7 Philippus, at Chaeroneia, knowing the Athenians were impetuous and inexperienced, and the Macedonians inured to fatigues and exercise,
contrived
to prolong the action: and reserving his principal attack to the latter end of the engagement, the enemy weak and exhausted were unable to sustain the charge.
Polyaenus - Strategems
These men spoke in a barbarian fashion, and stated that they were part of a group who were marching there to bring money for the payment of the soldiers' arrears; and they had been sent on ahead to announce this.
When they heard this news, the soldiers immediately put an end to the assembly.
60 After Iphicrates had ravaged the territory of the Odrysians, and had carried away a great quantity of booty, the Odrysians pursued him in great force. Iphicrates had only a small number of cavalry, but he ordered them to attack with flaming torches in their hands. The flames so frightened the horses of the enemy, who were unaccustomed to the sight of fire, that they did not withstand the attack, but turned around and fled.
61 Iphicrates once advanced against a city, which was built on the banks of a river. He needed to cross the river above the city, before he could begin to attack it. Therefore he crossed the river by night, so that the colour of the water, made muddy by the passage of so many men, would not reveal his approach to the enemy. The next morning he appeared before their gates, and began his attack, before they realised that he had crossed the river.
62 Iphicrates captured many of the Odrysians in Thrace. When he was being harassed by the enemy's slings and arrows, he stripped his prisoners naked, and with their hands tied behind their backs placed them in front of his army. The Odrysians saw that their friends had been put in the place of danger, and stopped attacking from a distance with slings and arrows.
63 Iphicrates was sent to Phoenicia with a fleet of a hundred thirty-oared ships. As soon as he approached the Phoenician coast, which was flat and muddy, he found that the enemy were drawn up to confront him. He ordered the captains of the ships to form a line and approach the coast, and to drop their anchors when the signal was given; after that, the soldiers were instructed to take up their weapons, and jump into the sea next to their respective oar. As soon as Iphicrates supposed that the sea was shallow enough for his purpose, he gave the signal. The ships immediately dropped anchor; the soldiers moved out of them in perfect order, and advanced to the shore under cover of their shields. The enemy, who were intimidated by the order and boldness of their attack, turned to flight. In the pursuit, Iphicrates' men killed some of the enemy, and captured others. They also took much booty, which they loaded onto their ships while they established a camp on the shore.
[10] Timotheus.
When there was a great shortage of money in the Attic camp, Timotheus persuaded the merchants to treat his documents as coinage. He assured them that the documents would all be redeemed with money. The merchants trusted in the general's honour, and supplied the army with provisions on the credit of his documents. The money was afterwards punctually paid, and Timotheus by this stratagem not only supplied the needs of his army, but strengthened his credit amongst the merchants.
2 Just as the fleet which Timotheus commanded was about to sail, one of the men was seized with a fit of sneezing. The helmsmen ordered them to halt; and the sailors refuse to embark on the triremes. Timotheus smiled, and with great composure remarked, "What kind of omen is this, that among so many men, one of them should happen to sneeze? " The sailors laughed when he said this, and proceeded to set sail. [see also: Frontinus, Str_1. 12'11]
3 Timotheus ordered his army to charge immediately, although some of the men had not yet arrived; one of his officers asked, whether it would be better to wait, until the others had caught up with them. "By no means," replied Timotheus: "all the men who will fight bravely are here, and those, who will not fight, are not worth waiting for. "
4 In a naval battle between the Athenians and Lacedaemonians at Leucas, Timotheus commanded the Athenians, and Nicolochus the Lacedaemonians. The battle was fought during the festival of Scira. In the morning Timotheus decorated his ships with myrtle, and then gave the signal for attack. His soldiers exerted themselves with uncommon courage, because they were confident that they were fighting under the direct protection of the goddess; and so he obtained a victory.
5 When Timotheus was besieging a city, he assigned to his soldiers a particular district, in which they might go out for foraging. But in the rest of the country, he told them to pay for what they took. He did not allow them to destroy any house or cottage, or even to cut down a growing tree, but merely to supply themselves with the produce of the countryside. By this conduct, he knew that if was successful he would be able to demand a larger tribute, and if the war was protracted, his army would not be lacking in either provisions or accommodation. And what was of still greater consequence, by this means he gained the goodwill of his enemies.
6 When Timotheus was about to fight at sea against the Lacedaemonians, he rested, having the crews of twenty triremes by his stern; and ordered the captains of twenty light vessels to advance against the enemy, whom they harassed with various movements and manoeuvres. As soon as he saw that the enemy appeared to be tired, and were handling their oars weakly, he advanced into action with the rest of the fleet. Being fresh and in full strength, he obtained an easy victory over an enemy who was exhausted after the long and laborious manoeuvres. [see also: Frontinus, Str_2. 5'47]
7 When Timotheus was passing by Olynthus, in order to avoid being harassed by the Olynthian cavalry, he marched in a rectangular formation; he placed his baggage and cavalry in the centre, with the carriages fastened to each other in continuous lines, and around the outside he placed his hoplites. As a result, the Olynthian cavalry were unable to make any impression on him.
8 While he was encamped at Amphipolis, Timotheus was informed in the evening that the enemy were marching in force against him, and would arrive the next day. To avoid discouraging his troops, he concealed from them the true strength of the enemy; and as if he was advancing against an undisciplined enemy, he ordered the baggage and camp attendants to march first, directing their route along a rugged and unfrequented road, where it was probable that the enemy might not have placed a guard. Timotheus himself marched at the head of the phalanx; and he placed the light infantry in the rear. In this order he reached the river Strymon, where he embarked his army. He burnt all the others ships, which he did not need. After achieving all this in a single night, he made a safe retreat.
