of Augustus, who had neither the talents, the He himself was the author of many works, the
power, nor the inclination to carry into effect the majority of which has been lost.
power, nor the inclination to carry into effect the majority of which has been lost.
William Smith - 1844 - Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities - a
Pompey had accordingly marched back from Brundisium and
had all along no apprehensions as to the result of repaired to Rome, having thus in three months
a war ; he seems to have regarded it as scarcely become the supreme master of the whole of Italy.
possible that Caesar should ever seriously think of After remaining in the neighbourhood of Rome
marching against him; his great fame, he thought, for a short time, he set out for Spain, having left
would cause a multitude of troops to tlock around M. Lepidus in charge of the city and M. Antonius
him whenever he wished them; and thus in his in command of the troops in Italy. He sent
confidence of success, he had neglected all means Curio to drive Cato out of Sicily, Q. Valerius to
for raising an army. In addition to this be had take possession of Sardinia, and C. Antonius to
been deceived as to the disposition of Caesar's occupy Illyricum. Curio and Valerius obtained
troops, and had been led to believe that they were possession of Sicily and Sardinia without opposi-
ready to desert their general at the first oppor- tion; and Curio then passed orer into Africa,
tunity. Consequently, when the war broke out, which was in possession of the Pompeian party.
Pompey had scarcely any troops except the two Here, however, he met with strong opposition, and
legions which he had obtained from Caesar, and at length was defeated and lost his life in a battle
on the fidelity of which he could by no means with Juba, king of Mauritania, who supported
rely. So unpopular too was the senatorial party P. Atius Varus, the Pompeian commander. C.
in Italy, that it was with great difficulty they Antonius also met with bad success in Illyri-
could levy troops, and when levied, they took the cum, for his army was defeated and he himself
first opportunity of passing over to Caesar.
taken prisoner. These events, however, hap-
As soon as Caesar learnt the last resolution of pened at a later period in this year; and these
the senate, he assembled his soldiers, informed disasters were more than counterbalanced by Cae
them of the wrongs he had sustained, and called sar's victories in the meantime in Spain. Caesar
upon them to support him. Finding them quite | left Rome about the middle of April, and on his
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CAESAR
:
arrival in Gaul found, that Massilia refused to After laying down the dictatorship, Caesar went
submit to him. He forth with laid siege to the in December to Brundisium, wbere he had pre-
place, but unable to take it immediately, he left viously ordered his troops to assemble. He had
C. Trebonius and D. Brutus with part of his troops lost many men in the long march from Spain, and
to prosecute the siege, and continued his march to also from sickness arising from their passing the
Spain. In this country Pompey had seven autumn in the south of Italy. Pompey had not
legions, three under the command of L. Afranius been idle during the summer, and had employed his
in the nearer province, two under M. Petreius in time in raising a large army in Greece, Lgypt, and
the further, and two under M. Terentius Varro the East, the scene of his former glory. He thus
also in the latter province west of the Anas collected an army consisting of nine legions of Ro-
(Guadiana). Varro remained in the west; but man citizens, and an auxiliary force of cavalry and
Afranius and Petreius on the approach of Caesar infantry; and, though it is impossible to estimate its
united their forces, and took up a strong position exact strength, as we do not know the number of
near the town of Ilerda (Lerida in Catalonia) on men which cach legion contained, it was decidedly
the right bank of the Sicoris (Segre). Into the greater than the army which Caesar bad assembled
details of this campaign we cannot enter. It is at Brundisium. His fieet entirely commanded the
sufficient to state, that, after experiencing great sea, and so small was the number of Caesar's ships,
difficulties at first and some reverses, Caesar at that it seemed impossible that he should venture
length reduced Afranius and Petreius to such to cross the sea in face of Pompey's superior flect.
difficulties that they were obliged to surrender. This circumstance, and also the time of the year
They themselves were dismissed uninjured, part of caused M. Bibulus, the commander of Pompey's feet,
their troops disbanded, and the remainder incorpo- to relax in his guard ; and thus when Caesar set sail
rated among Caesar's troops. · Caesar then pro- from Brundisium, on the 4th of January, he arrived
ceeded to march against Varro; but after the the next day in safety on the coast of Epeirus. In
victory over Afranius and Petreius, there was no consequence, however, of the small number of his
army in Spain capable of resisting the conqueror, ships, Caesar was able to carry over only seven le-
and Varro accordingly surrendered to Caesar when gions, which, for the causes previously mentioned,
the latter arrived at Corduba (Cordova). Having had been so thinned as to amount only to 15,000 foot
thus subdued all Spain, which had engaged him and 500 horse. After landing this force, he sent back
only forty days, he returned to Gaul. Massilia had his ships to bring over the remainder ; but part of
not yet yielded, but the siege had been prosecuted the fleet was intercepted in its return by M. Bibulus,
with so much vigour, that the inhabitants were who cruelly put all the crews to death ; and the
compelled to surrender the town soon after his Pompeian fleet kept up such a strict watch along
arrival before the walls.
the coast, that the remainder of Caesar's army was
While Caesar was before Massilia, he received obliged for the present to remain at Brundisium.
intelligence that he had been appointed dictator Caesar was thus in a critical position, in the midst
by the praetor M. Lepidus, who had been em- of the enemy's country, cut off from the rest of his
powered to do so by a law passed for the purpose. army; but he knew that he could thoroughly rely
This appointment, which was of course made in on his men, and therefore immediately commenced
accordance with Caesar's wishes, was contrary to acting on the offensive. After gaining possession
all precedent; for a practor had not the power of of Oricum and Apollonia, he hastened northwards,
nominating a dictator, and the senate was entirely in hopes of surprising Dyrrhachium, where all
passed over: but it is idle to talk of established Pompey's stores were deposited; but Pompey, by
forms under such circumstances; it was necessary rapid marches, reached this town before him, and
that there should be a higher magistrate than both armies then encamped opposite to each other,
praetor to hold the comitia for the election of Pompey on the right and Caesar on the left bank
the consuls ; and Caesar wished to enter Rome of the river Apsus. Caesar was at length joined
invested with some high official power, which by the remainder of his troops, which were brought
he could not do so long as he was merely pro over from Brundisium with great difficulty by M.
consul. Accordingly, as soon as Massilia sur- Antonius and Q. Fufius Calenus. Pompey mean-
rendered, Caesar hastened to Rome and entered time had retired to some high ground near Dyr-
upon his dictatorship, but laid it down again at rhachium, and as he would not venture a battle
the end of eleven days after holding the consular with Caesar's veterans, Caesar began to blockade
comitia, in which he himself and P. Servilius Vatia bim in his position, and to erect lines of circum-
Isauricus were elected consuls for the next year. vallation of an extraordinary extent; but when
But during these eleven days he caused some very these were nearly completed, Pompey forced a
important laws to be passed. The first, which was passage through Caesar's lines, and drove back
intended to relieve cebtors, but at the same time his legions with considerable loss. Caesar thus
protect to a great extent the rights of creditors, found himself compelled to retreat from his
was in the present state of affairs a most salutary present position, and accordingly commenced his
(For the provisions of this lex, see march for Thessaly, pursued by Pompey's army,
Dict. of Ant. s. v. Julia Lex de Foenore. ) He next which was not however able to come up with him.
obtained the reversal of the sentences which had Pompey's plan of avoiding a general engagement
been pronounced against various persons in ac- with Caesar's veterans till he could place inore
cordance with the laws passed in Pompey's last reliance upon his own troops, was undoubtedly a
consuiship; he also obtained the recall of several wise one, and had been hitherto crowned with
other exiles ; be further restored the descendants success; but his victory at Dyrrhachium and the
of those who had been proscribed by Sulla to the retreat of the enemy inspired him with more confi-
enjoyment of their rights, and rewarded the Trans-dence, and induced him to give heed to those of
padani by the citizenship for their faithful support his officers who recommended him to bring the
of his cause.
contest to an issue by an immediate battle. Ac-
measure.
