A better description he
reserved
for the tale of Arachne (Bk.
Ovid - 1934 - Metamorphoses in European Culture - v1
But he proceeded from this to the adventure with the informer,
improving the tale in several ways. The old man's name, he said, was
Battus. Instead of offering a good harvest, Mercury gave the more
tangible bribe of some money. But, fearing treachery, the god re-
turned later in a different guise and himself questioned the old man.
By offering a robe, he soon got the desired information. Mercury then
hit Battus with a staff and turned him into a rock which always con-
tains both fire and frost. This account Ovid mentioned in his Ibis.
In the Metamorphoses Ovid associated the tale of Battus with that
of Ocyrhoe. Apollo, he said, was unable to help Chiron during the
transformation of his daughter, because he was absent, tending cattle.
Ovid followed the outline of Nicander's version, making a number of
improvements. Since Hymenasus belonged to a later time, Ovid merely
said that Apollo became a pastoral lover. Nicander had shown the
god tending cattle in southern Thessaly; but this would have taken
him only a few miles from the residence of Chiron and would make it
appear that he was still accessible. Ovid supposed that Apollo had
gone rather to the far southwest of Greece and, to make the locality
clearer, he named the fields of Pylos. This country both the Iliad
and the Odyssey had rendered famous as the home of Nestor. To the
same distant region Ovid transferred Battus and made him a herds-
man of Nestor's father, Neleus. In the Homeric Hymn Mercury
drove the stolen cattle the entire length of Greece, and in the other
versions he drove them at least half that distance. This allowed the
poet to amuse his Greek readers by mentioning a number of places
I
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? AGLAUROS AND MERCURY
along the way, and alluding to their well known peculiarities. But
for Ovid's readers it would have seemed both extravagant and tedious.
Ovid imagined instead that Mercury drove the cattle only from Pylos
to the foot of some nearby mountains.
Nicander had meant to show Battus ready to break his agreement
as soon as he was offered a larger bribe. But the difference in value
was not obvious between a sum of money and a robe. Ovid made the
first bribe a cow and the second a cow and a bull besides. Such
bribes were also more likely to be offered by a stealer of cattle. Ovid
enlivened the tale with dialogue. And he closed wittily with the remark
that Battus was still known as index, which to the Romans meant both
informer and flint.
Ovid's myth suggested an interesting passage to Petrarch. In a
vision Laura appeared to her lover disguised so that he did not recog-
nize her and thus beguiled him into an avowal of his presumptuous
affection. Then, resuming his usual appearance, she punished him
with transformation to a rock.
Ovid inspired also a painting by Claude Lorrain.
Aglauros and Mercury
In the tale of Aglauros and Mercury, Ovid gave the sequel to the
story which the crow had told of Erichthonius and the three daugh-
ters of Cecrops (see Coronis). In Ovid's version, Aglauros alone had
disobeyed Athena. He now told how she offended further and incurred
a memorable punishment.
In a tradition recorded by the Manual, Herse, a sister of Aglauros,
was loved by Mercury and became the mother of the hero Cephalus.
With this tradition Nicander related the punishment . of Aglauros.
Not content with disobeying Athena, he said, she interfered between
Mercury and Herse and would not allow the god to approach her
sister until he bribed her with a large sum of gold. Incensed at this
new evidence of her presumption, Athena cursed Aglauros with envy
of her sister's good fortune. Aglauros then tried to prevent Mercury
from entering at all; but he changed her into stone. Ovid followed
Nicander's myth, with some important changes for the better. But he
avoided all reference to Cephalus, whom he was to introduce with
a different parentage and much later (Bk. 7).
The preceding tale of Battus was very much like the tale of
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? >> METAMORPHOSES -- BOOK II
Aglaitros in its theme. Both showed a person guilty of unusual
effrontery turned into stone. Under these circumstances Ovid would
ordinarily have sought variety by keeping the two stories far apart.
But in this case he gained the same end by a remarkable contrast in
the treatment. The tale of Battus he told simply and briefly with
the mere suggestion that the man became shapeless rock. The story
of Aglauros he told with brilliant simile, elaborate incident, and de-
tailed metamorphosis of the girl into a livid statue. Never did he
show more skill or obtain a happier effect.
After a striking account of Mercury soaring above Athens and
gazing enamored at Herse, the leader of a festival, Ovid showed the
god preparing to visit her, according to the style of a Roman gallant.
By having Mercury approach in a courteous and dignified manner, he
emphasized the churlishness of Aglauros. He was careful also to
make clear the nature of her accumulated offense. Before mentioning
Athena's journey to the forbidding home of Envy, Ovid described the
goddess appropriately in her older character of a warrior maid.
He then proceeded to improve Nicander's myth by this justly
famous adventure. And thus he found opportunity to excel all
predecessors in the art of personifying an abstract idea. In the Hymn
to Apollo Callimachus had spoken of a personified Envy. From him
Ovid may have taken the initial suggestion. But when he pictured
Athena travelling to summon the baleful spirit of Envy, he profited by
far more illustrious example. The Iliad had often referred incidentally
to personified abstractions, a practice followed by many subsequent
authors of narrative poetry. And sometimes it had given such char-
acters an important part in the action. Sleep cooperated at length in
Juno's plan for diverting the attention of Jove and announced her
success to Neptune. And later Sleep and Death bore home to Lycia
the body of great Sarpedon. The Shield of Hercules gave prominence
to a monster called Darkness of Death. Aeschylus introduced such
characters into tragedy. He showed Strength not only dragging
Prometheus to the place of torture but exhorting Vulcan in a dialogue
of some length. Euripides assigned an important role to Death in
his Alcestis and to Madness in his Hercules Furens. And in the
Aeneid Vergil had shown Iarbus warned by the celebrated personifi-
cation of Fame. With the Iliad and the Alcestis Ovid was undoubt-
edly familiar and on several occasions he was to show his interest in
Vergil's Fame.
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? AGLAUROS AND MERCURY
While using personification, the author of the Iliad thought only
of the action: he introduced Sleep in order that Jupiter might be
lulled opportunely to rest. And for a reader, the effect was the same
in the work of Aeschylus and Euripides. Thus Death appeared
chiefly because Alcestis was going to die. But the Shield of Hercules
had been interested in Darkness of Death for her own sake and had
given a careful description of her hideous appearance. Vergil com-
bined the two methods. He made Fame an agent in the action and
he gave a brilliant portrayal of her character and appearance. But
Ovid carried the process a step further. He not only gave Envy an
essential part in the destruction of Aglauros; and portrayed in full
her hideous appearance and baleful nature; but he intensified the effect
by describing first the region in which Envy found a congenial home.