9 Timotheus hired seven thousand mercenaries for the siege of Samos. Because he was unable to give them their full pay, and observed that the island was rich and well cultivated, he allowed them to forage freely in a designated part of the island. He sold the produce of the rest of the island, but protected those who were employed in gathering it. From this sale he raised a considerable sum of money, with which he paid part of their arrears to his troops. In this way he persuaded them to persevere in the siege, and eventually he took the city by storm.
10 When Timotheus was besieging Samos, the continual influx of foreigners cause such a high consumption of provisions, that it created a shortage. Timotheus ordered no flour to be sold, nor a cotyla of oil or wine; no corn less than a medimnus could be sold, and no liquids less than one measure. He prohibited all corn-mills, except on the hills. As a result of these regulations, when the foreigners found that they could not buy in Samos what they needed for their daily use, they brought their own provisions with them. In this way, the whole produce of the island was kept for the use of the army.
11 Timotheus needed to send five ships, out of his fleet of forty ships, on a secret expedition with provisions for many days, but he had no money to pay for their expenses. He therefore ordered the whole fleet to set off, each ship taking on board three days' provisions, and to anchor at a certain island. He then ordered every captain to unload onto the island two days' provisions, which he secretly put on board the five ships, which were destined for the distant expedition. With the thirty-five remaining ships, he returned to his former station.
12 When Timotheus was about to fight against the Spartan admiral Nicolochus at Leucas, he ordered the crews of several ships to be landed, and to rest on the shore until they were summoned. Then he bore down on the enemy with twenty of his fastest ships. He ordered the captains not to come within range of the enemy's missiles, but to pass by them, advance and retreat, and by every possible manoeuvre to harass and weary them. After this kind of running fight, as soon as he saw that enemy were almost exhausted by heat and fatigue, he gave the signal for a retreat. He picked up the men, who had been left behind to rest on the shore during the distant fighting, and then renewed the fight with his weary foe. He captured many of their triremes, and disabled others. [see also: 3. 10'6]
13 When Timotheus was lying opposite the Lacedaemonian fleet, he was afraid that his store ships would be intercepted by ten of the enemy's ships, which their admiral had sent out for this purpose. He decided to retreat and protect them. At the same time, he was afraid that the enemy would attack him during his retreat, and if they caught up with him while the small vessels were still trying to form, they would force a battle with him while his fleet was in a disordered state. Therefore he ordered the captains of the triremes not to form again, but to head for the first land they could reach. Then, having cleared the decks and put the prisoners in the holds, he gently sailed away with the rest of his fleet in the shape of a crescent; their sterns were foremost, and their beaks remained pointing towards the enemy.
14 While Timotheus, assisted by Perdiccas, was commanding in a war against Chalcis, he mixed the Macedonian money with Cyprian copper, and from this alloy he struck a new coin, which had the value of five drachmas. A quarter of the content of these coins was silver, and the rest consisted of copper. After increasing his supply of money in this way, he persuaded the merchants and inhabitants of the country to accept it as normal currency, which he then received in payment back from them. Thus this money passed between the army and their suppliers, instead of more valuable coins.
15 When Timotheus was besieging Torone, the inhabitants of the city constructed moles of great height, consisting of bags of sand; but he contrived a means, by long machines with sharp metal points, which were fixed to the top of masts, to cut the bags and let out the sand. After this he forced the inhabitants of Torone to agree to the terms which he imposed on them.
16 Timotheus was the commander in a naval battle against the Lacedaemonians, in which he was assisted by the Corcyraeans and other allies. He placed his best ships in the first line; directing the rest of the fleet to lie on their oars, and keep still. As soon as he saw that the enemy's strength was weakened by the first attack, he gave the signal for the rest of the fleet to advance. The other ships, being quite fresh, easily completed the victory over an enemy who was already exhausted by the earlier manoeuvres. [see also: 3. 10'6]
17 Timotheus had defeated the Lacedaemonian fleet at Leucas, and destroyed several of their ships, but he was afraid of ten of them, which still remained undamaged and ready for action. Therefore he drew up his fleet in the form of a crescent; he placed his small ships in the centre of the curve, which projected towards the enemy; and in this formation he retreated, with the sterns foremost, and the beaks pointing towards the enemy. The enemy did not dare to attack him, and he made a safe retreat.
[11] Chabrias.
To stop his men inflicting unnecessary carnage, Chabrias reminded them that the victims of their swords, though enemies, were still men of flesh and blood, and of the same nature as themselves.
2 Chabrias won a naval victory at Naxos, on the sixteenth day of the month of Boedromion. He considered this date auspicious, because it is one of the days on which the Eleusinian mysteries are celebrated. It was on one of these days that Themistocles defeated the Persians at Salamis; but the day, on which the battle of Salamis was fought, was particularly dedicated to Iacchus, so that we may suppose that Themistocles was under the direct protection of the god; but Chabrias had on his side the support of the "seawards initiates".
3 Twelve Laconian ships, which had been sent out to observe Chabrias, escaped from him and made for land. To decoy them out to sea again, he detached twelve ships, fastened together in pairs, with their sails also joined together. The enemy, supposing them to be only six ships, weighed anchor and advanced against them. As soon as Chabrias thought that they were too far from the shore to escape, he separated the sails and set the individual ships free. They bore down on the enemy, and captured half of them, together with their crews.