## p. 552 (#572) ############################################
552
CAESAR.
CAESAR.
cordingly, when Pompey came up with Caesar, His third dictatorship consequently begins before
who was encamped on the plains of Pharsalus or the termination of the year 47.
The property
Pharsalia, in Thessaly, he offered him battle, which of Pompey and of several others of the aristo-
was readily accepted by Caesar. Their numbers cracy was now confiscated and sold by public
were very unequal : Pompey had 45,000 foot-auction. That he might the more easily re-
soldiers and 7000 horse, Caesar 22,000 foot-soldiers ward his own friends, the dictator increased the
and 1000 horse. The battle, which was fought on number of practors and of the members of the
the 9th of August, B. C. 48, according to the old priestly colleges, and also introduced a great num-
calendar, ended in the total defeat of Pompey's ber of his partizans into the senate. For the re-
army. Pompey fled to the court of Egypt, pursued mainder of this year he elevated Q. Fufius Calenus
by Caesar, but was murdered there before the and P. Vatinius to the consulship, but he caused
latter arrived in the country. (POMPEIUS. ] himself and his master of the horse, M. Aemilius
The battle of Pharsalia decided the fate of the Lepidus to be elected consuls for the next year. It
republic. When news of it reached Rome, various was during this time that he quelled a formidable
laws were passed, which conferred in fact supreme mutiny of his troops which had broken out in
power upon Caesar.
Though absent, he was no Campania.
minated dictator a second time, and that not for Caesar did not remain in Rome more than two
six months or a shorter time, but for a whole year. or three months. With his usual activity and
He appointed M. Antonius his master of the horse, energy, be set out to Africa before the end of the
and entered upon the office in September of this year (B. C. 47), in order to carry on the war against
year (B. C. 48), so that the commencement and Scipio and Cato, who had collected a large army
termination of his dictatorship and consulship did in that country. Their forces were far greater
not coincide, as some modern writers have repre than Caesar could bring against them at present;
sented. He was also nominated to the consulship but he was well aware of the advantage which
for the next five years, but this privilege he did a general has in acting on the offensive, and
not avail himself of; he was invested, moreover, had too much reliance on his own genius to be
with the tribunicial power for life, and with the alarıned by mere disparity of numbers. At the
right of holding all the comitia for the election of commencement of the campaign, however, Caesar
the magistrates, with the exception of those for was in considerable difficulties; but, having been
the choice of the plebeian tribunes; and it was for joined by some of his other legions, he was able to
this reason that no magistrates except the tribunes prosecute the campaign with more vigour, and finally
of the plebs were elected for the next year, as brought it to a close by the battle of Thapsus, on
Caesar did not return to Rome till Septeinber in the 6th of April, B. c. 46, in which the Pompeian
B. C. 47
army was completely defeated. Cato, finding bim-
Caesar went to Egypt, as we have already said, self unable to defend Utica, put an end to his own
in pursuit of Pompey, and upon his arrival there, | life. The other towns in Africa submitted to the
he became involved in a war, which detained him conqueror, and Caesar was thus able to be in Rome
several months, and gave the remains of the Pom- again by the latter end of July, according to the
peian party time to rally and to make fresh prepa-old calendar.
rations for continuing the war. The war in Egypt, Caesar was now the undisputed master of the
usually called the Alexandrine war, arose from Roman world. As he drew near to Rome, great
Caesar's resolving to settle the disputes respect- apprehensions were entertained by his enemies
ing the succession to the kingdom. Caesar de- lest
, notwithstanding his former clemency, he should
termined that Cleopatra, whose fascinations com- imitate Marius and Sulla, and proscribe all his
pletely won his heart, and her elder brother Ptole- opponents. But these fears were perfectly ground-
my should reign in common; but as this decision less. A love of cruelty was no part of Caesar's
was opposed by the guardians of the young king, nature; and, with a magnanimity which victors
a war broke out between them and Caesar, in rarely shew, and least of all those in civil wars, he
which he was for some time exposed to great dan- freely forgave all who had borne arms against him,
ger on account of the small number of his forces and declared that he should make no difference
But, having received reinforcements, he finally between Pompeians and Caesarians. His object
prevailed, and placed Cleopatra and her younger was now to allay animosities, and to secure the
brother on the throne, as the elder had perished in lives and property of all the citizens of his new
the course of the contest. It was soon after this, kingdom. As soon as the news of his African vic-
that Cleopatra tiad a son by Caesar. (CAESARION; tory reached Rome, and before he himself arrived
CLEOPATRA. ]
there, a public thanksgiving of forty days was de
After bringing the Alexandrine war to a close, creed in his honour, and the dictatorship was be-
in the latter end of March, B. C. 47, Caesar marched stowed upon him for ten years, and the censorship,
through Syria into Pontus in order to attack Phar- under the new title of “Praefectus Morum,” for
naces, the son of the celebrated Mithridates, who three years. Caesar had never yet enjoyed a tri-
had defeated Cn. Domitius Calvinus, one of Caesar's umph ; and, as he had now no further enemies to
legates. This war, however, did not detain him meet, he availed himself of the opportunity of cele-
long; for Pharnaces, venturing to come to an open brating his victories in Gaul, Egypt, Pontus, and
batile with the dictator, was utterly defeated, on Africa by four magnificent triumphs. None of
the 2nd of August, near Zela. He thence pro- these, however, were in honour of his successes in
ceeded to Rome, settling the affairs of the provinces the civil war; and consequently his African tri-
in the way, and arrived in the capital in Septem- umph was to commemorate his victory over Juba,
ber. As the year of his dictatorship was nearly and not over Scipio and Cato. These triumphs
expiring, he caused himself to be appointed to the were followed by largesses of corn and money to
dignity again for a year, and he nominated the people and the soldiers, by public banquets,
M. Aemilius Lepidus his master of the horse. and all sorts of entertainments. Never before had
## p. 553 (#573) ############################################
CAESAR.
553
CAESAR.