And from every point of view Ovid excelled all his predecessors by his
vivid and definite detail. Later he was to use the same methods for his
equally famous accounts of Famine (Bk. 8), Sleep (Bk. 11), and
Fame (Bk. 12).
Ovid's tale of Aglauros interested many authors of later times.
Dante, ascending to the Mount of Purgatory, heard warning voices
repeating to the envious, "I was Aglauros who became a rock. "
Chaucer's Troilus invoked Mercury, recalling his love of Herse
For which Pallas was with Aglauros wroth.
In the opera Psyche Moliere and Corneille took from Ovid's Aglauros
both the name and the character of the more envious sister.
The adventure with Envy had an unusually important influence.
In the Romance of the Rose Guillaume Lorris profited by it for his
own description of the character. Spenser, narrating the return of
Sir Artegal, recalled Ovid for a long and splendid description of
Envy. Each poet had the advantage in certain respects. But
Spenser gained much by contrasting the relatively passive Envy with
the aggressive Detraction.
Especially interesting to later poets were the details of Envy's
flight to Athens. Tasso imitated Ovid, when he told how Allecto, on
her way to arouse Soliman, parched the fields and made the sun look
pale. In a Latin poem Milton remembered Envy's grieving at the
sight of prosperous Athens and attributed a like grief to Satan when
he beheld prosperous England. Envy's destructive effect on the coun-
try he imitated with far more grandeur in Paradise Lost, when Sin
and Death
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? METAMORPHOSES -- BOOK II
Their course through thickest constellations held,
Spreading their bane; the blasted stars looked wan,
And planets, planet-struck, real eclipse
Then suffered.
But the influence of Ovid's Envy was not merely direct. During
the Middle Ages personification of abstractions became a very fre-
quent practice. Much of this work may have been the result of
medieval theology. But in the depiction of Envy and the later per-
sonifications of the Metamorphoses Ovid had given examples of extra-
ordinary merit. They were well known and enthusiastically admired
and they could not fail both to encourage personification and to sug-
gest the methods of medieval poets. The practice influenced pro-
foundly the work of Dante and became obvious in the Romance of the
Rose and the early poetry of Chaucer. During the Renaissance the
same tendency became pervasive in the Morality Plays and "the prose
of Bunyan. But the most wonderful of all personifications occurred in
the master work of Spenser and Milton. Both poets showed careful
study of Ovid. They began with an appropriate setting; they de-
picted the character vividly; and they gave it a suitable part in the
action. They excelled Ovid chiefly by associating their personification
with a theme of surpassing beauty and grendeur.
The Flemish painter, Van Baelen, showed Mercury looking down
at Herse and Aglauros in the procession. Turner pictured Mercury
and Herse. Pierre depicted Aglauros.
EUROPA AND JUPITEK
By supposing that Jupiter employed Mercury to drive down
Agenor's herd, Ovid passed from Aglauros to the famous myth of
Europa.
The story had grown up in Crete, where Europa was worshiped as
a goddess. Like the myths of Io and the Cretan Pasiphae, it may have
originated from an early Phoenician worship of deities in the shape of
cattle.
In the Iliad Europa appeared as a daughter of Phoenix who was
loved by Jupiter and became the mother of Minos and Rhadamanthus.
The Catalogues told the story to the following effect: Jupiter saw
Europa and her attendant maidens gathering flowers in a meadow.
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? EUROPA AND JUPITER
Loving her, he appeared in the shape of a bull and breathed from his
mouth a crocus. The flower attracted the princess and subjected her
to a magical influence. She allowed the god to take her on his back
and convey her to Crete. Here Jupiter left her at the court of
Asterion, who afterwards married her and adopted her sons. The
story was retold in lost poems of Eumelus and Bacchylides.
Meanwhile a word "Europe" had entered the Greek language as
a geographical name. It may have originated from an Assyrian
term, ereb, meaning land of the sunset. In the Homeric Hymn to
Apollo the author introduced this new word to designate only the
northern half of Greece. But Pindar and Aeschylus extended the
meaning to include the continent which we recognize today. Thus
far the geographical name "Europe" had been wholly independent of
the abducted princess Europa. But by Alexandrian times the re-
semblance was observed, and, although Europa had gone only to the
outlying island of Crete, she was supposed to have given her name to
the entire continent with which Crete was then associated.
Profiting by this new idea, Moschus retold the myth in an elaborate
and beautiful form. He carefully related the abduction to the future
name of the continent and made it the result of well planned action by
several deities. While telling of the events in the meadow he expanded
the earlier account pleasantly and gave an interesting description of
the bull. The creature cast the spell by licking Europa's neck. As
she was being carried over the sea, Moschus continued, Europa la-
mented her fate, and the bull replied, informing her of his identity and
her illustrious future. This version inspired a treatment by Horace.
But Horace imagined that Europa did not complain until after reach-
ing Crete and that she was reassured by Venus. From Moschus Ovid
may have taken some details for his Fasti, including the idea that
Europa's name suggested the name of the continent.
A different version of the myth had been implied by Herodotus. He
made Europa the daughter of Agenor, king of Sidon, and the sister
of Cadmus, who later founded Thebes. Her brothers, Cadmus and Cilix,
he said, had been sent out to recover her. In the Phcenissce, Euripides
made further changes. Phoenix, he declared, was not Europa's father
but a third brother, and Europa's great-great grandmother was Io.
The Manual repeated this genealogy, adding that the mother of
Europa was Telephassa. It retold the story given in the Catalogues
but said nothing of Jupiter's using magic. Not only the brothers, but
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? METAMORPHOSES -- BOOK II
Telephassa and a youth named Thasus, took part in the quest. This
account Nicander repeated. He may have added that, after Jupiter
brought the princess to Crete, the bull entered heaven as the constella-
tion Taurus. This event Ovid was to use in his Fasti.
In ancient art the myth was exceedingly popular. It appeared in
sculpture, painting, and representations of jewelry and coins.
