Burke,
Rhetoric
of Motives, 22.
The Public Work of Rhetoric_nodrm
Aristotle, On Rhetoric, 3.
2.
4.
10.
Ibid.
, 198, n.
18.
11. Cicero, De Inventione, 63. 26.
12. Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria, 1. 11. 3.
13. Cahn, "Rhetoric of Rhetoric," 79.
14. Lanham, Electronic Word, 151.
15. Plett, "Shakespeare. "
16. Michelle Zerba argues that the roots of Machiavelli's prescriptions for the prince
are in Cicero's De Oratore, which she characterizes as "the most fully developed view of the civic leader as one pitched in a heroic battle for preeminence that must rely on the rhetoric of imposture. " Zerba, "Frauds of Humanism," 220.
17. Cahn, "Rhetoric of Rhetoric," 79.
18. See Roochnik, Of Art and Wisdom, App. 3. Roochnik offers a discussion of Plato's many classifications of techne.
19. Plato, Collected Dialogues, 463-65.
20. My collection of about fifty examples of advice about concealing rhetorical art
started from these two footnotes: see Rhetorica Ad Herennium, IV. vii. 10; Cahn, "Rhetoric of Rhetoric," 84, n. 45. Caplan concludes that "the idea is widespread in ancient rheto- ric. " Rhetorica Ad Herrennium, 250.
21. Aristotle, On Rhetoric, 3. 2. 4.
22. Hesk, Deception and Democracy; Demosthenes, On the False Embassy, 19. 184.
23. Longinus, On the Sublime, 17. 1.
24. Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria, 4. 1. 57.
25. Rhetorica Ad Herennium, 4. 22. 32.
26. Longinus, On the Sublime, 18. 2.
27. Cicero, Brutus, 37. 139.
28. Http://www. perseus. tufts. edu/hopper/text? doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0002:
speech=3. Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria, 9. 4. 147.
29. The connection between spontaneity and sincerity means that all the advice about
concealment is also advice about ethos and helps support Aristotle's contention that ethos is, "almost . . . the most authoritative form of persuasion. " Aristotle, On Rhetoric, 1. 2. 4.
30. Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria, 9. 3. 102.
31. Rhetorica Ad Herennium, 2. 30. 47.
32. Alcidamas, On the Sophists, 12.
33. See, for example, Plato, Gorgias, 452; Euthydemus, 290, Sophist, 219-25; Statesman,
304. I have discussed the use of the hunting analogy at length elsewhere. Miller, "Aris- totelian Topos. "
34. Aristotle, On Rhetoric, 1. 1. 12.
35. Cicero, De Oratore, 1. 8. 32.
36. Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria, 7. 10. 17.
37. Ong, Fighting for Life, 26; Hawhee, Bodily Arts, 17. 38. Consigny, Gorgias, 75.
39. Poulakos, Sophistical Rhetoric, 37.
40. Zerba, "Frauds of Humanism. " 41. Cicero, De Inventione, 1. 15. 20.
42. Ibid. , 1. 17. 24.
43. Rhetorica Ad Herennium, 1. 7. 11.
44. Burke, Rhetoric of Motives, 19.
45. Gorgias, "Encomium of Helen"; Lakoff and Johnson, Metaphors We Live By.
46. Tannen, Argument Culture, 3, 4.
47. Ibid. , 284.
48. Booth, Rhetoric of Rhetoric, 43-50.
49. Toulmin, Cosmopolis; Garsten, Saving Persuasion. Garsten focuses on the political
thought of Hobbes, Rousseau, and Kant, whose rhetoric against rhetoric aimed to pro- tect the modern state from the contentiousness of public judgment.
50. Sophocles, Philoctetes, 1052.
51. Kastely, Rethinking the Rhetorical Tradition, 88. 52. Herzog, Cunning, 24-25.
53. Campbell, Philosophy, 216, 221.
54. Gaonkar, "Object," 298.
55. Andersen, "Lingua Suspecta," 79. The mimetic principle also operates in the visual arts. In Ovid's Metamorphoses, Pygmalion falls in love with the statue of his own cre- ation because the excellence of his art creates a perfect representation of reality, per- suading even its creator by its mimetic power. Ovid concludes, "ars adeo latet arte sua" (so does his art conceal his art). Ovid, Metamorphoses, 10. 252.