;
the games of the circus and the amphitheatre been country;" statues of him were to be placed in all
celebrated with such splendour; for Caesar well the temples ; his portrait was to be struck on coins;
knew the temper of the Roman populace, and that the month of Quintilis was to receive the name of
they would be willing enough to surrender their Julius in his honour, and he was to be raised to a
so-called liberties if they were well fed and amused. rank among the gods. But there were still nore
Caesar next appears in the character of a legis important decrees than these, which were intended
lator. He now proceeded to correct the various to legalise his power and confer upon him the whole
evils which had crept into the state, and to obtain government of the Roman world. He received the
the enactment of several laws suitable to the alter-title of imperator for liſc; he was nominated consul
ed condition of the commonwealth. He attempted for the next ten years, and both dictator and prae-
by severe sumptuary laws to restrain the extrava- fectus morum for life; his person was declared
gance which pervaded all classes of society. In sacred; a guard of senators and knights was ap-
order to prevent any other general from fol- pointed to protect him, and the whole senate took
lowing his own career, he obtained a law by an oath to watch over his safety.
which no one was to be allowed to hold a praeto- If we now look at the way in which Cacsar ex-
rian province for longer than one year, or a consular erted his sovereign power, it cannot be denied that
for more than two years. But the most important he used it in the main for the good of his country.
of his changes this year (B. C. 46) was the reforma- He still pursued his former merciful course : no
tion of the calendar, which was a real benefit to proscriptions or executions took place; and he began
his country and the civilized world, and which he io revolve vast schemes for the benefit of the Ro-
accomplished in his character as pontifex maximus, man world. He was at the same time obliged to
with the assistance of Sosigenes, the Alexandrine ma- reward his followers, and for that reason he grea:ly
thematician, and the scribe M. Flavius, though he increased the number of senators, augmented the
himself also was well acquainted with astronomy. number of public magistrates, so that there were to
The regulation of the Roman calendar bad always be sixteen praetors, forty quaestors, and six aediles,
been entrusted to the college of pontiffs, who had and he added new members to the priestly colleges.
been accustomed to lengthen or shorten the year at Among his other plans of internal improvement, he
their pleasure for political purposes; and the confu- proposed to frame a digest of all the Roman laws,
sion had at length become so great, that the Roman to establish public libraries, to drain the Pomptine
year was three months in advance of the real time. marshes, to enlarge the barbour of Ostia, and 10
To remedy this serious evil, Caesar added 90 days dig a canal through the isthmus of Corinth. To
to this year, and thus made the whole year consist protect the boundaries of the Roman empire, he
of 445 days; and he guarded against a repetition meditated expeditions against the Parthians and
of similar errors for the future by adapting the year the barbarous tribes on the Danube, and had already
to the sun's course. (Dict. of Ant. s. v. Calendarium. ) begun to make preparations for his departure to
In the midst of these labours, Caesar was inter- | the East. In the midst of these vast projects he
rupted by intelligence of a formidable insurrection entered upon the last year of his life, B. C. 44, and
which had broken out in Spain, where the remains of his fifth consulship and dictatorship.
He had
the Pompeian party had again collected a large made M. Antony his colleague in the consulship,
army under the command of Pompey's sons, Cneius and M. Lepidus the master of the horse. Caesar
and Sextus. Having been previously designated had for some time past resolved to preserve the
consul and dictator for the following year, Caesar supreme power in his family; and, as he had no
set out for Spain at the latter end of B. C. 46. legitimate children, had fixed upon his great-
With his usual activity, he arrived at Obulco near nephew Octavius (afterwards the emperor Augustus)
Corduba in twenty-seven days from the time of as his successor. Possessing royal power, he now
bis leaving Rome. He found the enemy able to wished to obtain the title of king, which he might
offer stronger opposition than he had anticipated; hand down to his successor on the throne, and
but he brought the war to a close by the battle of accordingly got his colleague Antony to offer him
Munda, on the 17th of March, B. c. 45, in which the diadem in public on the festival of the Lu-
he entirely defeated the enemy. It was, however, percalia (the 15th of February); but, seeing that
a hard-fought battle: Caesar's troops were at first the proposition was not favourably received by
driven back, and were only rallied again by their the people, he resolved to decline it for the pre-
general's exposing his own person, like a common sent. Caesar's wish for the title of king must
soldier, in the front line of the battle. Cn. Pom- not be regarded as merely a desire to obtain an
peius was killed shortly afterwards, but Sextus empty honour, the reality of which he already pos-
made good his escape. The settlement of the sessed. Had he obtained it, and been able to be
affairs in Spain detained Caesar in the province queath it to his successor, he would have saved the
some months longer, and he consequently did not state from many of the evils which subsequently
reach Rome till September. He entered the city arose from the anomalous constitution of the Ro-
at the beginning of October in triumph on account man empire as it was finally established by Au-
of his victories in Spain, although the victory had gustus. The state would then have become an
been gained over Roman citizens, and he also al hereditary and not an elective monarchy, and
lowed triumphs to his legates Fabius Maximus and would not have fallen into the hands of an insolent
Q. Pedius. The senate received him with the most and rapacious soldiery.
servile flattery. They had in his absence voted a Meantime, the conspiracy against Caesar's life
public thanksgiving of fifty days on account of his had been already formed as early as the begin-
victory in Spain, and various other honorary de- ning of the year. It had been set afoot by
crees, and they now ried with each other in paying Cassius, a personal enemy of Caesar's, and there
him every species of adulation and homage. He were more than sixty persons privy to it. Per-
was to wear, on all public occasions, the triumphal sonal hatred alone seems to have been the motive
robe; he was to receive the title of “ Father of his of Cassius, and probably of several others. Many
:
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654
CAESAR.
CAESAR
of them had taken an active part in the war against | fitted to excel in all, and has given proofs that he
Caesar, and had not only been forgiven by him, would have surpassed almost all other men in any
but raised to offices of rank and honour ; but for- subject to which he devoted the energies of his
giveness by an enemy, instead of exciting gratitude, extraordinary mind. Julius Caesar was the great-
only renders the benefactor still more hateful to est man of antiquity; and this fact must be our
men of low and base minds. They pretended that apology for the length to which this notice has er-
their object was to restore liberty to the state, and tended. His greatness as a general has been suffi-
some, perhaps M. Brutus among the rest, believed ciently shewn by the above sketch; but one cir-
that they should be doing good service to their cumstance, which has been generally overlooked,
country by the assassination of its ruler. But the places his genius for war in a most striking light.
majority were undoubtedly actuated by the mere Till bis fortieth year, when he went as propraetor
motive of restoring their own party to power: into Spain, Caesar had been almost entirely en-
every open attempt to crush their enemy had failed, gaged in civil life. He had served, it is true, in
and they had now recourse to assassination as the his youth, but it was only for a short time, and in
only means of accomplishing their object. Their campaigns of secondary importance; he had never
project was nearly discovered; but Caesar disre- been at the head of an army, and his whole mili-
garded the warnings that had been given him, and tary experience must have been of the most limited
fell by the daggers of his assassins in the senate- kind. Most of the greatest generals in the history
house, on the ides, or fifteenth, of March, B. C. 44. of the world have been distinguished at an early
Caesar's death was undoubtedly a loss not only for age : Alexander the Great, llannibal, Frederick
the Roman people, but the whole civilized world. of Prussia, and Napoleon Bonaparte, gained some
The republic was utterly lost; it could not have of their most brilliant victories under the age of
been restored ; and if there had been any possibi- thirty ; but Caesar from the age of twenty-three
lity of establishing it again, it would have fallen to forty had seen nothing of war, and, notwith-
into the hands of a profligate aristocracy, which standing, appears all at once as one of the greatest
would only have sought its own aggrandizement upon generals that the world has ever seen.
the ruins of its country. Now the Roman world was During the whole of his busy life Caesar found
called to go through many years of disorder and time for literary pursuits, and always took pleasure
bloodshed, till it rested again under the supremacy in the society and conversation of men of learning.
of Augustus, who had neither the talents, the He himself was the author of many works, the
power, nor the inclination to carry into effect the majority of which has been lost. The purity of
vast and salutary plans of his uncle. When we his Latin and the clearness of his style were cele-
recollect the latter years of the Roman republic, brated by the ancients themselves, and are con-
the depravity and corruption of the ruling class, spicuous in his " Commentarii,” which are his
the scenes of anarchy and bloodshed which con- only works that hare come down to us. They
stantly occurred in the streets of the capital, it is relate the history of the first seven years of the
evident that the last days of the republic had come, Gallic war in seven books, and the history of the
and that its only hope of peace and security was Civil war down to the commencement of the Alex-
under the strong hand of military power. And andrine in three books. In them Caesar has care-
fortunate was it in obtaining a ruler so mild and fully avoided all rhetorical embellishments ; he
so beneficent as Caesar. Pompey was not naturally narrates the events in a clear unassuming style,
cruel, but he was weak and irresolute, and was and with such apparent truthfulness that he carries
surrounded by men who would have forced him conviction to the mind of the reader. They seem
into the most violent and sanguinary acts, if his to have been composed in the course of his cam-
party had prevailed.
paigns, and were probably worked up into their pre-
Caesar was in his fifty-sixth year at the time of sent form during his winter-quarters. The Com-
his death. His personal appearance was noble and mentaries on the Gallic War were published after
commanding; he was tall in stature, of a fair com- the completion of the war in Gaul, and those on the
plexion, and with black eyes full of expression. Civil War probably after his return from Alexan.
