for the offences that they had committed, stirred up the people and urged them to maintain those liberties that they had enjoyed ever since time immemorial.
[1a] G Some of the citizens of Antioch, feeling contempt for Antiochus because of his defeat, stirred up the masses and proposed that the king should be banished from the city. There was a great tumult, but when the king prevailed, the leaders of the uprising took fright and fled from Syria. After reaching Cilicia, they decided to bring back Philippus, who was the son of Philippus son of Antiochus Grypus. Philippus agreed to their proposal, and went to meet Azizus the Arab, who willingly received him. Azizus put a diadem on Philippus' head, and restored him to the kingship.
[1b] G Since all his hopes rested on his alliance with Sampsiceramus, he summoned him to come with his forces. Sampsiceramus, who had secretly agreed with Azizus to kill the kings, came with his forces and sent for Antiochus. Antiochus went unsuspectingly in response, but after pretending to welcome him like a friend, Sampsiceramus seized the king; for the time being he held him captive, but later he killed him. In a similar way Azizus, in accordance with their agreement to divide up the kingdom of Syria between them, attempted to assassinate Philippus; but Philippus became aware of the plot, and fled to Antioch.
[2] G # While Pompeius was staying near Damascus in Syria, he was approached by Aristobulus the king of the Jews and his brother Hyrcanus, who were in dispute over who should be king. The most eminent of the Jews, more than two hundred in number, met the imperator and explained that their ancestors, when they rebelled from Demetrius, had sent envoys to the senate. In response, the senate granted them authority over the Jews, who were to be free and autonomous, under the leadership not of a king but of a high priest. But their current rulers, who had abolished their ancestral laws, had unjustly forced the citizens into subjection; with the help of a large number of mercenaries, they had procured the kingship through violence and much bloodshed. Pompeius postponed a decision about their dispute until later; but he strongly rebuked Hyrcanus and his associates for the lawless behaviour of the Jews and the wrongs they had committed against the Romans. He said that they deserved a stronger and harsher reprimand, but in conformity with the traditional clemency of the Romans, if they were obedient from now onwards, he would grant them forgiveness.
[3] G Since we are about to give an account of the war against the Jews, we consider it appropriate, before we proceed further, in the first place to relate the origin of this nation, and their customs. In ancient times a great plague occurred in Egypt, and many ascribed the cause of it to the gods, who were offended with them. For since the multitudes of strangers of different nationalities, who lived there, made use of their foreign rites in religious ceremonies and sacrifices, the ancient manner of worshipping the gods, practised by the ancestors of the Egyptians, had been quite lost and forgotten. 2 Therefore the native inhabitants concluded that, unless all the foreigners were driven out, they would never be free from their miseries. All the foreigners were forthwith expelled, and the most valiant and noble among them, under some notable leaders, were brought to Greece and other places, as some relate; the most famous of their leaders were Danaus and Cadmus. But the majority of the people descended into a country not far from Egypt, which is now called Judaea and at that time was altogether uninhabited.
3 The leader of this colony was one Moses, a very wise and valiant man, who, after he had possessed himself of the country, amongst other cities, built that now most famous city, Jerusalem, and the temple there, which is so greatly revered among them. He instituted the holy rites and ceremonies with which they worship God; and made laws for the methodical government of the state. He also divided the people into twelve tribes, which he regarded as the most perfect number; because it corresponds to the twelve months within a whole year. 4 He made no representation or image of gods, because he considered that nothing of a human shape was applicable to God; but that heaven, which surrounds the earth, was the only God, and that all things were in its power. But he so arranged the rites and ceremonies of the sacrifices, and the manner and nature of their customs, as that they should be wholly different from all other nations; for, as a result of the expulsion of his people, he introduced a most inhuman and unsociable manner of life. He also picked out the most accomplished men, who were best fitted to rule and govern the whole nation, and he appointed them to be priests, whose duty was continually to attend in the temple, and employ themselves in the public worship and service of God. 5 He also made them judges, for the decision of the most serious cases, and committed to their care the preservation of their laws and customs. Therefore they say that the Jews have never had any king; but that the leadership of the people has always been entrusted to a priest, who excels all the rest in prudence and virtue. They call him the chief priest, and they regard him as the messenger and interpreter of the mind and commands of God. 6 And they say that he, in all their public assemblies and other meetings, discloses what has been commanded; and the Jews are so compliant in these matters, that forthwith they prostrate themselves upon the ground, and adore him as the high priest, who has interpreted to them the will of God. At the end of the laws this is added: "This is what Moses has heard from God and proclaims to the Jews. " This lawgiver also laid down many excellent rules and instructions for military affairs, in which he trained the youth to be brave and steadfast, and to endure all miseries and hardships. 7 Moreover, he undertook many wars against the neighbouring nations, and gained much territory by force of arms, which he gave as allotments to his countrymen, in such a way as that everyone shared alike, except the priests, who had a larger portion than the rest; so that, because they had a larger income, they might continually attend upon the public worship of God without interruption. Neither was it lawful for any man to sell his allotment, lest, by the greed of those that bought the allotments, the others might be made poor and oppressed, and so the nation might suffer a shortage of manpower.