56. David, "Correspondence Theory. "
57. Paradis, "Bacon, Linnaeus, and Lavoisier. "
58. See, for example, Ballif, Seduction; Consigny, Gorgias; Kerferd, Sophistic Movement. 59. Closely related to the mimetic principle is what Michael Reddy has called "the
conduit metaphor" for communication, the idea that an unproblematic "message" can be neutrally (mimetically) "encoded" and "transmitted" to a "receiver," and he shows how deeply this set of assumptions is embedded in our language about language. Reddy, "Conduit Metaphor. "
60. Aristotle, On Rhetoric, 3. 7. 9.
61. Longinus, On the Sublime, 22. 1.
62. Dionysius, Critical Essays, 8.
63. Aeschines, "Against Ctesiphon," 3. 99. As Hesk notes, Aeschines' complaint distin-
guishes two levels or types of deceit: the detectable and the undetectable. Hesk, Decep- tion and Democracy, 238.
64. This is different from what Hesk calls "the rhetoric of anti-rhetoric," which con- sists of explicit attacks on the deceptiveness of speech, or one's opponent's speech, rather than the denial of one's own rhetoric. Hesk, Deception and Democracy.
65. Julius Caesar, III: ii.
66. Plutarch, Moralia, 17.
67. Herzog, Cunning, 95.
68. Sprat, History, Sect. 20.
69. Consigny has also made this point, noting that such "seemingly neutral dis-
course" is usually hegemonic. Consigny, "Rhetorical Concealment. "
70. Lanham, Electronic Word, 110; see also his discussion of the work of zoologist Richard Alexander, who aimed to explain why "hypocrisy evolved as the primary hu-
man attribute" (58).
71.
Burke, Rhetoric of Motives, 22. 72. Herzog, Cunning, 121.
73. Ibid. , 84, 121.
Should We Name the Tools? 35
36 Carolyn R. Miller
74. Hariman, "Status," 44.
75. Ibid. , 48.
76. Gaonkar, "Idea of Rhetoric"; see also Cahn's discussion of rhetoric's disciplinary
status, "Rhetoric of Rhetoric. "
77. Booth, Rhetoric of Rhetoric, 149.
78. Hesk, Deception and Democracy, 203-4. 79. Ibid. , 227ff.
80. Schloemann, "Entertainment. " 81. Ibid. , 144.
82. Lanham, Electronic Word.
83. Garsten, Saving Persuasion, 2.
Works Cited
Aeschines. "Against Ctesiphon. " In Aeschines. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1919.
Alcidamas. On the Sophists. Translated by Larue Van Hook. Classical Weekly 12, no. 12. http://classicpersuasion. org/pw/alcidamas/alcsoph1. htm (accessed July 23, 2008). Translated by Charles Darwin Miller, http://www. perseus. tufts. edu/hopper/text? doc =Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0002:speech=3.
Andersen, Oivind. "Lingua Suspecta: On Concealing and Displaying the Art of Rhetoric. " Sumbolae Osloenses 71 (1996): 68-86.
Aristotle. On Rhetoric: A Theory of Civic Discourse. Translated by G. A. Kennedy. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.
Ballif, Michelle. Seduction, Sophistry, and the Woman with the Rhetorical Figure, Rhetorical Philosophy and Theory. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2001.
Booth, Wayne C. The Rhetoric of Rhetoric: The Quest for Effective Communication, Black- well Manifestos. Malden, Mass. : Blackwell, 2004.
Burke, Kenneth. A Rhetoric of Motives. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969. Cahn, Michael. "The Rhetoric of Rhetoric: Six Tropes of Disciplinary Self-Constitution. " In The Recovery of Rhetoric: Persuasive Discourse and Disciplinarity in the Human Sci- ences, edited by R. H. Roberts and J. M. M. Good, 61-84. Charlottesville: University
of Virginia Press, 1993.
Campbell, George. The Philosophy of Rhetoric. 1776. Edited by Lloyd F. Bitzer. Reprint,
Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press. 1963.
Cherwitz, Richard A. "Rhetoric as 'a Way of Knowing': An Attenuation of the Episte-
mological Claims of the 'New Rhetoric. '" Southern Speech Communication Journal 42
(1977): 297-319.
Cicero, Marcus Tullius. Brutus. Translated by G. L. Hendrickson. Loeb Classical Library.
Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1939.
------. De Inventione, De Optimo Genere Oratorum, Topica. Translated by H. M. Hummell.
Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1949.
------. De Oratore. Translated by H. Rackham. 2 vols. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge,
Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1942.