In the Metamorphoses Ovid assumed that his readers were familiar
with the tale. He began abruptly with the arrival of Jupiter in the
field; gave no account of Europa's attractiveness; and did not even
mention her name. He felt the incongruity of the great god Jupiter's
descending to a clandestine love affair and was amused at his un-
dignified masquerade as a bull. The outline of the tale he took from
the Manual. But the white color and pleasing appearance of the bull
and the yellow sand of the shore he found in works of art. Realizing
the improbability of Europa's trusting herself to an unknown bull,
Ovid tried to make the incident plausible. He took care to show that
the creature was very mild and that Europa was at first a little afraid
and only gradually became so bold as to ride on his back. For the
brief description of the voyage Ovid turned again to a work of art.
A better description he reserved for the tale of Arachne (Bk. 6) and
the Fasti. In the tale of Scylla (Bk. 8) he added that Europa was
the mother of King Minos of Crete.
In later times the story of Europa continued to be very popular.
Many of its details could be gathered from the Fasti and numerous
references in Ovid's other poems; but the Metamorphoses afforded the
most convenient, and during many centuries the only, source of in-
formation for the story as a whole.
Dante, looking down from the constellation of the Twins, beheld
the Earth from Cadiz eastward almost to the shore where Europa
made herself a welcome load. Chaucer referred to the story twice in
his Troilus. Spenser, describing a pageant of the seasons, said of
April
Upon a bull he rode, the same which led
Europa floating through the Argolic floods;
His horns were gilden all with golden studs,
And garnished with garlands goodly dight
Of all the fairest flowers and freshest buds
Which the earth brings forth; and wet he seemed in sight
With waves, through which he waded for his Love's delight.
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? EUROPA AND JUPITER
Shakespeare was impressed chiefly by the undignified metamorphosis
of Jove and often used it as a matter for jest. He referred to it in
The Merry Wives of Windsor, Much Ado About Nothing, and Troilus
and Cressida. But he treated the myth seriously in the following
lines from his Taming of the Shrew
O yes, I saw sweet beauty in her face,
Such as the daughter of Agenor had
That made great Jove to humble him to her hand,
When with his knees he kissed the Cretan strand;
Hawthorne used Ovid's description of the bull and of the stages by
which Europa was persuaded to mount on his back for a delightful
version in The Wonder Book. Landor retold the tale in his poem
Europa and Her Mother. Ovid's myth inspired in part a carefully
finished lyric of Andre Chenier and this in turn suggested the Europa
of Victor Hugo.
In modern art the myth was a favorite theme. Filarete sculptured
Europa riding on the bull for a door panel of St. Peter's. The story
was treated in various ways by the painters Riccio, Albani, Titian,
Van Baelen, Van Poelenburgh, Le Clerc, Claude Lorrain, and Genelli.
It suggested two pictures by Guido Reni and two of Moreau. It in-
spired masterpieces of Paolo Veronese and Rubens, and Boucher de-
picted it in one of six glorious tapestries entitled The Loves of the
Gods.
For the Second Book Ovid used many tales which were old and
often treated in Greek literature. But he combined them with others
which were of purely Alexandrian origin. Although seldom men-
tioned by Roman authors, the stories were often familiar to Ovid's
contemporaries and allowed him to take much for granted. In every
tale he followed an Alexandrian version. The Manual helped him
occasionally; but his chief source was Nicander.
In the treatment of his material, much adjustment was necessary.
Although Ovid found a number of tales combined by Nicander, many
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? METAMORPHOSES -- BOOK II
others were quite unrelated. Ovid needed often to supply the con-
nection, to arrange the stories in order of time, and to beware of in-
consistency with other parts of his work. In almost every case he had
to avoid duplication of material which he was to use for the Fasti.
The story as told by Ovid's predecessor was often brief and dry: Ovid
had to animate the characters; reveal the motive; and describe the
scene. When possible he borrowed from other great poets--the Iliad,
Euripides, Callimachus, and Vergil and often he profited by ancient
works of art. But even while borrowing he frequently improved what
he took and quite as often he relied on his own invention.
Although some stories were hardly noticed by later times, the book
as a whole had an important effect. It influenced authors such as
Andre Chenier and Blackmore, who seem otherwise to have ignored
Ovid entirely. Many tales interested Dante and Shakespeare and
some affected markedly the work of Chaucer, Spenser, Corneille, and
Milton. Addison translated the entire book. Macaulay pronounced
it by far the best in the poem.
Modern painters showed special fondness for the Second Book and
created from it a number of masterpieces.
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? BOOK THREE
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? BOOK THREE
Four cities became especially prominent in the lore of prehistoric
Greece--Argos, Thebes, Athens, and Troy. About their dimly re-
membered past gathered remarkable tales of the royal family under
which each was supposed to have been established; to have grown in
power; and sometimes to have fallen. Even in oral tradition, indi-
vidual myths probably became related somewhat to one another.
Greek poets retold them singly or in groups; Greek prose writers
began to organize them with regard for chronological order; and at
length the Manual recorded four quite elaborate mythical histories,
each narrating the supposed adventures of a royal family from the
founding of the city to the dawn of recorded history.
Through Greek poetry and the Manual Ovid was familiar with the
myths that had gathered round all four of these storied cities. They
offered him many tales of marvellous transformation, which were
combined already with some regard for sequence of time. And at
many points the traditions of one city were related to those of the
others. It was possible to use one or more of the most attractive
stories from the lore of a given city and then pass without special
difficulty to attractive stories in the tradition of another. For his
Metamorphoses, Ovid selected good stories from the mythology of all
these famous cities. Argos furnished him the tale of Io (Bk. 1) and
many adventures of Perseus (Bks. 4--5). Thebes, Athens, and Troy
proved even more congenial. From them he chose so many stories
that he made each tradition the chief subject for two books of his
poem and he retold a considerable part of their history. The first
tradition to which he gave prominence was that of Thebes.
In Greek literature Theban myth received attention from the begin-
ning and soon became famous. The subject included adventures of
the royal family from Cadmus to the fall of the city and also the
eventful careers of the wise Tiresias and the mighty Hercules. To
Theban stories the Iliad and the Odyssey referred more than once.
The Oedipodaa and the Epigoni related at some length the strange
and terrible misfortunes of Oedipus and his successors at the close of
Theban history. The Theogony and the Shield of Hercules told still
other stories, dealing especially with adventures of Hercules. And
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? METAMORPHOSES -- BOOK III
Pindar often recalled the traditional glories of his native city. These
poets took special interest in the closing period of Theban history.