He never wore a beard, and in the latter part of dria. The Ephemerides” of Caesar must not
his life his head was bald. His constitution was be regarded as a separate work, but only as the
originally delicate, and he was twice attacked by Greek name of the * Commentarii. ” Neither of
epilepsy while transacting public business; but, these works, however, completed the history of
by constant exercise and abstemious living, he had the Gallic and Civil wars. The history of the
acquired strong and vigorous health, and could en- foriner was completed in an eighth book, which is
dure almost any amount of exertion. He took usually ascribed to Hirtius, and the history of the
great pains with his person, and was considered to Alexandrine, African, and Spanish wars were
be effeminate in his dress. His moral character, as written in three separate books, which are also
far as the connexion of the sexes goes, was as low ascribed to Hirtius. The question of their author-
as that of the rest of the Romans of his age. His ship is discussed under Hirtius.
intrigues with the most distinguished Roman la- Besides the Commentaries, Caesar also wrote
dies were notorious, and he was equally lavish of the following works, which have been lost, but the
his favours in the provinces.
mere titles of which are a proof of his literary ac-
If we now turn to the intellectual character of tivity and diversified knowledge :- 1. “ Ora-
Caesar, we see that he was gifted by nature with tiones," some of which have been mentioned in
the most various talents, and was distinguished by the preceding account, and a complete list of which
the most extraordinary genius and attainments in is given in Meyer's Oratorum Romanorum
the most diversified pursuits. He was at one and Fragmenta, p. 404, &c. , 2nd ed. The ancient
the same time a generu, a statesman, a lawgiver, writers speak of Caesar as one of the first orators
a jurist, an orator, a poet, an historian, a philologer, of his age, and describe him as only second to
a mathematician and an architect. He was equally Cicero. (Quintil. x. 1. $ 114; Vell. Pat. ii. 36;
## p. 555 (#575) ############################################
CAESAR
555
CAESAR.
1
66
9
969000
53 PETVO
PESARO
C.
Cic. Brut. 72,74; Tac. Ann. xiii. 3, Dial. de Orat. 21; , saris," Lips. 1827. Among modern works the
Plut. Caes. 3 ; Suet. Caes. 55. ) 2. “ Epistolae," of best account of Caesar's life is in Drumann's Ges-
which several are preserved in the collection of Cice chichte Roms. Caesar's campaigns have been
ro's letters, but there were still more in the time of criticised by Napoleon in the work entitled “ Précis
Suetonius (Caes. 56) and Appian (B. C. ii. 79). des Guerres de César par Napoléon, écrit par M.
3. “ Anticato," in two books, hence sometimes Marchand, à l'ile Sainte-Hélènc, sous la diciée de
called “ Anticatones," a work in reply to Cicero's l'Empereur,” Paris, 1836. )
“ Cato," which the Roman orator wrote in praise For an account of Caesar's coins, see Eckhel,
of Cato after the death of the latter in B. C. 46. vol. vi. pp. 1-17. His likeness is given in the
(Suet. h. c. ; Gell. iv. 16; Cic. ad Att. xii. 40, 41, ! two coins annexed; in the latter the natural bald-
xiii. 50, &c. )
4. “ De Analogia" or as Ciceroness of his head is concealed by a crown of laurel.
explains it, “ De Ratione Latine loquendi," in (See also p. 516. )
two books, which contained investigations on the
Latin language, and were written by Cacsar while
he was crossing the Alps in his return from
AEGVPTOR
his winter-quarters in the north of Italy to join
his army in further Gaul. It was dedicated to
CAPTA
Cicero, and is frequently quoted by the Latin
grammarians. (Suet. l. c. ; Cic. Brut. 72; Plin.
H. N. vii. 30. 6. 31; Gell. xix. 8; Quintil. i. 7.
$ 34. ) 5. “Libri Auspiciorum,” or “ Auguralia. "
As pontifex maximus Caesar had a general super-
intendence over the Roman religion, and seems to
have paid particular attention to the subject of this
LOVCA
work, which must have been of considerable extent
as the sixteenth book is quoted by Macrobius.
(Sat. i. 16; comp. Priscian, vi. p. 719, ed. Putsch. )
6. “ De Astris,” in which he treated of the move- 19, 20, 21. JULIAE. [JULIA. ]
ments of the heavenly bodies. (Macrob. l. c. ; 22. CAESARION. (CAESARION. ]
Plin. H. N. xviii. 25. s. 57, &c. ) 7. “ Apoph- 23. Sex. Julius CAESAR, son of No. 17, was
thegmata,” or “ Dicta collectanea," a collection of Flamen Quirinalis, and is mentioned in the history
good sayings and witty remarks of his own and of the year B. c. 57. (Cic. de Harusp. Resp. 6. )
other persons.
It seems from Suetonius that
24. Sex. JULIUS CAESAR, son probably of No.
Caesar had commenced this work in his youth, but 23, as he is called by Appian very young in B. c. 47,
he kept making additions to it even in his dic. and is not therefore likely to have been the same as
tatorship, so tbat it at length consprised sereral the preceding, as some have conjectured. He was in
volumes. This was one of Caesar's works which the army of the great Caesar in Spain in B. c. 49, and
Augustus suppressed. (Suet. I. c. ; Cic. ad Fam.
was sent by the latter as ambassador to M. Terentius
ix. 16. ) 8. “ Poemata. ” Two of these written Varro. At the conclusion of the Alexandrine war,
in his youth, “ Laudes Herculis” and a tragedy B. c. 47, Sex. Caesar was placed over Syria, where
Oedipus,” were suppressed by Augustus. He he was killed in the following year by his own sol-
also wrote several epigrams, of which three are diers at the instigation Caecilius Bassus, who
preserved in the Latin Anthology. (Nos. 68—, had revolted against the dictator. (Caes. B. C. ii.