Consigny, Scott. Gorgias: Sophist and Artist. Edited by T. W. Benson. Studies in Rhetoric
and Communication. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2001.
------. "Rhetorical Concealment. " Paper read at Theory of Rhetoric: An Interdiscipli-
nary Conference, Minneapolis, Minn. , 1979.
Cronje? , J. V. "The Principle of Concealment (to Lathein) in Greek Literary Theory. " Acta
Classica 36 (1993): 55-64.
David, Marian. "Correspondence Theory of Truth. " In Stanford Encyclopedia of Philoso- phy, edited by E. N. Zalta. Stanford, Calif. : Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford Uni- versity, 2005. http://plato. stanford. edu/entries/truth-correspondence/ (accessed June 23, 2008).
Demosthenes. On the False Embassy. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1926. http://www. perseus. tufts. edu/hopper/text. jsp? doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0072:speech =19 (accessed July 19, 2008).
Dionysius of Halicarnassus. The Critical Essays. Translated by S. Usher. 2 vols. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1974.
Gaonkar, Dilip Parameshwar. "The Idea of Rhetoric in the Rhetoric of Science. " In Rhetorical Hermeneutics: Invention and Interpretation in the Age of Science, edited by A. G. Gross and W. M. Keith, 25-85. Albany: SUNY Press, 1997.
------. "Object and Method in Rhetorical Criticism: From Wichelns to Leff and McGee. " Western Journal of Speech Communication 54 (1990): 290-316.
Garsten, Bryan. Saving Persuasion: A Defense of Rhetoric and Judgment. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 2006.
Gorgias. "Encomium of Helen. " In Aristotle, on Rhetoric: A Theory of Civic Discourse, edited by G. A. Kennedy, 283-88. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.
Hariman, Robert. "Status, Marginality, and Rhetorical Theory. " Quarterly Journal of Speech 72 (1986): 38-54.
Hawhee, Debra. Bodily Arts: Rhetoric and Athletics in Ancient Greece. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2004.
Herzog, Don. Cunning. Princeton, N. J. : Princeton University Press, 2006.
Hesk, Jon. Deception and Democracy in Classical Athens. Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, 2000.
Kastely, James L. Rethinking the Rhetorical Tradition: From Plato to Postmodernism. New
Haven, Conn. : Yale University Press, 1997.
Kerferd, G. B. The Sophistic Movement.
11. Cicero, De Inventione, 63. 26.
12. Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria, 1. 11. 3.
13. Cahn, "Rhetoric of Rhetoric," 79.
14. Lanham, Electronic Word, 151.
15. Plett, "Shakespeare. "
16. Michelle Zerba argues that the roots of Machiavelli's prescriptions for the prince
are in Cicero's De Oratore, which she characterizes as "the most fully developed view of the civic leader as one pitched in a heroic battle for preeminence that must rely on the rhetoric of imposture. " Zerba, "Frauds of Humanism," 220.
17. Cahn, "Rhetoric of Rhetoric," 79.
18. See Roochnik, Of Art and Wisdom, App. 3. Roochnik offers a discussion of Plato's many classifications of techne.
19. Plato, Collected Dialogues, 463-65.
20. My collection of about fifty examples of advice about concealing rhetorical art
started from these two footnotes: see Rhetorica Ad Herennium, IV. vii. 10; Cahn, "Rhetoric of Rhetoric," 84, n. 45. Caplan concludes that "the idea is widespread in ancient rheto- ric. " Rhetorica Ad Herrennium, 250.
21. Aristotle, On Rhetoric, 3. 2. 4.
22. Hesk, Deception and Democracy; Demosthenes, On the False Embassy, 19. 184.
23. Longinus, On the Sublime, 17. 1.
24. Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria, 4. 1. 57.
25. Rhetorica Ad Herennium, 4. 22. 32.
26. Longinus, On the Sublime, 18. 2.
27. Cicero, Brutus, 37. 139.
28. Http://www. perseus. tufts. edu/hopper/text? doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0002:
speech=3. Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria, 9. 4. 147.
29. The connection between spontaneity and sincerity means that all the advice about
concealment is also advice about ethos and helps support Aristotle's contention that ethos is, "almost . . . the most authoritative form of persuasion. " Aristotle, On Rhetoric, 1. 2. 4.
30. Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria, 9. 3. 102.