8 G He also ordered the inhabitants to be careful in rearing their children, who are brought up with very little expense; and by that means the Jewish nation has always been very populous. As to their marriages and funerals, he instituted customs far different from all other people. But under the empires which rose up in later ages, especially during the rule of the Persians, and in the time of the Macedonians, who overthrew the Persians, through intermingling with foreign nations, many of the traditional customs among the Jews were altered . . . This is what Hecataeus of (? ) Abdera has related about the Jews.
[4] G This is a copy of the inscription that Pompeius set up, recording his achievements in Asia.
Pompeius Magnus, son of Gnaeus, imperator, freed the coasts of the world and all the islands within the Ocean from the attacks of pirates. He rescued from siege the kingdom of Ariobarzanes, Galatia and the territories and provinces beyond there, Asia and Bithynia. He protected Paphlagonia, Pontus, Armenia and Achaïa, also Iberia, Colchis, Mesopotamia, Sophene and Gordyene. He subjugated Dareius king of the Medes, Artoles king of the Iberians, Aristobulus king of the Jews, and Aretas king of the Nabataean Arabs, also Syria next to Cilicia, Judaea, Arabia, the province of Cyrenaica, the Achaei, Iozygi, Soani and Heniochi, and the other tribes that inhabit the coast between Colchis and Lake Maeotis, together with the kings of these tribes, nine in number, and all the nations that dwell between the Pontic Sea and the Red Sea. He extended the borders of the empire up to the borders of the world. He maintained the revenues of the Romans, and in some cases he increased them. He removed the statues and other images of the gods, and all the other treasure of the enemies, and dedicated to the goddess {Minerva} 12,060 pieces of gold and 307 talents of silver.
[5] G # In Rome, a certain Catilina, who was heavily in debt, and Lentulus, surnamed Sura, collected a mob and planned an uprising against the senate, as follows. A festival was due to occur, in which it was customary for those who had eminent patrons to send gifts to their patrons, and for this reason their houses were kept open throughout the night. Therefore they decided that on this occasion they would send assailants to the houses of the victims of the plot; the assailants would enter the houses without suspicion by pretending to bring gifts, but they would secretly be carrying swords, and when a few of them had gathered in each house, at one and the same time they would slaughter almost the whole senate. Although the plot had been carefully organised in this way, the senate was preserved from it by remarkable coincidence. For more than four hundred persons had been assigned to carry out the killing, but one of them happened to be in love with a girl, who often rebuffed him; and he told her that in a few days he would have mastery of her life. She was amazed by this statement, and could not understand why he made the threat; but since the youth persisted with his claim, while they were relaxing and drinking together, she pretended to be enjoying his company, and asked him to explain what he meant by his remark; and because he was in love with her, and wanted to please her, he told her the complete truth. At the time she kept quiet, pretending to be pleased with what she had heard; but on the following day she met with the wife of Cicero the consul, and privately informed her of what had happened and of what the youth had said. When the conspiracy had been revealed in this way, Cicero, partly by menacing threats and partly by gentle persuasion, learned all the details of the plot from them.
[5a] G # Lucius Sergius, surnamed Catilina, being heavily in debt, planned an uprising. Marcus Cicero, the consul, composed a speech about the anticipated troubles. Catilina was summoned to the meeting, and Cicero made the accusation to his face; but Catilina said that in no way would he admit his guilt by going into voluntary exile without a trial. Cicero put the question to the senators, whether they considered that Catilina should be banished from the city. When most of them kept quiet, because they were reluctant to condemn Catilina in his presence, Cicero tried another ploy, to reveal the true opinion of the senate. He put a second question to the senators, whether they would command Quintus Catulus to leave Rome. With one voice, they all exclaimed that they did not agree and that they were unhappy with the suggestion. Turning back to Catilina, Cicero pointed out how loudly the senators objected, if they did not consider it right for someone to go into exile; so it was clear from their previous silence that they agreed that Catilina should go into exile. Catilina said that he would ponder on this privately, and he withdrew from the meeting.
2 G According to the proverb, less is the enemy of more.
[6] G Vergilius, Lucian and Galen mention this Cleopatra, and Plutarch as well, and also Diodorus, Georgius the chronicler and others.
[7] G See Diodorus, 1. 5'1. {The start of the Caesar's Gallic wars has been chosen by Diodorus to be the end of his history}
2 G See Diodorus, 3. 38'. 2-3. {Diodorus will give an account of the most northerly regions of Europe, when he describes the exploits of Caesar}
3 G See Diodorus, 5. 21'2. {Diodorus will describe Caesar's invasion of Britain at the appropriate time}
4 G See Diodorus, 5. 22'1. {Diodorus will record the customs and peculiarities of the British when he comes to describe Caesar's invasion of Britain}
[8] G Some of the books were filched and published before they had been corrected and properly completed, when we were not yet fully satisfied with what had been written. We disown these books. To prevent the books that have appeared from damaging the reputation of the entire History, we have decided to compose a summary that will disprove such errors. We have arranged the work in forty books; in the first six we have related the events and myths of the times before the Trojan war; in these books we have not accurately defined the dates, because no fixed chronology is available . . .
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