70, ed. Meyer. ) There was, too, an astronomical 20; Hirt. B. Alex. 66 ; Dion Cass. xlvii. 26 ; Ap-
poem of Caesar's, probably in imitation of Aratus's, pian, B. C. iii. 77; compare Bassus, Caecilius. )
and lastly one entitled “ Iter,” descriptive of his C. CAESAR and L. CAESAR, the sons of M.
journey from the city to Spain, which he wrote at Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia, and the grandsons of
the latter end of the year B. C. 46, while he was Augustus. Caius was born in B. c. 20 and Lucius
on this journey.
in B. c. 17, and in the latter year they were both
The editio princeps of Caesar's Commentaries adopted by Augustus. In B. c.
had all along no apprehensions as to the result of repaired to Rome, having thus in three months
a war ; he seems to have regarded it as scarcely become the supreme master of the whole of Italy.
possible that Caesar should ever seriously think of After remaining in the neighbourhood of Rome
marching against him; his great fame, he thought, for a short time, he set out for Spain, having left
would cause a multitude of troops to tlock around M. Lepidus in charge of the city and M. Antonius
him whenever he wished them; and thus in his in command of the troops in Italy. He sent
confidence of success, he had neglected all means Curio to drive Cato out of Sicily, Q. Valerius to
for raising an army. In addition to this be had take possession of Sardinia, and C. Antonius to
been deceived as to the disposition of Caesar's occupy Illyricum. Curio and Valerius obtained
troops, and had been led to believe that they were possession of Sicily and Sardinia without opposi-
ready to desert their general at the first oppor- tion; and Curio then passed orer into Africa,
tunity. Consequently, when the war broke out, which was in possession of the Pompeian party.
Pompey had scarcely any troops except the two Here, however, he met with strong opposition, and
legions which he had obtained from Caesar, and at length was defeated and lost his life in a battle
on the fidelity of which he could by no means with Juba, king of Mauritania, who supported
rely. So unpopular too was the senatorial party P. Atius Varus, the Pompeian commander. C.
in Italy, that it was with great difficulty they Antonius also met with bad success in Illyri-
could levy troops, and when levied, they took the cum, for his army was defeated and he himself
first opportunity of passing over to Caesar.
taken prisoner. These events, however, hap-
As soon as Caesar learnt the last resolution of pened at a later period in this year; and these
the senate, he assembled his soldiers, informed disasters were more than counterbalanced by Cae
them of the wrongs he had sustained, and called sar's victories in the meantime in Spain. Caesar
upon them to support him. Finding them quite | left Rome about the middle of April, and on his
## p. 551 (#571) ############################################
CAESAR.
551
CAESAR
:
arrival in Gaul found, that Massilia refused to After laying down the dictatorship, Caesar went
submit to him. He forth with laid siege to the in December to Brundisium, wbere he had pre-
place, but unable to take it immediately, he left viously ordered his troops to assemble. He had
C. Trebonius and D. Brutus with part of his troops lost many men in the long march from Spain, and
to prosecute the siege, and continued his march to also from sickness arising from their passing the
Spain. In this country Pompey had seven autumn in the south of Italy. Pompey had not
legions, three under the command of L. Afranius been idle during the summer, and had employed his
in the nearer province, two under M. Petreius in time in raising a large army in Greece, Lgypt, and
the further, and two under M. Terentius Varro the East, the scene of his former glory. He thus
also in the latter province west of the Anas collected an army consisting of nine legions of Ro-
(Guadiana). Varro remained in the west; but man citizens, and an auxiliary force of cavalry and
Afranius and Petreius on the approach of Caesar infantry; and, though it is impossible to estimate its
united their forces, and took up a strong position exact strength, as we do not know the number of
near the town of Ilerda (Lerida in Catalonia) on men which cach legion contained, it was decidedly
the right bank of the Sicoris (Segre). Into the greater than the army which Caesar bad assembled
details of this campaign we cannot enter. It is at Brundisium. His fieet entirely commanded the
sufficient to state, that, after experiencing great sea, and so small was the number of Caesar's ships,
difficulties at first and some reverses, Caesar at that it seemed impossible that he should venture
length reduced Afranius and Petreius to such to cross the sea in face of Pompey's superior flect.
difficulties that they were obliged to surrender. This circumstance, and also the time of the year
They themselves were dismissed uninjured, part of caused M. Bibulus, the commander of Pompey's feet,
their troops disbanded, and the remainder incorpo- to relax in his guard ; and thus when Caesar set sail
rated among Caesar's troops. · Caesar then pro- from Brundisium, on the 4th of January, he arrived
ceeded to march against Varro; but after the the next day in safety on the coast of Epeirus. In
victory over Afranius and Petreius, there was no consequence, however, of the small number of his
army in Spain capable of resisting the conqueror, ships, Caesar was able to carry over only seven le-
and Varro accordingly surrendered to Caesar when gions, which, for the causes previously mentioned,
the latter arrived at Corduba (Cordova). Having had been so thinned as to amount only to 15,000 foot
thus subdued all Spain, which had engaged him and 500 horse. After landing this force, he sent back
only forty days, he returned to Gaul. Massilia had his ships to bring over the remainder ; but part of
not yet yielded, but the siege had been prosecuted the fleet was intercepted in its return by M. Bibulus,
with so much vigour, that the inhabitants were who cruelly put all the crews to death ; and the
compelled to surrender the town soon after his Pompeian fleet kept up such a strict watch along
arrival before the walls.
the coast, that the remainder of Caesar's army was
While Caesar was before Massilia, he received obliged for the present to remain at Brundisium.
intelligence that he had been appointed dictator Caesar was thus in a critical position, in the midst
by the praetor M. Lepidus, who had been em- of the enemy's country, cut off from the rest of his
powered to do so by a law passed for the purpose. army; but he knew that he could thoroughly rely
This appointment, which was of course made in on his men, and therefore immediately commenced
accordance with Caesar's wishes, was contrary to acting on the offensive. After gaining possession
all precedent; for a practor had not the power of of Oricum and Apollonia, he hastened northwards,
nominating a dictator, and the senate was entirely in hopes of surprising Dyrrhachium, where all
passed over: but it is idle to talk of established Pompey's stores were deposited; but Pompey, by
forms under such circumstances; it was necessary rapid marches, reached this town before him, and
that there should be a higher magistrate than both armies then encamped opposite to each other,
praetor to hold the comitia for the election of Pompey on the right and Caesar on the left bank
the consuls ; and Caesar wished to enter Rome of the river Apsus. Caesar was at length joined
invested with some high official power, which by the remainder of his troops, which were brought
he could not do so long as he was merely pro over from Brundisium with great difficulty by M.
consul. Accordingly, as soon as Massilia sur- Antonius and Q. Fufius Calenus. Pompey mean-
rendered, Caesar hastened to Rome and entered time had retired to some high ground near Dyr-
upon his dictatorship, but laid it down again at rhachium, and as he would not venture a battle
the end of eleven days after holding the consular with Caesar's veterans, Caesar began to blockade
comitia, in which he himself and P. Servilius Vatia bim in his position, and to erect lines of circum-
Isauricus were elected consuls for the next year. vallation of an extraordinary extent; but when
But during these eleven days he caused some very these were nearly completed, Pompey forced a
important laws to be passed. The first, which was passage through Caesar's lines, and drove back
intended to relieve cebtors, but at the same time his legions with considerable loss. Caesar thus
protect to a great extent the rights of creditors, found himself compelled to retreat from his
was in the present state of affairs a most salutary present position, and accordingly commenced his
(For the provisions of this lex, see march for Thessaly, pursued by Pompey's army,
Dict. of Ant. s. v. Julia Lex de Foenore. ) He next which was not however able to come up with him.
obtained the reversal of the sentences which had Pompey's plan of avoiding a general engagement
been pronounced against various persons in ac- with Caesar's veterans till he could place inore
cordance with the laws passed in Pompey's last reliance upon his own troops, was undoubtedly a
consuiship; he also obtained the recall of several wise one, and had been hitherto crowned with
other exiles ; be further restored the descendants success; but his victory at Dyrrhachium and the
of those who had been proscribed by Sulla to the retreat of the enemy inspired him with more confi-
enjoyment of their rights, and rewarded the Trans-dence, and induced him to give heed to those of
padani by the citizenship for their faithful support his officers who recommended him to bring the
of his cause.
contest to an issue by an immediate battle. Ac-
measure.