4 When Chabrias was obliged to retreat before a superior force, he posted his best troops in the rear, while he himself led the van. As he pursued his march in this order, no-one in the rear dared to desert his ranks, or to pass by their general against his orders, and so he achieved his retreat with little loss.
5 The treasury of Thamus, king of Egypt, was exhausted, and he needed more money. Chabrias advised him to command his wealthier subjects to contribute whatever gold and silver they could, towards his immediate needs; and their annual taxes would be remitted, in proportion to their contributions. By this means, he collected a great sum without harming anyone; and later the subjects all recovered the money which they had paid.
6 Chabrias made a raid on Sellasia in Laconia, and seized a great quantity of booty. When he needed to cross a river by night, he secured the booty by sending it over the river and lodging it in the territory of his allies. Then he halted with the rest of his army until mid-day, and ordered them to refresh themselves. As he expected, the Lacedaemonians, after they heard about the raid, marched out to intercept him at the river, and recover their possessions. After a long and laborious march of two hundred stades, they caught up with him, but they were exhausted, disordered, and in no way prepared for action. Chabrias on the other hand, with his troops well refreshed and in good order, attacked them and gained an easy victory.
7 Chabrias was sent as commander to Egypt, as an ally to the Egyptian king against the Persians, who had invaded his country with a numerous army and a powerful fleet. When he found that the Egyptians possessed many ships, but lacked sailors to man them, he selected a sufficient number of the strongest of the Egyptian youths, to provide crews for two hundred ships. He took the oars out of the ships, and told the Egyptians to sit in order on some benches, which he had placed on the shore. Then he gave them the oars, and send among them some sailors, who understood both the Egyptian and the Greek languages. These sailors taught them how to handle the oars, and in a short time the king possessed a fleet of two hundred ships, completely manned.
8 Chabrias, whenever his army consisted of new recruits, before he went into battle used to made a proclamation, that whoever was indisposed, could leave the ranks. The cowards took advantage of this order; they pretended illness and laid down their weapons. Therefore he never led those men into battle, but used them to secure strong points, where their number at least might make them formidable to the enemy. And as soon as he conveniently could, he reduced their pay.
9 When Chabrias was advancing against a hostile city, he landed a body of peltasts by night; and at the break of day he entered the harbour, and pretended to disembark his troops at some distance from the city. The citizens sallied out, to contest his landing; but then the peltasts emerged from their ambush and fell upon the enemy's rear. After killing some of them, they re-embarked with a considerable number of prisoners.
10 Chabrias landed ten of the strongest and bravest of the peltasts from each of his ships by night in the enemy's territory, with orders to ravage the countryside. The citizens sallied out of their city to protect their property, and advanced against the raiders. As soon as he observed this, Chabrias sailed with his fleet directly against the city. His attack drew the troops, who were advancing against the raiders, back to protect the city. Meanwhile he sent a squadron to land on the shore above the city, where the peltasts were able to re-embark. Then he sailed away with all the booty which his men had captured. [see also: Frontinus, Str_1. 4'14]
11 When Chabrias was about to fight a naval battle against Pollis at Naxos, he ordered the captains of his triremes, if they were ready to face the danger, secretly to lower the flags of their own ships, so that they would know how that any ships with flags belonged to the enemy. After they had done this, whenever the captains of Pollis' fleet encountered Athenian ships, they were confused because they were not showing an Attic flag, and sailed on by. But the Athenian captains, as they had been instructed, proceeded to make a double ramming attack against any ships with flags. This stratagem gained the victory for the Athenians.
* * *
[12] Phocion.
Phocion urged the Athenians not to march against the Boeotians; but they eagerly voted for war, and appointed Phocion as their general. He told the herald to proclaim: "All adult Athenians, under sixty years old, should take provisions for five days and follow me immediately from the assembly. " There was a great uproar; the old citizens in particular cried out, jumped up, and protested loudly. Then Phocion said, "You are not being asked to do anything unreasonable; because I will be there with you as your general, even though I am eighty years old. " When the Athenians heard this, they changed their minds and ceased to be so eager to go to war.
[13] Chares.
Chares, who suspected that the enemy had spies in his camp, placed a strong guard outside the trenches, and ordered every man to question his neighbour, and not to part till each had told the other, who he was, and to what company, and band, he belonged. By this device the spies were revealed and caught: because they were unable to tell either their company, band, comrade, or the password.
2 When he was in Thrace, and the weather was very severe, Chares observed that his men were reluctant to use all their clothes and, benumbed with cold, did not show their usual alertness in carrying out his orders. He therefore ordered them to change clothes with each other. The soldiers were then no longer concerned to spare another's clothes, as they had done their own. They wrapped themselves up warm; and became ready, and alert as usual, in executing their general's commands.
3 While Chares was retreating from Thrace, the Thracians pursued him closely, and harassed his rear. In order to retard the enemy's pursuit, when he had some dangerous ground to cross, he mounted his trumpeters and detached some horsemen to accompany them. He ordered them to take a circuitous route, and as soon as they had got upon the enemy's rear, to sound the charge. On hearing this, the Thracians halted: and, supposing themselves surrounded by an ambush, they left their ranks, and fled. Then Chares was able to make good his retreat without further loss or danger.
[14] Charidemus.