For the great drama of Athens Theban myth proved a storehouse
of tragic material. It suggested many dramas of Aeschylus; it in-
spired masterpieces of Sophocles; and it provided Euripides with the
subjects of many interesting, though rather unsuccessful, plays.
Athenian drama treated almost the whole range of Theban myth; but,
like the older Greek poetry, it found most congenial the later period--
the misfortunes of Oedipus and his successors and the adventurous
career of Hercules.
The Alexandrians made further use of the famous tradition. Their
poets, anxious to avoid material which might seem too well known,
looked chiefly to myths in the earlier history of Thebes. Theocritus
and others retold individual tales with originality and charm. Nicander
found new versions for almost all the earlier tales and also for a num-
ber of the later ones.
Although Ovid profited gladly by Theban myth, he did not retell it
in full. Like the Alexandrians, he gave his attention chiefly to the
earlier tales. These he selected carefully and arranged in a new and
more effective order. The improved Theban material he treated in his
Third Book and about half of the Fourth. Then he passed to other
themes. But in later passages of his poem he used still other Theban
myths for his tales of Niobe (Bk. 6), the Teumessian Fox (Bk. 7), the
death of Orion's daughters (Bk. 13), and a few adventures of Her-
cules (Bk. 9).
Cadmus and the Deagon
A small company of Phoenicians appear to have made the original
settlement at Thebes. They established a citadel, known as the
Cadmea, and brought in a higher form of culture than any which had
existed before in central Greece. According to Aeschylus, they intro-
duced the worship of Mars. And with him they associated a common
Semitic belief that a snake was guardian of their spring. They re-
garded the creature as sacred to Mars and often spoke of it as his son.
Although the earliest settlers were Phoenician, they soon intermarried
with the natives and became a Greek people. The author of the Iliad
referred to them as inhabitants of the Cadmea and worshippers of
Mars. The Odyssey mentioned their enclosing the city with the
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? CADMUS AND THE DRAGON
famous wall and its seven gates. But thus far we hear nothing of
Cadmus.
A century or more later, his story appears in rather definite form.
The Theogony declared that Cadmus married Harmonia, daughter of
Mars and Venus, and that their children were four daughters named
Ino, Semele, Agave, and Autonoe and a son named Polydorus. This
part of the story was followed by all subsequent authors, including
Ovid.
Pindar added that the gods attended the wedding bringing gifts
but that the later life of Cadmus was unhappy through the misfor-
, tune of his daughters. Pindar alluded also to a tradition that some
of the Thebans were descended from the sacred snake.
This part of the tale was first recorded by the mythographer
Pherecydes. Cadmus, he said, had put the reptile to death. Then
Athena, coming to his aid, advised him to plant a number of the crea-
ture's teeth. A crop of fierce warriors grew up, and Cadmus in alarm
threw stones among them. The warriors, believing that their neigh-
bors had struck them, engaged in a sanguinary battle until only
Echion and four others were left. These Athena persuaded to make
peace and aid in the founding of Thebes. The rest of the teeth Athena
conveyed to Aeetes of Colchis, and later they were planted by Jason
(cf. Bk. 7).
In the PhosnisscB Euripides added many further details. Before
going to Thebes, he said, Cadmus had visited the Delphic Oracle and
learned that he was to follow an unbroken heifer and settle where she
lay down. Before founding the city, Euripides continued, Cadmus
desired to sacrifice the heifer, and while obtaining water for the cere-
mony, he met with the snake and crushed its head with a boulder.
Mars, resenting the loss of his favorite, was appeased only many
generations later by the voluntary death of a youth named Menceceus.
Apollonius agreed in all essential details with Pherecides and
Euripides. But Nicander made two important changes. He height-
ened the interest of the battle by declaring that the boulder proved
ineffectual and he related the anger of Mars more definitely to the
subsequent tales of Thebes. Immediately after the battle, he said, the
god addressed Cadmus, indicating his displeasure and announcing
that later the hero himself was to become a snake. This change
allowed Nicander to relate the misfortunes of Cadmus' children and
grandchildren as effects of a single divine cause and to end the series
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? METAMORPHOSES -- BOOK m
with the transformation predicted in the beginning. Ovid followed
both Nicander's innovations and he made the sudden warning im-
pressive. But he would have done better to make it clear that the
voice was that of Mars and that the prophecy referred to all the
ensuing tales. The prophecy should have been not only an effective
incident but the turning point in the cycle.
Meanwhile Herodotus had related Cadmus to Europa, and
Euripides had made him a descendant of Io. The Manual, after re-
peating and adding to this genealogy, declared that Agenor forbade
his sons to return without Europa. After a detailed account of the
search through Asia Minor and the Aegean isles, it recorded that
Cadmus settled in Thrace until the death of his mother. In the rest
of the tale the Manual differed from other versions considerably.
Cadmus, according to the Manual, did not travel alone, but was ac-
companied by other Phoenicians. After leaving the Delphic Oracle,
they wandered in a southeasterly direction for a considerable distance
and were entering the region later known as Boeotia, when they met
with the heifer. The district took its name from the famous cow.
Arriving at Thebes, Cadmus at first despatched his followers in search
of water. The snake destroyed the greater part of them. Then Cad-
mus himself battled with the reptile. After the warriors grew up
from the teeth, continued the Manual, a chance quarrel among them
may have led to the battle. Although Mars was offended at the death
of the, snake and its offspring, Cadmus appeased him by eight years'
service. The Manual added that Athena made Cadmus king of Thebes
and recorded the marriage of his three older daughters--Ino to Atha-
mas, Autonoe to Aristasus, and Agave to Echion.
From the Manual Ovid took the greater part of his tale. He
omitted the genealogy of Cadmus and all details of the quest for
Europa. The incidents of the oracle and the heifer he abridged and
he imagined that Cadmus found her immediately after leaving Delphi
and followed her from there to the site of his future citadel--an in-
credible distance. Ovid suggested effectively the awe and wonder of
Cadmus when he looked at the unfamiliar and beautiful country which
was to be his home.