## p. 552 (#572) ############################################
552
CAESAR.
CAESAR.
cordingly, when Pompey came up with Caesar, His third dictatorship consequently begins before
who was encamped on the plains of Pharsalus or the termination of the year 47.
The property
Pharsalia, in Thessaly, he offered him battle, which of Pompey and of several others of the aristo-
was readily accepted by Caesar. Their numbers cracy was now confiscated and sold by public
were very unequal : Pompey had 45,000 foot-auction. That he might the more easily re-
soldiers and 7000 horse, Caesar 22,000 foot-soldiers ward his own friends, the dictator increased the
and 1000 horse. The battle, which was fought on number of practors and of the members of the
the 9th of August, B. C. 48, according to the old priestly colleges, and also introduced a great num-
calendar, ended in the total defeat of Pompey's ber of his partizans into the senate. For the re-
army. Pompey fled to the court of Egypt, pursued mainder of this year he elevated Q. Fufius Calenus
by Caesar, but was murdered there before the and P. Vatinius to the consulship, but he caused
latter arrived in the country. (POMPEIUS. ] himself and his master of the horse, M. Aemilius
The battle of Pharsalia decided the fate of the Lepidus to be elected consuls for the next year. It
republic. When news of it reached Rome, various was during this time that he quelled a formidable
laws were passed, which conferred in fact supreme mutiny of his troops which had broken out in
power upon Caesar.
Though absent, he was no Campania.
minated dictator a second time, and that not for Caesar did not remain in Rome more than two
six months or a shorter time, but for a whole year. or three months. With his usual activity and
He appointed M. Antonius his master of the horse, energy, be set out to Africa before the end of the
and entered upon the office in September of this year (B. C. 47), in order to carry on the war against
year (B. C. 48), so that the commencement and Scipio and Cato, who had collected a large army
termination of his dictatorship and consulship did in that country. Their forces were far greater
not coincide, as some modern writers have repre than Caesar could bring against them at present;
sented. He was also nominated to the consulship but he was well aware of the advantage which
for the next five years, but this privilege he did a general has in acting on the offensive, and
not avail himself of; he was invested, moreover, had too much reliance on his own genius to be
with the tribunicial power for life, and with the alarıned by mere disparity of numbers. At the
right of holding all the comitia for the election of commencement of the campaign, however, Caesar
the magistrates, with the exception of those for was in considerable difficulties; but, having been
the choice of the plebeian tribunes; and it was for joined by some of his other legions, he was able to
this reason that no magistrates except the tribunes prosecute the campaign with more vigour, and finally
of the plebs were elected for the next year, as brought it to a close by the battle of Thapsus, on
Caesar did not return to Rome till Septeinber in the 6th of April, B. c. 46, in which the Pompeian
B. C. 47
army was completely defeated. Cato, finding bim-
Caesar went to Egypt, as we have already said, self unable to defend Utica, put an end to his own
in pursuit of Pompey, and upon his arrival there, | life. The other towns in Africa submitted to the
he became involved in a war, which detained him conqueror, and Caesar was thus able to be in Rome
several months, and gave the remains of the Pom- again by the latter end of July, according to the
peian party time to rally and to make fresh prepa-old calendar.
rations for continuing the war. The war in Egypt, Caesar was now the undisputed master of the
usually called the Alexandrine war, arose from Roman world. As he drew near to Rome, great
Caesar's resolving to settle the disputes respect- apprehensions were entertained by his enemies
ing the succession to the kingdom. Caesar de- lest
, notwithstanding his former clemency, he should
termined that Cleopatra, whose fascinations com- imitate Marius and Sulla, and proscribe all his
pletely won his heart, and her elder brother Ptole- opponents. But these fears were perfectly ground-
my should reign in common; but as this decision less. A love of cruelty was no part of Caesar's
was opposed by the guardians of the young king, nature; and, with a magnanimity which victors
a war broke out between them and Caesar, in rarely shew, and least of all those in civil wars, he
which he was for some time exposed to great dan- freely forgave all who had borne arms against him,
ger on account of the small number of his forces and declared that he should make no difference
But, having received reinforcements, he finally between Pompeians and Caesarians. His object
prevailed, and placed Cleopatra and her younger was now to allay animosities, and to secure the
brother on the throne, as the elder had perished in lives and property of all the citizens of his new
the course of the contest. It was soon after this, kingdom. As soon as the news of his African vic-
that Cleopatra tiad a son by Caesar. (CAESARION; tory reached Rome, and before he himself arrived
CLEOPATRA. ]
there, a public thanksgiving of forty days was de
After bringing the Alexandrine war to a close, creed in his honour, and the dictatorship was be-
in the latter end of March, B. C. 47, Caesar marched stowed upon him for ten years, and the censorship,
through Syria into Pontus in order to attack Phar- under the new title of “Praefectus Morum,” for
naces, the son of the celebrated Mithridates, who three years. Caesar had never yet enjoyed a tri-
had defeated Cn. Domitius Calvinus, one of Caesar's umph ; and, as he had now no further enemies to
legates. This war, however, did not detain him meet, he availed himself of the opportunity of cele-
long; for Pharnaces, venturing to come to an open brating his victories in Gaul, Egypt, Pontus, and
batile with the dictator, was utterly defeated, on Africa by four magnificent triumphs. None of
the 2nd of August, near Zela. He thence pro- these, however, were in honour of his successes in
ceeded to Rome, settling the affairs of the provinces the civil war; and consequently his African tri-
in the way, and arrived in the capital in Septem- umph was to commemorate his victory over Juba,
ber. As the year of his dictatorship was nearly and not over Scipio and Cato. These triumphs
expiring, he caused himself to be appointed to the were followed by largesses of corn and money to
dignity again for a year, and he nominated the people and the soldiers, by public banquets,
M. Aemilius Lepidus his master of the horse. and all sorts of entertainments. Never before had
## p. 553 (#573) ############################################
CAESAR.
553
CAESAR.
;
the games of the circus and the amphitheatre been country;" statues of him were to be placed in all
celebrated with such splendour; for Caesar well the temples ; his portrait was to be struck on coins;
knew the temper of the Roman populace, and that the month of Quintilis was to receive the name of
they would be willing enough to surrender their Julius in his honour, and he was to be raised to a
so-called liberties if they were well fed and amused. rank among the gods. But there were still nore
Caesar next appears in the character of a legis important decrees than these, which were intended
lator. He now proceeded to correct the various to legalise his power and confer upon him the whole
evils which had crept into the state, and to obtain government of the Roman world. He received the
the enactment of several laws suitable to the alter-title of imperator for liſc; he was nominated consul
ed condition of the commonwealth. He attempted for the next ten years, and both dictator and prae-
by severe sumptuary laws to restrain the extrava- fectus morum for life; his person was declared
gance which pervaded all classes of society. In sacred; a guard of senators and knights was ap-
order to prevent any other general from fol- pointed to protect him, and the whole senate took
lowing his own career, he obtained a law by an oath to watch over his safety.