When the inhabitants of Ilium were ravaging the territory of his city, Charidemus seized one of their servants, who was loaded with booty; and by promise of great rewards prevailed on him to betray the city into his hands. To help the traitor gain the trust of the guards, Charidemus supplied him with sheep and other booty, on his nocturnal expeditions. He shared these amongst the watch; and thereby obtained leave to go out and return as he wished. On a night agreed on between them, he went out of the gates, with a group of men whom he had engaged, on the pretext of assisting him in bringing back a greater spoil. Charidemus seized his companions, and kept them as prisoners; he dressed some of his own troops in their clothes, and furnished them with a quantity of plunder, including a horse. In order to admit the horse, the sentinel opened the whole gate; then the soldiers, together with the horse, rushed in, slew the guards, and opened the gates to the rest of the army. In this way they gained control of the city; and it could be said, in jest, that Ilium was captured for a second time by the stratagem of a horse. [see also: Plutarch, Sert_1'3]
[15] Demetrius Phalereus.
# When Demetrius Phalereus was close to being captured by the king of Thrace, he hid himself in a load of straw; and in this way he escaped into a neighbouring country.
[16] Philocles.
# Philocles, a general of Ptolemy, who was besieging Caunus, bribed the superintendents of the corn supply to help him. Accordingly, they announced in the city, that they intended to give out the corn to the soldiers on that day. The soldiers immediately left the walls, to see the corn measured out. Philocles took advantage of the absence of the soldiers from their posts, and, while the walls were left undefended, he made his attack, and captured the town.
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Polyaenus: Stratagems
- BOOK 4, Chapters 1-3
Adapted from the translation by R. Shepherd (1793). See key to translations for an explanation of the format.
The Greek text of Book 4 is available in archive. org.
CONTENTS: 1 Argaeus ; 2 Philippus ; 3 Alexander ; → Following Chapters (4-21)
[Preface] This book of stratagems I also address to your most sacred majesties, Antoninus and Verus; which I have written with more particular pleasure than the rest, because it contains the exploits of our heroic ancestors, who filled the throne of Macedonia.
[1] Argaeus.
In the reign of Argaeus king of Macedonia, the Taulantii under their king Galaurus made an incursion into Macedonia. Argaeus, whose force was very small, directed the Macedonian young women, as the enemy advanced, to show themselves from mount Ereboea. They accordingly did so; and in a numerous body they poured down from the mountain, their faces covered by wreaths, and brandishing their thyrsi instead of spears. Galaurus, intimidated by the numbers of those, whom instead of women he supposed to be men, sounded a retreat; whereupon the Taulantii, throwing away their weapons, and whatever else might retard their escape, abandoned themselves to a precipitate flight. Argaeus, having thus obtained a victory without the hazard of a battle, erected a temple to Dionysus Pseudanor; and ordered the priestesses of the god, who were before called Kladones by the Macedonians, to ever afterwards be distinguished by the title of Mimallones.
[2] Philippus.
Philippus once dismissed (? ) Docimus of Tarentum, who had a command in his army, because he used warm baths, saying: "You seem a stranger to the Macedonian customs, which do not indulge the use of warm water even to a woman in childbirth.
2 Engaging the Athenians at Chaeroneia, Philippus made a sham retreat: and Stratocles, the Athenian general, ordered his men to push forwards, crying out, "We will pursue them to the heart of Macedonia. " Philippus observed, "The Athenians know not how to conquer:" and ordered his phalanx to keep close and firm, and to retreat slowly, covering themselves with their shields from the attacks of the enemy. As soon as he had by the manoeuvre drawn them from their advantageous ground, and gained an eminence, he halted; and encouraging his troops to a vigorous assault, he attacked the Athenians and won a brilliant victory.
3 Philippus, while encamped against the Thebans, was informed that two of his generals, Aeropus and Damasippus had taken a singing girl from an inn, and introduced her into the camp: and the fact being proved, he banished both of them from the kingdom.
4 Having attacked a city of Thrace, Philippus sent envoys to the enemy: who convened an assembly, and introduced the envoys, anxious to know the enemy's proposals. Philippus in the mean time directed a vigorous attack, and carried the city: while the people were more attentive to the supposed conditions of peace, than the real attacks of war.
5 After an engagement with the Illyrians, Philippus proposed a truce with them, for the purpose of burying their dead: which being agreed to, as soon as the last man was buried, his army being drawn up and waiting the signal to engage, he instantly ordered them to charge; and put the enemy, who were unprepared, to a general rout.
6 While Philippus was trying his strength with Menegetes in wrestling: the soldiers around were clamorous for their pay; in which he was much in arrears to them, and had not the means at the present to make it good. Dripping with sweat, and covered as he was with dust, he ran up to them with a laugh; "You are right," said he, "my fellow soldiers; and I have been preparing myself with that barbarian, in order to pay my respects to you, for the credit you have been so obliging as to give me. " Having thus said, he ran through the midst of them, and plunged into a pool. The Macedonians laughed at the humour of the prince: who continued amusing himself in the water, till the soldiers were tired out with the neglect he paid to their remonstrances, and went away. In his hours of gaiety Philippus often used to mention this device, by which he had with a stroke of buffoonery got rid of demands, that no arguments could have reasoned away.