Ovid reported that all the followers of Cadmus perished and so
made it more plausible that Athena should provide new followers
from the teeth. In describing the snake, he profited by Vergil's
memorable account of a serpent in the Cvlex, but he added many effec-
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improving the tale in several ways. The old man's name, he said, was
Battus. Instead of offering a good harvest, Mercury gave the more
tangible bribe of some money. But, fearing treachery, the god re-
turned later in a different guise and himself questioned the old man.
By offering a robe, he soon got the desired information. Mercury then
hit Battus with a staff and turned him into a rock which always con-
tains both fire and frost. This account Ovid mentioned in his Ibis.
In the Metamorphoses Ovid associated the tale of Battus with that
of Ocyrhoe. Apollo, he said, was unable to help Chiron during the
transformation of his daughter, because he was absent, tending cattle.
Ovid followed the outline of Nicander's version, making a number of
improvements. Since Hymenasus belonged to a later time, Ovid merely
said that Apollo became a pastoral lover. Nicander had shown the
god tending cattle in southern Thessaly; but this would have taken
him only a few miles from the residence of Chiron and would make it
appear that he was still accessible. Ovid supposed that Apollo had
gone rather to the far southwest of Greece and, to make the locality
clearer, he named the fields of Pylos. This country both the Iliad
and the Odyssey had rendered famous as the home of Nestor. To the
same distant region Ovid transferred Battus and made him a herds-
man of Nestor's father, Neleus. In the Homeric Hymn Mercury
drove the stolen cattle the entire length of Greece, and in the other
versions he drove them at least half that distance. This allowed the
poet to amuse his Greek readers by mentioning a number of places
I
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? AGLAUROS AND MERCURY
along the way, and alluding to their well known peculiarities. But
for Ovid's readers it would have seemed both extravagant and tedious.
Ovid imagined instead that Mercury drove the cattle only from Pylos
to the foot of some nearby mountains.
Nicander had meant to show Battus ready to break his agreement
as soon as he was offered a larger bribe. But the difference in value
was not obvious between a sum of money and a robe. Ovid made the
first bribe a cow and the second a cow and a bull besides. Such
bribes were also more likely to be offered by a stealer of cattle. Ovid
enlivened the tale with dialogue. And he closed wittily with the remark
that Battus was still known as index, which to the Romans meant both
informer and flint.
Ovid's myth suggested an interesting passage to Petrarch. In a
vision Laura appeared to her lover disguised so that he did not recog-
nize her and thus beguiled him into an avowal of his presumptuous
affection. Then, resuming his usual appearance, she punished him
with transformation to a rock.
Ovid inspired also a painting by Claude Lorrain.
Aglauros and Mercury
In the tale of Aglauros and Mercury, Ovid gave the sequel to the
story which the crow had told of Erichthonius and the three daugh-
ters of Cecrops (see Coronis). In Ovid's version, Aglauros alone had
disobeyed Athena. He now told how she offended further and incurred
a memorable punishment.
In a tradition recorded by the Manual, Herse, a sister of Aglauros,
was loved by Mercury and became the mother of the hero Cephalus.
With this tradition Nicander related the punishment . of Aglauros.
Not content with disobeying Athena, he said, she interfered between
Mercury and Herse and would not allow the god to approach her
sister until he bribed her with a large sum of gold. Incensed at this
new evidence of her presumption, Athena cursed Aglauros with envy
of her sister's good fortune. Aglauros then tried to prevent Mercury
from entering at all; but he changed her into stone. Ovid followed
Nicander's myth, with some important changes for the better. But he
avoided all reference to Cephalus, whom he was to introduce with
a different parentage and much later (Bk. 7).
The preceding tale of Battus was very much like the tale of
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? >> METAMORPHOSES -- BOOK II
Aglaitros in its theme. Both showed a person guilty of unusual
effrontery turned into stone. Under these circumstances Ovid would
ordinarily have sought variety by keeping the two stories far apart.
But in this case he gained the same end by a remarkable contrast in
the treatment. The tale of Battus he told simply and briefly with
the mere suggestion that the man became shapeless rock. The story
of Aglauros he told with brilliant simile, elaborate incident, and de-
tailed metamorphosis of the girl into a livid statue. Never did he
show more skill or obtain a happier effect.
After a striking account of Mercury soaring above Athens and
gazing enamored at Herse, the leader of a festival, Ovid showed the
god preparing to visit her, according to the style of a Roman gallant.
By having Mercury approach in a courteous and dignified manner, he
emphasized the churlishness of Aglauros. He was careful also to
make clear the nature of her accumulated offense. Before mentioning
Athena's journey to the forbidding home of Envy, Ovid described the
goddess appropriately in her older character of a warrior maid.
He then proceeded to improve Nicander's myth by this justly
famous adventure. And thus he found opportunity to excel all
predecessors in the art of personifying an abstract idea. In the Hymn
to Apollo Callimachus had spoken of a personified Envy. From him
Ovid may have taken the initial suggestion. But when he pictured
Athena travelling to summon the baleful spirit of Envy, he profited by
far more illustrious example. The Iliad had often referred incidentally
to personified abstractions, a practice followed by many subsequent
authors of narrative poetry. And sometimes it had given such char-
acters an important part in the action. Sleep cooperated at length in
Juno's plan for diverting the attention of Jove and announced her
success to Neptune. And later Sleep and Death bore home to Lycia
the body of great Sarpedon. The Shield of Hercules gave prominence
to a monster called Darkness of Death. Aeschylus introduced such
characters into tragedy. He showed Strength not only dragging
Prometheus to the place of torture but exhorting Vulcan in a dialogue
of some length. Euripides assigned an important role to Death in
his Alcestis and to Madness in his Hercules Furens. And in the
Aeneid Vergil had shown Iarbus warned by the celebrated personifi-
cation of Fame. With the Iliad and the Alcestis Ovid was undoubt-
edly familiar and on several occasions he was to show his interest in
Vergil's Fame.
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? AGLAUROS AND MERCURY
While using personification, the author of the Iliad thought only
of the action: he introduced Sleep in order that Jupiter might be
lulled opportunely to rest. And for a reader, the effect was the same
in the work of Aeschylus and Euripides. Thus Death appeared
chiefly because Alcestis was going to die. But the Shield of Hercules
had been interested in Darkness of Death for her own sake and had
given a careful description of her hideous appearance. Vergil com-
bined the two methods. He made Fame an agent in the action and
he gave a brilliant portrayal of her character and appearance. But
Ovid carried the process a step further. He not only gave Envy an
essential part in the destruction of Aglauros; and portrayed in full
her hideous appearance and baleful nature; but he intensified the effect
by describing first the region in which Envy found a congenial home.