which no one was to be allowed to hold a praeto- If we now look at the way in which Cacsar ex-
rian province for longer than one year, or a consular erted his sovereign power, it cannot be denied that
for more than two years. But the most important he used it in the main for the good of his country.
of his changes this year (B. C. 46) was the reforma- He still pursued his former merciful course : no
tion of the calendar, which was a real benefit to proscriptions or executions took place; and he began
his country and the civilized world, and which he io revolve vast schemes for the benefit of the Ro-
accomplished in his character as pontifex maximus, man world. He was at the same time obliged to
with the assistance of Sosigenes, the Alexandrine ma- reward his followers, and for that reason he grea:ly
thematician, and the scribe M. Flavius, though he increased the number of senators, augmented the
himself also was well acquainted with astronomy. number of public magistrates, so that there were to
The regulation of the Roman calendar bad always be sixteen praetors, forty quaestors, and six aediles,
been entrusted to the college of pontiffs, who had and he added new members to the priestly colleges.
been accustomed to lengthen or shorten the year at Among his other plans of internal improvement, he
their pleasure for political purposes; and the confu- proposed to frame a digest of all the Roman laws,
sion had at length become so great, that the Roman to establish public libraries, to drain the Pomptine
year was three months in advance of the real time. marshes, to enlarge the barbour of Ostia, and 10
To remedy this serious evil, Caesar added 90 days dig a canal through the isthmus of Corinth. To
to this year, and thus made the whole year consist protect the boundaries of the Roman empire, he
of 445 days; and he guarded against a repetition meditated expeditions against the Parthians and
of similar errors for the future by adapting the year the barbarous tribes on the Danube, and had already
to the sun's course. (Dict. of Ant. s. v. Calendarium. ) begun to make preparations for his departure to
In the midst of these labours, Caesar was inter- | the East. In the midst of these vast projects he
rupted by intelligence of a formidable insurrection entered upon the last year of his life, B. C. 44, and
which had broken out in Spain, where the remains of his fifth consulship and dictatorship.
He had
the Pompeian party had again collected a large made M. Antony his colleague in the consulship,
army under the command of Pompey's sons, Cneius and M. Lepidus the master of the horse. Caesar
and Sextus. Having been previously designated had for some time past resolved to preserve the
consul and dictator for the following year, Caesar supreme power in his family; and, as he had no
set out for Spain at the latter end of B. C. 46. legitimate children, had fixed upon his great-
With his usual activity, he arrived at Obulco near nephew Octavius (afterwards the emperor Augustus)
Corduba in twenty-seven days from the time of as his successor. Possessing royal power, he now
bis leaving Rome. He found the enemy able to wished to obtain the title of king, which he might
offer stronger opposition than he had anticipated; hand down to his successor on the throne, and
but he brought the war to a close by the battle of accordingly got his colleague Antony to offer him
Munda, on the 17th of March, B. c. 45, in which the diadem in public on the festival of the Lu-
he entirely defeated the enemy. It was, however, percalia (the 15th of February); but, seeing that
a hard-fought battle: Caesar's troops were at first the proposition was not favourably received by
driven back, and were only rallied again by their the people, he resolved to decline it for the pre-
general's exposing his own person, like a common sent. Caesar's wish for the title of king must
soldier, in the front line of the battle. Cn. Pom- not be regarded as merely a desire to obtain an
peius was killed shortly afterwards, but Sextus empty honour, the reality of which he already pos-
made good his escape. The settlement of the sessed. Had he obtained it, and been able to be
affairs in Spain detained Caesar in the province queath it to his successor, he would have saved the
some months longer, and he consequently did not state from many of the evils which subsequently
reach Rome till September. He entered the city arose from the anomalous constitution of the Ro-
at the beginning of October in triumph on account man empire as it was finally established by Au-
of his victories in Spain, although the victory had gustus. The state would then have become an
been gained over Roman citizens, and he also al hereditary and not an elective monarchy, and
lowed triumphs to his legates Fabius Maximus and would not have fallen into the hands of an insolent
Q. Pedius. The senate received him with the most and rapacious soldiery.
servile flattery. They had in his absence voted a Meantime, the conspiracy against Caesar's life
public thanksgiving of fifty days on account of his had been already formed as early as the begin-
victory in Spain, and various other honorary de- ning of the year. It had been set afoot by
crees, and they now ried with each other in paying Cassius, a personal enemy of Caesar's, and there
him every species of adulation and homage. He were more than sixty persons privy to it. Per-
was to wear, on all public occasions, the triumphal sonal hatred alone seems to have been the motive
robe; he was to receive the title of “ Father of his of Cassius, and probably of several others. Many
:
## p. 554 (#574) ############################################
654
CAESAR.
CAESAR
of them had taken an active part in the war against | fitted to excel in all, and has given proofs that he
Caesar, and had not only been forgiven by him, would have surpassed almost all other men in any
but raised to offices of rank and honour ; but for- subject to which he devoted the energies of his
giveness by an enemy, instead of exciting gratitude, extraordinary mind. Julius Caesar was the great-
only renders the benefactor still more hateful to est man of antiquity; and this fact must be our
men of low and base minds. They pretended that apology for the length to which this notice has er-
their object was to restore liberty to the state, and tended. His greatness as a general has been suffi-
some, perhaps M. Brutus among the rest, believed ciently shewn by the above sketch; but one cir-
that they should be doing good service to their cumstance, which has been generally overlooked,
country by the assassination of its ruler. But the places his genius for war in a most striking light.
majority were undoubtedly actuated by the mere Till bis fortieth year, when he went as propraetor
motive of restoring their own party to power: into Spain, Caesar had been almost entirely en-
every open attempt to crush their enemy had failed, gaged in civil life. He had served, it is true, in
and they had now recourse to assassination as the his youth, but it was only for a short time, and in
only means of accomplishing their object. Their campaigns of secondary importance; he had never
project was nearly discovered; but Caesar disre- been at the head of an army, and his whole mili-
garded the warnings that had been given him, and tary experience must have been of the most limited
fell by the daggers of his assassins in the senate- kind. Most of the greatest generals in the history
house, on the ides, or fifteenth, of March, B. C. 44. of the world have been distinguished at an early
Caesar's death was undoubtedly a loss not only for age : Alexander the Great, llannibal, Frederick
the Roman people, but the whole civilized world. of Prussia, and Napoleon Bonaparte, gained some
The republic was utterly lost; it could not have of their most brilliant victories under the age of
been restored ; and if there had been any possibi- thirty ; but Caesar from the age of twenty-three
lity of establishing it again, it would have fallen to forty had seen nothing of war, and, notwith-
into the hands of a profligate aristocracy, which standing, appears all at once as one of the greatest
would only have sought its own aggrandizement upon generals that the world has ever seen.
the ruins of its country. Now the Roman world was During the whole of his busy life Caesar found
called to go through many years of disorder and time for literary pursuits, and always took pleasure
bloodshed, till it rested again under the supremacy in the society and conversation of men of learning.
of Augustus, who had neither the talents, the He himself was the author of many works, the
power, nor the inclination to carry into effect the majority of which has been lost. The purity of
vast and salutary plans of his uncle. When we his Latin and the clearness of his style were cele-
recollect the latter years of the Roman republic, brated by the ancients themselves, and are con-
the depravity and corruption of the ruling class, spicuous in his " Commentarii,” which are his
the scenes of anarchy and bloodshed which con- only works that hare come down to us. They
stantly occurred in the streets of the capital, it is relate the history of the first seven years of the
evident that the last days of the republic had come, Gallic war in seven books, and the history of the
and that its only hope of peace and security was Civil war down to the commencement of the Alex-
under the strong hand of military power. And andrine in three books. In them Caesar has care-
fortunate was it in obtaining a ruler so mild and fully avoided all rhetorical embellishments ; he
so beneficent as Caesar. Pompey was not naturally narrates the events in a clear unassuming style,
cruel, but he was weak and irresolute, and was and with such apparent truthfulness that he carries
surrounded by men who would have forced him conviction to the mind of the reader. They seem
into the most violent and sanguinary acts, if his to have been composed in the course of his cam-
party had prevailed.
paigns, and were probably worked up into their pre-
Caesar was in his fifty-sixth year at the time of sent form during his winter-quarters. The Com-
his death. His personal appearance was noble and mentaries on the Gallic War were published after
commanding; he was tall in stature, of a fair com- the completion of the war in Gaul, and those on the
plexion, and with black eyes full of expression. Civil War probably after his return from Alexan.