7 Philippus, at Chaeroneia, knowing the Athenians were impetuous and inexperienced, and the Macedonians inured to fatigues and exercise, contrived to prolong the action: and reserving his principal attack to the latter end of the engagement, the enemy weak and exhausted were unable to sustain the charge. [see also: Frontinus, Str. 2. 1. 9]
8 Having marched against the territory of Amphissa, Philippus found himself obstructed by the Athenians and Thebans; who had made themselves masters of a defile, which he was unable to force; and therefore resorted to a stratagem. He wrote a letter to Antipater in Macedonia, informing him that the Thracians were in rebellion, and that he was obliged for the present to defer his expedition against Amphissa, and to march into Thrace. This letter he dispatched by a way, where he knew it would be intercepted: which accordingly was the case; and Chares and Proxenus the generals, who commanded against him, because they were convinced by the contents of the letter, abandoned the post they possessed. Philippus immediately availed himself of their movements; and passing the defile without opposition, afterwards defeated the allies, and took Amphissa. [see also: Frontinus, Str. 1. 4. 13]
9 Philippus was not more successful in his arms, than he was in treaties and negotiations: and indeed he prided himself more on advantages gained by these, than by dint of arms. For in the latter he observed his soldiers shared in the glory, but in the other it was all his own. [see also: Diodorus, 16. 95. 3]
10 Philippus accustomed the Macedonians to constant exercise, before they went to war: so that he would frequently make them march three hundred stades, carrying with them their helmets, shields, greaves, and spears; and, besides those arms, their provisions likewise, and utensils for common use.
11 When Philippus advanced to Larissa, he pretended a fit of illness; in order to lure some of the Aleuades to visit him: intending to seize them. But Boiscus apprised the Aleuades of the stratagem: which thereby failed in its intent.
12 Philippus desired permission in a full assembly to address the Sarnusians; which being granted, he directed the soldiers, who attended him, to carry cords under their arms. When reaching out his arm, as if to harangue them, the signal he had fixed on, his men immediately seized on all the Sarnusians present, bound them, and sent more than ten thousand prisoners into Macedonia.
13 When closely pursued by the Thracians, Philippus ordered that as soon as he sounded a retreat, the rear under cover of their shields, should sustain the enemy's attack; and, by acting only on the defensive, retard their pursuit, and thus facilitate the retreat of the army.
14 When advancing into Boetia, Philippus' direct march was through a narrow pass, which the Boeotians had secured, and from which he could not dislodge them; he therefore took another route, and laid waste the whole country before him. The Boeotians, not bearing to see their country thus desolated, abandoned their post; and gave him an opportunity of passing the defile, and continuing the march he first projected.
15 Philippus had raised the scaling-ladders against the walls of Methone; and a strong body of Macedonians advanced to the attack. As soon as they had mounted the walls, he ordered the ladders to be taken away: thereby leaving the assailants no hopes of safety, but in their courage.
16 The country of the Orbelians, which Philippus had invaded, was rough, and craggy, and covered with wood. The barbarians concealed themselves in the thickets: where Philippus, a stranger to the country, knew not how to follow them, but by tracing their steps with blood-hounds.
17 When the Athenians demanded of Philippus the restitution of Amphipolis; because he was at that time engaged in a war with the Illyrians, although unwilling to give it up to the Athenians, he consented to make it free: and Athenians appeared contented with this. Philippus therefore, as soon as he had finished the Illyrian war, returned at the head of a powerful army to Amphipolis; and in defiance of the Athenians made himself master of the place.
18 Philippus having besieged Pharcedon, a city of Thessaly, the Pharcedonians capitulated; and his mercenaries entered the city to take possession. But an ambush was placed on the houses and towers, and the mercenaries fell victims to a shower of javelins and stones. While the attention of the citizens was thus directed to that part of the city, where the mercenaries entered, and the ambush was placed; Philippus raised the scaling ladders against the walls on the opposite part of the town, and by a vigorous assault carried it; before the force, employed in the ambush, had time to return to their posts, and man the walls.
19 Philippus, when he formed the design of conquering Thessaly, did not directly make war on the Thessalians. But when Pallene was engaged in war with Pharsalus, and Pherae with Larissa; and the other states in Thessaly with each other: his practice was in those struggles to give assistance to which ever power applied to him for it. And his victories on those occasions were never marked with cruelty or devastations. He neither disarmed the conquered, nor destroyed their fortifications: but his great object was to create factions, rather than heal them; to protect the weak, and crush the powerful. He endeavoured always to ingratiate himself with the bulk of the people, and cultivated the favour of demagogues. By these stratagems Philippus made himself master of Thessaly, and not by arms.
20 After a long siege of Carae, a well-fortified town, which he was unable to capture, Philippus found his best exertions necessary to effect a safe retreat, and carry off with him his machines. For this purpose he availed himself of a very dark night; and ordered the smiths to take his machines in pieces, imitating in the noise, as much as they could, the fabrication of new ones. The inhabitants of Carae, hearing the sound of hammers, applied themselves to strengthen their gates, and to counter-work the effect of the enemy's supposed operations by new erections. And while they were thus employed, Philippus in the night struck his tents, and carried off his machines.
21 When Philippus advanced against the Byzantines, he found them strongly supported by various allies. To break the confederacy, he dispatched deserters to propagate a report, that he had detached forces into the different countries of the allies; and that some of their cities were at that instant in danger of being taken. And to give colour to this intelligence, he made detachments from his army, which he ordered out on short marches different ways, without any intention to act offensively. These movements agreeing with the report of the deserters, the allies left the Byzantines, to repair to the assistance of their respective countries. [see also: Frontinus, Str. 1. 4. 13]
22 As Philippus, after having ravaged the territory of Abdera and Maroneia, was returning from his expedition with a great fleet, and powerful army; Chares placed an ambuscade of twenty ships near Neapolis to attack him. Philippus, suspecting such an attempt, manned four of his best-sailing vessels with the stoutest and most experienced oarsmen he could pick out: and ordered them to make what sail they could before the fleet, and to pass Neapolis, holding not far from the shore. In pursuit of those four ships, Chares pushed out with his twenty ships: with which however, being light, and well-manned, he was unable to catch up. And while he was chasing them without effect, Philippus sailed safely by Neapolis with the rest of the fleet.