31. Rhetorica Ad Herennium, 2. 30. 47.
32. Alcidamas, On the Sophists, 12.
33. See, for example, Plato, Gorgias, 452; Euthydemus, 290, Sophist, 219-25; Statesman,
304. I have discussed the use of the hunting analogy at length elsewhere. Miller, "Aris- totelian Topos. "
34. Aristotle, On Rhetoric, 1. 1. 12.
35. Cicero, De Oratore, 1. 8. 32.
36. Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria, 7. 10. 17.
37. Ong, Fighting for Life, 26; Hawhee, Bodily Arts, 17. 38. Consigny, Gorgias, 75.
39. Poulakos, Sophistical Rhetoric, 37.
40. Zerba, "Frauds of Humanism. " 41. Cicero, De Inventione, 1. 15. 20.
42. Ibid. , 1. 17. 24.
43. Rhetorica Ad Herennium, 1. 7. 11.
44. Burke, Rhetoric of Motives, 19.
45. Gorgias, "Encomium of Helen"; Lakoff and Johnson, Metaphors We Live By.
46. Tannen, Argument Culture, 3, 4.
47. Ibid. , 284.
48. Booth, Rhetoric of Rhetoric, 43-50.
49. Toulmin, Cosmopolis; Garsten, Saving Persuasion. Garsten focuses on the political
thought of Hobbes, Rousseau, and Kant, whose rhetoric against rhetoric aimed to pro- tect the modern state from the contentiousness of public judgment.
50. Sophocles, Philoctetes, 1052.
51. Kastely, Rethinking the Rhetorical Tradition, 88. 52. Herzog, Cunning, 24-25.
53. Campbell, Philosophy, 216, 221.
54. Gaonkar, "Object," 298.
55. Andersen, "Lingua Suspecta," 79. The mimetic principle also operates in the visual arts. In Ovid's Metamorphoses, Pygmalion falls in love with the statue of his own cre- ation because the excellence of his art creates a perfect representation of reality, per- suading even its creator by its mimetic power. Ovid concludes, "ars adeo latet arte sua" (so does his art conceal his art). Ovid, Metamorphoses, 10. 252.
56. David, "Correspondence Theory. "
57. Paradis, "Bacon, Linnaeus, and Lavoisier. "
58. See, for example, Ballif, Seduction; Consigny, Gorgias; Kerferd, Sophistic Movement. 59. Closely related to the mimetic principle is what Michael Reddy has called "the
conduit metaphor" for communication, the idea that an unproblematic "message" can be neutrally (mimetically) "encoded" and "transmitted" to a "receiver," and he shows how deeply this set of assumptions is embedded in our language about language. Reddy, "Conduit Metaphor. "
60. Aristotle, On Rhetoric, 3. 7. 9.
61. Longinus, On the Sublime, 22. 1.
62. Dionysius, Critical Essays, 8.
63. Aeschines, "Against Ctesiphon," 3. 99. As Hesk notes, Aeschines' complaint distin-
guishes two levels or types of deceit: the detectable and the undetectable. Hesk, Decep- tion and Democracy, 238.
64. This is different from what Hesk calls "the rhetoric of anti-rhetoric," which con- sists of explicit attacks on the deceptiveness of speech, or one's opponent's speech, rather than the denial of one's own rhetoric. Hesk, Deception and Democracy.
65. Julius Caesar, III: ii.
66. Plutarch, Moralia, 17.
67. Herzog, Cunning, 95.
68. Sprat, History, Sect. 20.
69. Consigny has also made this point, noting that such "seemingly neutral dis-
course" is usually hegemonic. Consigny, "Rhetorical Concealment. "
70. Lanham, Electronic Word, 110; see also his discussion of the work of zoologist Richard Alexander, who aimed to explain why "hypocrisy evolved as the primary hu-
man attribute" (58).
71.
Burke, Rhetoric of Motives, 22. 72. Herzog, Cunning, 121.
73. Ibid. , 84, 121.
Should We Name the Tools? 35
36 Carolyn R. Miller
74. Hariman, "Status," 44.
75. Ibid. , 48.
76. Gaonkar, "Idea of Rhetoric"; see also Cahn's discussion of rhetoric's disciplinary
status, "Rhetoric of Rhetoric. "
77. Booth, Rhetoric of Rhetoric, 149.
78. Hesk, Deception and Democracy, 203-4. 79. Ibid. , 227ff.
80. Schloemann, "Entertainment. " 81. Ibid. , 144.
82. Lanham, Electronic Word.
83. Garsten, Saving Persuasion, 2.
Works Cited
Aeschines. "Against Ctesiphon. " In Aeschines. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1919.