He never wore a beard, and in the latter part of dria. The Ephemerides” of Caesar must not
his life his head was bald. His constitution was be regarded as a separate work, but only as the
originally delicate, and he was twice attacked by Greek name of the * Commentarii. ” Neither of
epilepsy while transacting public business; but, these works, however, completed the history of
by constant exercise and abstemious living, he had the Gallic and Civil wars. The history of the
acquired strong and vigorous health, and could en- foriner was completed in an eighth book, which is
dure almost any amount of exertion. He took usually ascribed to Hirtius, and the history of the
great pains with his person, and was considered to Alexandrine, African, and Spanish wars were
be effeminate in his dress. His moral character, as written in three separate books, which are also
far as the connexion of the sexes goes, was as low ascribed to Hirtius. The question of their author-
as that of the rest of the Romans of his age. His ship is discussed under Hirtius.
intrigues with the most distinguished Roman la- Besides the Commentaries, Caesar also wrote
dies were notorious, and he was equally lavish of the following works, which have been lost, but the
his favours in the provinces.
mere titles of which are a proof of his literary ac-
If we now turn to the intellectual character of tivity and diversified knowledge :- 1. “ Ora-
Caesar, we see that he was gifted by nature with tiones," some of which have been mentioned in
the most various talents, and was distinguished by the preceding account, and a complete list of which
the most extraordinary genius and attainments in is given in Meyer's Oratorum Romanorum
the most diversified pursuits. He was at one and Fragmenta, p. 404, &c. , 2nd ed. The ancient
the same time a generu, a statesman, a lawgiver, writers speak of Caesar as one of the first orators
a jurist, an orator, a poet, an historian, a philologer, of his age, and describe him as only second to
a mathematician and an architect. He was equally Cicero. (Quintil. x. 1. $ 114; Vell. Pat. ii. 36;
## p. 555 (#575) ############################################
CAESAR
555
CAESAR.
1
66
9
969000
53 PETVO
PESARO
C.
Cic. Brut. 72,74; Tac. Ann. xiii. 3, Dial. de Orat. 21; , saris," Lips. 1827. Among modern works the
Plut. Caes. 3 ; Suet. Caes. 55. ) 2. “ Epistolae," of best account of Caesar's life is in Drumann's Ges-
which several are preserved in the collection of Cice chichte Roms. Caesar's campaigns have been
ro's letters, but there were still more in the time of criticised by Napoleon in the work entitled “ Précis
Suetonius (Caes. 56) and Appian (B. C. ii. 79). des Guerres de César par Napoléon, écrit par M.
3. “ Anticato," in two books, hence sometimes Marchand, à l'ile Sainte-Hélènc, sous la diciée de
called “ Anticatones," a work in reply to Cicero's l'Empereur,” Paris, 1836. )
“ Cato," which the Roman orator wrote in praise For an account of Caesar's coins, see Eckhel,
of Cato after the death of the latter in B. C. 46. vol. vi. pp. 1-17. His likeness is given in the
(Suet. h. c. ; Gell. iv. 16; Cic. ad Att. xii. 40, 41, ! two coins annexed; in the latter the natural bald-
xiii. 50, &c. )
4. “ De Analogia" or as Ciceroness of his head is concealed by a crown of laurel.
explains it, “ De Ratione Latine loquendi," in (See also p. 516. )
two books, which contained investigations on the
Latin language, and were written by Cacsar while
he was crossing the Alps in his return from
AEGVPTOR
his winter-quarters in the north of Italy to join
his army in further Gaul. It was dedicated to
CAPTA
Cicero, and is frequently quoted by the Latin
grammarians. (Suet. l. c. ; Cic. Brut. 72; Plin.
H. N. vii. 30. 6. 31; Gell. xix. 8; Quintil. i. 7.
$ 34. ) 5. “Libri Auspiciorum,” or “ Auguralia. "
As pontifex maximus Caesar had a general super-
intendence over the Roman religion, and seems to
have paid particular attention to the subject of this
LOVCA
work, which must have been of considerable extent
as the sixteenth book is quoted by Macrobius.
(Sat. i. 16; comp. Priscian, vi. p. 719, ed. Putsch. )
6. “ De Astris,” in which he treated of the move- 19, 20, 21. JULIAE. [JULIA. ]
ments of the heavenly bodies. (Macrob. l. c. ; 22. CAESARION. (CAESARION. ]
Plin. H. N. xviii. 25. s. 57, &c. ) 7. “ Apoph- 23. Sex. Julius CAESAR, son of No. 17, was
thegmata,” or “ Dicta collectanea," a collection of Flamen Quirinalis, and is mentioned in the history
good sayings and witty remarks of his own and of the year B. c. 57. (Cic. de Harusp. Resp. 6. )
other persons.
It seems from Suetonius that
24. Sex. JULIUS CAESAR, son probably of No.
Caesar had commenced this work in his youth, but 23, as he is called by Appian very young in B. c. 47,
he kept making additions to it even in his dic. and is not therefore likely to have been the same as
tatorship, so tbat it at length consprised sereral the preceding, as some have conjectured. He was in
volumes. This was one of Caesar's works which the army of the great Caesar in Spain in B. c. 49, and
Augustus suppressed. (Suet. I. c. ; Cic. ad Fam.
was sent by the latter as ambassador to M. Terentius
ix. 16. ) 8. “ Poemata. ” Two of these written Varro. At the conclusion of the Alexandrine war,
in his youth, “ Laudes Herculis” and a tragedy B. c. 47, Sex. Caesar was placed over Syria, where
Oedipus,” were suppressed by Augustus. He he was killed in the following year by his own sol-
also wrote several epigrams, of which three are diers at the instigation Caecilius Bassus, who
preserved in the Latin Anthology. (Nos. 68—, had revolted against the dictator. (Caes. B. C. ii.
70, ed. Meyer. ) There was, too, an astronomical 20; Hirt. B. Alex. 66 ; Dion Cass. xlvii. 26 ; Ap-
poem of Caesar's, probably in imitation of Aratus's, pian, B. C. iii. 77; compare Bassus, Caecilius. )
and lastly one entitled “ Iter,” descriptive of his C. CAESAR and L. CAESAR, the sons of M.
journey from the city to Spain, which he wrote at Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia, and the grandsons of
the latter end of the year B. C. 46, while he was Augustus. Caius was born in B. c. 20 and Lucius
on this journey.
in B. c. 17, and in the latter year they were both
The editio princeps of Caesar's Commentaries adopted by Augustus. In B. c.