[3] Alexander.
Alexander whose ambition was, to unite all mankind to him, as their common head, declared that they should no longer be called mortals, human beings, or men, but Alexanders.
2 Alexander, in his wars, directed his generals to order the Macedonians to shave their faces, that their enemies in engaging might never lay hold on their beards. [see also: Plutarch, Thes. 5. 4]
3 At the siege of Tyre, Alexander having resolved to join the city, which was then an island, to the mainland, by raising a mound in the surrounding waters, himself first carried a basket of sand, which he threw into it. As soon as the Macedonians saw their king at work with his own hands, they all instantly threw aside their robes, and soon raised the ground.
4 Having left a part of his army before Tyre, Alexander himself marched into Arabia. His absence gave the Tyrians new spirits: they advanced beyond their walls, engaged the Macedonians in battle, and frequently defeated them. Parmenion, Alexander's general, gave him notice of what had happened. He suddenly returned, and seeing the Macedonians retreating before the enemy, instead of flying to their assistance, marched directly to the town; which he surprised, evacuated by the Tyrian forces, and took it by storm. The Tyrians, finding their city taken, surrendered themselves and their arms to the discretion of the Macedonian conqueror. [see also: Plutarch, Alex. 24-25]
5 When Alexander advanced against Darius, he ordered the Macedonians, as soon as they drew near the Persians, to fall down on their hands and knees: and, as soon as ever the trumpet sounded the charge, to rise up and vigorously attack the enemy. They did so: and the Persians, considering it as an act of reverence, abated of their impetuosity, and their minds became softened towards the prostrate foe. Darius too was led to think, he had gained a victory without the hazard of a battle. When on sound of the trumpet, the Macedonians sprung up, and made such an impression on the enemy, that their centre was broken, and the Persians entirely defeated.
6 At Arbela, where the last battle between Alexander and Darius was fought, a considerable body of Persians had made a circuit, and seized the Macedonian carriage-horses and baggage. Parmenion, observing their movement, desired Alexander to order a detachment to protect them. By no means, replied Alexander; my business is with the enemy here; and I must not weaken my phalanx. If we be conquered, we shall not want our baggage: and if we conquer, both ours and the enemy's will become our own. [see also: Plutarch, Alex. 32]
7 After the conquest of Asia, the Macedonians being insistent with Alexander, and extravagant in their demands, he ordered them to take their posts by themselves in arms: and opposite to them he ordered his Persian troops to do the same. The forces being thus separated, "Now," said he, "Macedonians, choose our general: and I will take the Persians. If you beat me, I will comply with all your demands: and you, if I beat you, will learn to be quiet. " Struck with the greatness of soul, which the stratagem revealed, the Macedonians ever after conducted themselves with more moderation. [see also: Plutarch, Alex. 71]
8 In his first action with the Persians, Alexander seeing the Macedonians give way, rode through the ranks, calling out to his men, "One effort more, my Macedonians, one glorious effort. " Animated by their prince, they made a vigorous attack: and the enemy abandoned themselves to flight. Thus did that critical moment determine the victory.
9 Alexander in his Indian expedition advanced to the Hydaspes with intention to cross it: when Porus appeared with his army on the other side, determined to dispute his passage. Alexander then marched towards the head of the river, and attempted to cross it there. Thither also Porus marched, and drew up his army on the opposite side. He then made the same effort lower down; there too Porus opposed him. Those frequent appearances of intention to cross it, without ever making one real attempt to effect it, the Indians ridiculed: and concluding that he had no real design to pass the river, they became more negligent in attending his movements. Then Alexander by a rapid march reached the banks, and effected his purpose on barges, boats, and hides stuffed with straw, before the enemy had time to come up with him, because they had been deceived by so many false attempts. [see also: Plutarch, Alex. 60]
10 Alexander found that his men, glutted with the immense wealth of which they had possessed themselves in Persia, and which they carried about with them in carriages, did not at all relish a new expedition into India. He ordered first the royal carriages to be destroyed; and afterwards all the rest. The Macedonians, thus deprived of their treasures, immediately became anxious for more; and, in order to obtain it, of course ready for new enterprises. [see also: Plutarch, Alex. 57]
11 When the Thracians endeavoured to make an impression on the Macedonian phalanx by a great number of chariots, which were directed against them, Alexander ordered his men to avoid them, if they could; and if not, to throw themselves on the ground, holding over them their shields; by which means the carriages quickly passed over, without hurting them. And by this manoeuvre the numerous carriages of the enemy were rendered useless. [see also: Arrian, Anab. 1. 1'7-9]
12 When Alexander advanced against Thebes, he planted in ambush a concealed body of troops under the command of Antipater; while he himself marched openly against the enemy's strongest works: which the Thebans with great obstinacy defended. In the midst of the engagement Antipater secretly quitted his ambush, and wheeling round attacked the walls in an opposite quarter, where they were weakest, and ill-manned; and made himself master of the city. He immediately raised a signal, which Alexander saw and called out, "The town was his own. " The Thebans, who had till then made a gallant resistance, as soon as they saw their city in the possession of the enemy, abandoned themselves to flight. [see also: Diodorus, 17. 12]
13 The Macedonians having fled from battle, Alexander changed their body armour into a breast-plate: which was a protection to them, as long as they boldly faced the enemy: but if they fled, they exposed to the foe their naked backs. This had the effect: that they never afterwards fled; but, if they were overpowered, always retreated in good order.