And from every point of view Ovid excelled all his predecessors by his
vivid and definite detail. Later he was to use the same methods for his
equally famous accounts of Famine (Bk. 8), Sleep (Bk. 11), and
Fame (Bk. 12).
Ovid's tale of Aglauros interested many authors of later times.
Dante, ascending to the Mount of Purgatory, heard warning voices
repeating to the envious, "I was Aglauros who became a rock. "
Chaucer's Troilus invoked Mercury, recalling his love of Herse
For which Pallas was with Aglauros wroth.
In the opera Psyche Moliere and Corneille took from Ovid's Aglauros
both the name and the character of the more envious sister.
The adventure with Envy had an unusually important influence.
In the Romance of the Rose Guillaume Lorris profited by it for his
own description of the character. Spenser, narrating the return of
Sir Artegal, recalled Ovid for a long and splendid description of
Envy. Each poet had the advantage in certain respects. But
Spenser gained much by contrasting the relatively passive Envy with
the aggressive Detraction.
Especially interesting to later poets were the details of Envy's
flight to Athens. Tasso imitated Ovid, when he told how Allecto, on
her way to arouse Soliman, parched the fields and made the sun look
pale. In a Latin poem Milton remembered Envy's grieving at the
sight of prosperous Athens and attributed a like grief to Satan when
he beheld prosperous England. Envy's destructive effect on the coun-
try he imitated with far more grandeur in Paradise Lost, when Sin
and Death
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? METAMORPHOSES -- BOOK II
Their course through thickest constellations held,
Spreading their bane; the blasted stars looked wan,
And planets, planet-struck, real eclipse
Then suffered.
But the influence of Ovid's Envy was not merely direct. During
the Middle Ages personification of abstractions became a very fre-
quent practice. Much of this work may have been the result of
medieval theology. But in the depiction of Envy and the later per-
sonifications of the Metamorphoses Ovid had given examples of extra-
ordinary merit. They were well known and enthusiastically admired
and they could not fail both to encourage personification and to sug-
gest the methods of medieval poets. The practice influenced pro-
foundly the work of Dante and became obvious in the Romance of the
Rose and the early poetry of Chaucer. During the Renaissance the
same tendency became pervasive in the Morality Plays and "the prose
of Bunyan. But the most wonderful of all personifications occurred in
the master work of Spenser and Milton. Both poets showed careful
study of Ovid. They began with an appropriate setting; they de-
picted the character vividly; and they gave it a suitable part in the
action. They excelled Ovid chiefly by associating their personification
with a theme of surpassing beauty and grendeur.
The Flemish painter, Van Baelen, showed Mercury looking down
at Herse and Aglauros in the procession. Turner pictured Mercury
and Herse. Pierre depicted Aglauros.
EUROPA AND JUPITEK
By supposing that Jupiter employed Mercury to drive down
Agenor's herd, Ovid passed from Aglauros to the famous myth of
Europa.
The story had grown up in Crete, where Europa was worshiped as
a goddess. Like the myths of Io and the Cretan Pasiphae, it may have
originated from an early Phoenician worship of deities in the shape of
cattle.
In the Iliad Europa appeared as a daughter of Phoenix who was
loved by Jupiter and became the mother of Minos and Rhadamanthus.
The Catalogues told the story to the following effect: Jupiter saw
Europa and her attendant maidens gathering flowers in a meadow.
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? EUROPA AND JUPITER
Loving her, he appeared in the shape of a bull and breathed from his
mouth a crocus. The flower attracted the princess and subjected her
to a magical influence. She allowed the god to take her on his back
and convey her to Crete. Here Jupiter left her at the court of
Asterion, who afterwards married her and adopted her sons. The
story was retold in lost poems of Eumelus and Bacchylides.
Meanwhile a word "Europe" had entered the Greek language as
a geographical name. It may have originated from an Assyrian
term, ereb, meaning land of the sunset. In the Homeric Hymn to
Apollo the author introduced this new word to designate only the
northern half of Greece. But Pindar and Aeschylus extended the
meaning to include the continent which we recognize today. Thus
far the geographical name "Europe" had been wholly independent of
the abducted princess Europa. But by Alexandrian times the re-
semblance was observed, and, although Europa had gone only to the
outlying island of Crete, she was supposed to have given her name to
the entire continent with which Crete was then associated.
Profiting by this new idea, Moschus retold the myth in an elaborate
and beautiful form. He carefully related the abduction to the future
name of the continent and made it the result of well planned action by
several deities. While telling of the events in the meadow he expanded
the earlier account pleasantly and gave an interesting description of
the bull. The creature cast the spell by licking Europa's neck. As
she was being carried over the sea, Moschus continued, Europa la-
mented her fate, and the bull replied, informing her of his identity and
her illustrious future. This version inspired a treatment by Horace.
But Horace imagined that Europa did not complain until after reach-
ing Crete and that she was reassured by Venus. From Moschus Ovid
may have taken some details for his Fasti, including the idea that
Europa's name suggested the name of the continent.
A different version of the myth had been implied by Herodotus. He
made Europa the daughter of Agenor, king of Sidon, and the sister
of Cadmus, who later founded Thebes. Her brothers, Cadmus and Cilix,
he said, had been sent out to recover her. In the Phcenissce, Euripides
made further changes. Phoenix, he declared, was not Europa's father
but a third brother, and Europa's great-great grandmother was Io.
The Manual repeated this genealogy, adding that the mother of
Europa was Telephassa. It retold the story given in the Catalogues
but said nothing of Jupiter's using magic. Not only the brothers, but
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? METAMORPHOSES -- BOOK II
Telephassa and a youth named Thasus, took part in the quest. This
account Nicander repeated. He may have added that, after Jupiter
brought the princess to Crete, the bull entered heaven as the constella-
tion Taurus. This event Ovid was to use in his Fasti.
In ancient art the myth was exceedingly popular. It appeared in
sculpture, painting, and representations of jewelry and coins.