Alcidamas. On the Sophists. Translated by Larue Van Hook. Classical Weekly 12, no. 12. http://classicpersuasion. org/pw/alcidamas/alcsoph1. htm (accessed July 23, 2008). Translated by Charles Darwin Miller, http://www. perseus. tufts. edu/hopper/text? doc =Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0002:speech=3.
Andersen, Oivind. "Lingua Suspecta: On Concealing and Displaying the Art of Rhetoric. " Sumbolae Osloenses 71 (1996): 68-86.
Aristotle. On Rhetoric: A Theory of Civic Discourse. Translated by G. A. Kennedy. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.
Ballif, Michelle. Seduction, Sophistry, and the Woman with the Rhetorical Figure, Rhetorical Philosophy and Theory. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2001.
Booth, Wayne C. The Rhetoric of Rhetoric: The Quest for Effective Communication, Black- well Manifestos. Malden, Mass. : Blackwell, 2004.
Burke, Kenneth. A Rhetoric of Motives. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969. Cahn, Michael. "The Rhetoric of Rhetoric: Six Tropes of Disciplinary Self-Constitution. " In The Recovery of Rhetoric: Persuasive Discourse and Disciplinarity in the Human Sci- ences, edited by R. H. Roberts and J. M. M. Good, 61-84. Charlottesville: University
of Virginia Press, 1993.
Campbell, George. The Philosophy of Rhetoric. 1776. Edited by Lloyd F. Bitzer. Reprint,
Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press. 1963.
Cherwitz, Richard A. "Rhetoric as 'a Way of Knowing': An Attenuation of the Episte-
mological Claims of the 'New Rhetoric. '" Southern Speech Communication Journal 42
(1977): 297-319.
Cicero, Marcus Tullius. Brutus. Translated by G. L. Hendrickson. Loeb Classical Library.
Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1939.
------. De Inventione, De Optimo Genere Oratorum, Topica. Translated by H. M. Hummell.
Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1949.
------. De Oratore. Translated by H. Rackham. 2 vols. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge,
Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1942.
Consigny, Scott. Gorgias: Sophist and Artist. Edited by T. W. Benson. Studies in Rhetoric
and Communication. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2001.
------. "Rhetorical Concealment. " Paper read at Theory of Rhetoric: An Interdiscipli-
nary Conference, Minneapolis, Minn. , 1979.
Cronje? , J. V. "The Principle of Concealment (to Lathein) in Greek Literary Theory. " Acta
Classica 36 (1993): 55-64.
David, Marian. "Correspondence Theory of Truth. " In Stanford Encyclopedia of Philoso- phy, edited by E. N. Zalta. Stanford, Calif. : Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford Uni- versity, 2005. http://plato. stanford. edu/entries/truth-correspondence/ (accessed June 23, 2008).
Demosthenes. On the False Embassy. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1926. http://www. perseus. tufts. edu/hopper/text. jsp? doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0072:speech =19 (accessed July 19, 2008).
Dionysius of Halicarnassus. The Critical Essays. Translated by S. Usher. 2 vols. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1974.
Gaonkar, Dilip Parameshwar. "The Idea of Rhetoric in the Rhetoric of Science. " In Rhetorical Hermeneutics: Invention and Interpretation in the Age of Science, edited by A. G. Gross and W. M. Keith, 25-85. Albany: SUNY Press, 1997.
------. "Object and Method in Rhetorical Criticism: From Wichelns to Leff and McGee. " Western Journal of Speech Communication 54 (1990): 290-316.
Garsten, Bryan. Saving Persuasion: A Defense of Rhetoric and Judgment. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 2006.
Gorgias. "Encomium of Helen. " In Aristotle, on Rhetoric: A Theory of Civic Discourse, edited by G. A. Kennedy, 283-88. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.
Hariman, Robert. "Status, Marginality, and Rhetorical Theory. " Quarterly Journal of Speech 72 (1986): 38-54.
Hawhee, Debra. Bodily Arts: Rhetoric and Athletics in Ancient Greece. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2004.
Herzog, Don. Cunning. Princeton, N. J. : Princeton University Press, 2006.
Hesk, Jon. Deception and Democracy in Classical Athens. Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, 2000.
Kastely, James L. Rethinking the Rhetorical Tradition: From Plato to Postmodernism. New
Haven, Conn. : Yale University Press, 1997.
Kerferd, G. B. The Sophistic Movement.