14 After Alexander had learned from the soothsayers, that the sacrifices were propitious, he ordered the victims to be carried round the army; that the soldiers, not depending on what was told them, might be convinced with their own eyes of the ground of their hopes in the ensuing action.
15 When Alexander entered Asia, to make Memnon the general of the enemy's forces suspected by the Persians, he ordered the party, he had detached to ravage the country, not to touch his property, nor commit any depredations on his estates.
16 When Alexander saw the advantageous position of the Persians on the opposite side of the Granicus, ready to dispute his passage over the river; he led the Macedonians to the right, and outflanked the enemy. Then his phalanx attacked the enemy and routed them.
17 At the battle of Arbela, Darius planted the ground between the two camps with caltrops. When Alexander discovered this, he led out his right wing and ordered his army to follow him at a slant to the right, skirting the ground that held the caltrops. To oppose that manoeuvre, and throw him upon the ground he seemed to avoid, the Persian weakened his lines and detached his cavalry to his left. Observing this, Alexander, with the support of Parmenion, and flanked by the caltrops, fell upon the weakened lines of the enemy, threw them into disorder, and began the rout.
18 Alexander, after he had passed the Tigris, while the Persians were laying the whole country waste with fire, sent a detachment to pursue them closely, so that they would have regard for their own preservation, and spare the country.
19 Alexander, when in Hyrcania, having been informed that his character and conduct were disparaged both by the Macedonians and Greeks, assembled his friends, and told them; the situation of his affairs at home required him to send letters to Macedonia, and inform his subjects, that he should certainly return within three years: and he desired his officers at the same time to write letters to their respective friends, to the same purport; which to a man they all did. As soon as the letter-carriers had got about three stathmoi from the camp, he ordered them to be brought back, and opened all the letters. From them he learned the opinion, that every one entertained of him. [see also: Diodorus, 17. 80]
20 Alexander having closely besieged a fortified place in India, the besieged agreed to evacuate the fort on condition that they might be permitted to march out with their arms. Then the garrison marched out, and encamped on a hill; where they entrenched themselves, and posted a guard. When Alexander advanced against them, the Indians appealed to the terms of the treaty. To which the Macedonian replied, "I gave you leave to quit the fort; but not a word was mentioned in the treaty of any further movement. " [see also: Diodorus, 17. 84]
21 Pittacus, the grandson of Porus, advantageously posted himself in a narrow valley to intercept Alexander in his march. The valley was long, but not more than four stades wide: and terminated in a very straight defile. Adapting his march to the nature of the ground, Alexander formed his cavalry into a double phalanx; and ordered them, bearing upon their reins, to ride in a close compact body: and, as soon as the enemy attacked their right wing, to receive them upon their spears, and give their horses the rein; and, when they saw the rear of the formation on the right, to attack the enemy. Having thus given his orders, he began his march nearly in the shape of a gnomon. As soon as those, who were posted in the left wing, saw the rear of the detachment on the right, they set up a shout, and in the same manner giving reins to their horses, they attacked the enemy. The Indians, afraid of being blocked up in the valley, precipitately fled to the narrow exit, in order to make their escape. Then many were cut to pieces by the Macedonians, and many more trampled to death by their own horse.
22 In the battle against Porus Alexander posted part of his cavalry in the right wing, and part he left as a body of reserve at a small distance on the plain. His left wing consisted of the phalanx and his elephants. Porus ordered his elephants to be formed against him, himself taking station on an elephant at the head of his left wing. The elephants were drawn up within fifty yards of each other; and in between them was posted his infantry; so that his front exhibited the appearance of a great wall, the elephants looked like so many towers, and the infantry like the parapet between them. Alexander directed his infantry to attack the enemy in front; while himself at the head of his horse advanced against the cavalry. Against those movements Porus ably guarded. But the beasts could not be kept in their ranks; and, wherever they deserted them, the Macedonians in a compact body pouring in closed the with the enemy, and attacked them both in front and flank. The body of reserve in the mean time wheeling round, and attacking their rear, completed the defeat. [see also: Diodorus, 17. 87]
23 When the Thessalians were guarding Tempe, and Alexander saw it impracticable to force, he cut holes in the rugged rock of Ossa, which served as steps. Across these he marched his army: and thus opened himself a passage over the top of Ossa into Thessaly; while the Thessalians were employed in defending the pass at Tempe. Anyone travelling through Tempe can still see the rock of Ossa cut in the manner of a ladder, which now bears the name of Alexander's ladder.
24 Among the Macedonians and among the Greeks, Alexander's court of justice was plain and simple; but among the barbarians, in order to strike them with the greater awe, it was most splendid and imperial. In Bactria, Hyrcania, and India when he heard causes, the apparatus and formality of his court were as follows. The pavilion was large enough to contain a hundred tables; and was supported by fifty pillars of gold: and the canopy was adorned with various gold ornaments. Stationed round the pavilion within were, first, five hundred Persian bodyguards [melophoroi], dressed in purple and white uniforms: and next to those an equal number of archers in different uniforms, yellow, blue, and scarlet. Before those stood five hundred Macedonians, with silver shields, the tallest men that could be picked out. In the middle of the pavilion was a golden throne, on which the monarch sat to hear causes: attended on either side by his guards. Round the pavilion on the outside were ranged a number of elephants, and a thousand Macedonians in Macedonian costumes. Behind those were five hundred Susians in purple uniforms: and the whole was surrounded with ten thousand Persians, distinguished for their appearance, and size, and dressed in the Persian manner, with scimitars at their sides. Such was the court of Alexander among the barbarians.