In the Metamorphoses Ovid assumed that his readers were familiar
with the tale. He began abruptly with the arrival of Jupiter in the
field; gave no account of Europa's attractiveness; and did not even
mention her name. He felt the incongruity of the great god Jupiter's
descending to a clandestine love affair and was amused at his un-
dignified masquerade as a bull. The outline of the tale he took from
the Manual. But the white color and pleasing appearance of the bull
and the yellow sand of the shore he found in works of art. Realizing
the improbability of Europa's trusting herself to an unknown bull,
Ovid tried to make the incident plausible. He took care to show that
the creature was very mild and that Europa was at first a little afraid
and only gradually became so bold as to ride on his back. For the
brief description of the voyage Ovid turned again to a work of art.
A better description he reserved for the tale of Arachne (Bk. 6) and
the Fasti. In the tale of Scylla (Bk. 8) he added that Europa was
the mother of King Minos of Crete.
In later times the story of Europa continued to be very popular.
Many of its details could be gathered from the Fasti and numerous
references in Ovid's other poems; but the Metamorphoses afforded the
most convenient, and during many centuries the only, source of in-
formation for the story as a whole.
Dante, looking down from the constellation of the Twins, beheld
the Earth from Cadiz eastward almost to the shore where Europa
made herself a welcome load. Chaucer referred to the story twice in
his Troilus. Spenser, describing a pageant of the seasons, said of
April
Upon a bull he rode, the same which led
Europa floating through the Argolic floods;
His horns were gilden all with golden studs,
And garnished with garlands goodly dight
Of all the fairest flowers and freshest buds
Which the earth brings forth; and wet he seemed in sight
With waves, through which he waded for his Love's delight.
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? EUROPA AND JUPITER
Shakespeare was impressed chiefly by the undignified metamorphosis
of Jove and often used it as a matter for jest. He referred to it in
The Merry Wives of Windsor, Much Ado About Nothing, and Troilus
and Cressida. But he treated the myth seriously in the following
lines from his Taming of the Shrew
O yes, I saw sweet beauty in her face,
Such as the daughter of Agenor had
That made great Jove to humble him to her hand,
When with his knees he kissed the Cretan strand;
Hawthorne used Ovid's description of the bull and of the stages by
which Europa was persuaded to mount on his back for a delightful
version in The Wonder Book. Landor retold the tale in his poem
Europa and Her Mother. Ovid's myth inspired in part a carefully
finished lyric of Andre Chenier and this in turn suggested the Europa
of Victor Hugo.
In modern art the myth was a favorite theme. Filarete sculptured
Europa riding on the bull for a door panel of St. Peter's. The story
was treated in various ways by the painters Riccio, Albani, Titian,
Van Baelen, Van Poelenburgh, Le Clerc, Claude Lorrain, and Genelli.
It suggested two pictures by Guido Reni and two of Moreau. It in-
spired masterpieces of Paolo Veronese and Rubens, and Boucher de-
picted it in one of six glorious tapestries entitled The Loves of the
Gods.
For the Second Book Ovid used many tales which were old and
often treated in Greek literature. But he combined them with others
which were of purely Alexandrian origin. Although seldom men-
tioned by Roman authors, the stories were often familiar to Ovid's
contemporaries and allowed him to take much for granted. In every
tale he followed an Alexandrian version. The Manual helped him
occasionally; but his chief source was Nicander.
In the treatment of his material, much adjustment was necessary.
Although Ovid found a number of tales combined by Nicander, many
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? METAMORPHOSES -- BOOK II
others were quite unrelated. Ovid needed often to supply the con-
nection, to arrange the stories in order of time, and to beware of in-
consistency with other parts of his work. In almost every case he had
to avoid duplication of material which he was to use for the Fasti.
The story as told by Ovid's predecessor was often brief and dry: Ovid
had to animate the characters; reveal the motive; and describe the
scene. When possible he borrowed from other great poets--the Iliad,
Euripides, Callimachus, and Vergil and often he profited by ancient
works of art. But even while borrowing he frequently improved what
he took and quite as often he relied on his own invention.
Although some stories were hardly noticed by later times, the book
as a whole had an important effect. It influenced authors such as
Andre Chenier and Blackmore, who seem otherwise to have ignored
Ovid entirely. Many tales interested Dante and Shakespeare and
some affected markedly the work of Chaucer, Spenser, Corneille, and
Milton. Addison translated the entire book. Macaulay pronounced
it by far the best in the poem.
Modern painters showed special fondness for the Second Book and
created from it a number of masterpieces.
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? BOOK THREE
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? BOOK THREE
Four cities became especially prominent in the lore of prehistoric
Greece--Argos, Thebes, Athens, and Troy. About their dimly re-
membered past gathered remarkable tales of the royal family under
which each was supposed to have been established; to have grown in
power; and sometimes to have fallen. Even in oral tradition, indi-
vidual myths probably became related somewhat to one another.
Greek poets retold them singly or in groups; Greek prose writers
began to organize them with regard for chronological order; and at
length the Manual recorded four quite elaborate mythical histories,
each narrating the supposed adventures of a royal family from the
founding of the city to the dawn of recorded history.
Through Greek poetry and the Manual Ovid was familiar with the
myths that had gathered round all four of these storied cities. They
offered him many tales of marvellous transformation, which were
combined already with some regard for sequence of time. And at
many points the traditions of one city were related to those of the
others. It was possible to use one or more of the most attractive
stories from the lore of a given city and then pass without special
difficulty to attractive stories in the tradition of another. For his
Metamorphoses, Ovid selected good stories from the mythology of all
these famous cities. Argos furnished him the tale of Io (Bk. 1) and
many adventures of Perseus (Bks. 4--5). Thebes, Athens, and Troy
proved even more congenial. From them he chose so many stories
that he made each tradition the chief subject for two books of his
poem and he retold a considerable part of their history. The first
tradition to which he gave prominence was that of Thebes.
In Greek literature Theban myth received attention from the begin-
ning and soon became famous. The subject included adventures of
the royal family from Cadmus to the fall of the city and also the
eventful careers of the wise Tiresias and the mighty Hercules. To
Theban stories the Iliad and the Odyssey referred more than once.
The Oedipodaa and the Epigoni related at some length the strange
and terrible misfortunes of Oedipus and his successors at the close of
Theban history. The Theogony and the Shield of Hercules told still
other stories, dealing especially with adventures of Hercules. And
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? METAMORPHOSES -- BOOK III
Pindar often recalled the traditional glories of his native city. These
poets took special interest in the closing period of Theban history.
For the great drama of Athens Theban myth proved a storehouse
of tragic material. It suggested many dramas of Aeschylus; it in-
spired masterpieces of Sophocles; and it provided Euripides with the
subjects of many interesting, though rather unsuccessful, plays.
Athenian drama treated almost the whole range of Theban myth; but,
like the older Greek poetry, it found most congenial the later period--
the misfortunes of Oedipus and his successors and the adventurous
career of Hercules.
The Alexandrians made further use of the famous tradition. Their
poets, anxious to avoid material which might seem too well known,
looked chiefly to myths in the earlier history of Thebes. Theocritus
and others retold individual tales with originality and charm. Nicander
found new versions for almost all the earlier tales and also for a num-
ber of the later ones.
Although Ovid profited gladly by Theban myth, he did not retell it
in full. Like the Alexandrians, he gave his attention chiefly to the
earlier tales. These he selected carefully and arranged in a new and
more effective order. The improved Theban material he treated in his
Third Book and about half of the Fourth. Then he passed to other
themes. But in later passages of his poem he used still other Theban
myths for his tales of Niobe (Bk. 6), the Teumessian Fox (Bk. 7), the
death of Orion's daughters (Bk. 13), and a few adventures of Her-
cules (Bk. 9).
Cadmus and the Deagon
A small company of Phoenicians appear to have made the original
settlement at Thebes. They established a citadel, known as the
Cadmea, and brought in a higher form of culture than any which had
existed before in central Greece. According to Aeschylus, they intro-
duced the worship of Mars. And with him they associated a common
Semitic belief that a snake was guardian of their spring. They re-
garded the creature as sacred to Mars and often spoke of it as his son.
Although the earliest settlers were Phoenician, they soon intermarried
with the natives and became a Greek people. The author of the Iliad
referred to them as inhabitants of the Cadmea and worshippers of
Mars. The Odyssey mentioned their enclosing the city with the
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? CADMUS AND THE DRAGON
famous wall and its seven gates. But thus far we hear nothing of
Cadmus.
A century or more later, his story appears in rather definite form.
The Theogony declared that Cadmus married Harmonia, daughter of
Mars and Venus, and that their children were four daughters named
Ino, Semele, Agave, and Autonoe and a son named Polydorus. This
part of the story was followed by all subsequent authors, including
Ovid.
Pindar added that the gods attended the wedding bringing gifts
but that the later life of Cadmus was unhappy through the misfor-
, tune of his daughters. Pindar alluded also to a tradition that some
of the Thebans were descended from the sacred snake.
This part of the tale was first recorded by the mythographer
Pherecydes. Cadmus, he said, had put the reptile to death. Then
Athena, coming to his aid, advised him to plant a number of the crea-
ture's teeth. A crop of fierce warriors grew up, and Cadmus in alarm
threw stones among them. The warriors, believing that their neigh-
bors had struck them, engaged in a sanguinary battle until only
Echion and four others were left. These Athena persuaded to make
peace and aid in the founding of Thebes. The rest of the teeth Athena
conveyed to Aeetes of Colchis, and later they were planted by Jason
(cf. Bk. 7).
In the PhosnisscB Euripides added many further details. Before
going to Thebes, he said, Cadmus had visited the Delphic Oracle and
learned that he was to follow an unbroken heifer and settle where she
lay down. Before founding the city, Euripides continued, Cadmus
desired to sacrifice the heifer, and while obtaining water for the cere-
mony, he met with the snake and crushed its head with a boulder.
Mars, resenting the loss of his favorite, was appeased only many
generations later by the voluntary death of a youth named Menceceus.
Apollonius agreed in all essential details with Pherecides and
Euripides. But Nicander made two important changes. He height-
ened the interest of the battle by declaring that the boulder proved
ineffectual and he related the anger of Mars more definitely to the
subsequent tales of Thebes. Immediately after the battle, he said, the
god addressed Cadmus, indicating his displeasure and announcing
that later the hero himself was to become a snake. This change
allowed Nicander to relate the misfortunes of Cadmus' children and
grandchildren as effects of a single divine cause and to end the series
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? METAMORPHOSES -- BOOK m
with the transformation predicted in the beginning. Ovid followed
both Nicander's innovations and he made the sudden warning im-
pressive. But he would have done better to make it clear that the
voice was that of Mars and that the prophecy referred to all the
ensuing tales. The prophecy should have been not only an effective
incident but the turning point in the cycle.
Meanwhile Herodotus had related Cadmus to Europa, and
Euripides had made him a descendant of Io. The Manual, after re-
peating and adding to this genealogy, declared that Agenor forbade
his sons to return without Europa. After a detailed account of the
search through Asia Minor and the Aegean isles, it recorded that
Cadmus settled in Thrace until the death of his mother. In the rest
of the tale the Manual differed from other versions considerably.
Cadmus, according to the Manual, did not travel alone, but was ac-
companied by other Phoenicians. After leaving the Delphic Oracle,
they wandered in a southeasterly direction for a considerable distance
and were entering the region later known as Boeotia, when they met
with the heifer. The district took its name from the famous cow.
Arriving at Thebes, Cadmus at first despatched his followers in search
of water. The snake destroyed the greater part of them. Then Cad-
mus himself battled with the reptile. After the warriors grew up
from the teeth, continued the Manual, a chance quarrel among them
may have led to the battle. Although Mars was offended at the death
of the, snake and its offspring, Cadmus appeased him by eight years'
service. The Manual added that Athena made Cadmus king of Thebes
and recorded the marriage of his three older daughters--Ino to Atha-
mas, Autonoe to Aristasus, and Agave to Echion.
From the Manual Ovid took the greater part of his tale. He
omitted the genealogy of Cadmus and all details of the quest for
Europa. The incidents of the oracle and the heifer he abridged and
he imagined that Cadmus found her immediately after leaving Delphi
and followed her from there to the site of his future citadel--an in-
credible distance. Ovid suggested effectively the awe and wonder of
Cadmus when he looked at the unfamiliar and beautiful country which
was to be his home.
Ovid reported that all the followers of Cadmus perished and so
made it more plausible that Athena should provide new followers
from the teeth. In describing the snake, he profited by Vergil's
memorable account of a serpent in the Cvlex, but he added many effec-
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