25 Alexander and his army, marching through a sandy desert, were in great distress for water; when one of the scouts, having in the hollow of a rock discovered a little, brought it to him in his helmet. After he had showed it to his army, in order to revive their spirits with the hope of water being near at hand; without moving it to his lips, before them all he poured it out upon the ground. The Macedonians immediately set up a shout, and bade him lead on; for their king's example had taught them to conquer thirst. [see also: Plutarch, Alex. 42]
26 Alexander by a forced march was endeavouring to gain the river Tigris, before Darius: when a panic seized his rear, and ran through the army. The king ordered trumpets to sound the signal of safety, the first rank immediately to throw down their arms at their feet, and the next to do the same. This order being observed through the whole army, they were convinced the cause of their confusion was panic: from whence as soon as they recovered themselves, they took up their arms, and pursued their march.
27 After Alexander had defeated Darius at the battle of Arbela, Phrasaortes a relation of that monarch in great force posted himself at the gates of Susa; which is a narrow pass between high and steep mountains. This the Macedonians in vain endeavoured to force: the barbarians easily defended it, pelting the enemy with arrows, slings, and stones. Alexander ordered a retreat, and encamped about thirty stades distant. The oracle at Delphi had formerly declared, that a lycus ["wolf"] should be his guide against the Persians. A herdsman came up to Alexander, in his rustic dress, saying that he was a Lycian; and informed him, there was a secret road, which wound round the mountains, covered with trees, and known to no one but himself; and well known to him, as affording excellent pasturage. Alexander remembered the oracle, and listened to the herdsman's information. He then ordered the whole army to remain in camp, and light a number of fires in such conspicuous places, as might be best seen by the Persians: and gave private orders to Philotas and Hephaestion, as soon as they saw the Macedonians show themselves on the mountains, to attack the enemy below. Himself with his guards, one phalanx of hoplites, and all the Scythian archers, marched eighty stades along the secret road; and halted in the middle of a thick wood. About midnight by a circuitous march he gained a position a little above the enemy; who were then buried in sleep: and in the morning sounded the charge from the top of the mountains. Hephaestion and Philotas immediately marched out of the camp, and advanced against them on the plain. The Persians, thus attacked both above and below, were part of them cut to pieces, some thrown from the precipices, and others taken prisoner. [see also: Plutarch, Alex. 37]
28 Alexander having been obliged in the heat of summer to make a speedy retreat, the enemy hanging upon his rear, directed his march near a river. Observing that his men, who were very thirsty, looked anxiously at the water; lest by stopping to drink they should lose their ranks, and also retard his march, he ordered proclamation to be made, "That no man should touch the river, for its waters were foul. " Fearing the consequences they refrained from drinking it, and without intermission continued their march. As soon as they had halted, and the army was encamped; both Alexander and his officers drank openly of the stream; and the soldiers, laughing at the trick their general had played them, drank freely of it too; liberated from every fear either of the enemy, or the water.
29 When Alexander penetrated into Sogdiana, a rough and rugged country, his march was attended with great difficulties. In the middle of it extended a high and craggy rock; its tops accessible only to the birds. Around it was a thick and continuous wood: which rendered access to the place still more difficult. There Ariomazes posted himself, with a numerous and determined band of Sogdians. On the part of the rock, where he had fortified himself, were fine springs, and plenty of provision. Alexander riding round, and reconnoitring the place, observed behind the rock a slope particularly well-covered with wood. There he ordered three hundred young men, expert in climbing precipices, without their arms to endeavour to make their way through the trees, assisting each other by fastening as they went up small cords to the boughs. And as soon as they had reached the top, loosing the white belts they had on, they were directed to fix them upon poles, and extend them above the trees; that the gleaming girdles brandished about might be seen as well by the Macedonians below, as thebarbarians above them. The active and intrepid band, as soon as they had with difficulty reached the top, at sun-rise according to orders brandished their belts: when the Macedonians set up a general shout. Ariomazes, supposing in his astonishment that the whole army were in possession of the top of the mountain, and above their heads, surrendered himself and his rock to Alexander, considering his power and abilities divine.
30 After the Cathaeans, a people of India, had desperately resisted him, Alexander utterly exterminated them, slaying all that were able to bear arms, and levelling their city Sangala with the ground. This act prejudiced him much in the opinion of the Indians; who considered him as a bloodthirsty savage. In order to remove these prejudices, from the next city he reduced in India, he took hostages; and advancing against a third city, which was large and populous, he placed before his army the hostages, old men, and boys, and women. As soon as the enemy saw their own countrymen, and from the condition in which they appeared concluded the humanity with which their conqueror had treated them, they opened their gates, and with his hostages readily received him: and this account of his clemency being studiously propagated induced other Indian nations voluntarily to submit to him. [see also: Diodorus, 17. 91]
31 The country of the Cossaeans Alexander found rough and uncultivated, the mountains high and almost inaccessible; and on the mountains was a numerous and resolute body of men. He had therefore little hopes of making himself master of it. At that time he received information of the death of Hephaestion, who died at Babylon: in consequence of which he ordered a general mourning; and put the army in motion, in order to celebrate his funeral. The Cossaean scouts seeing that, and supposing them going to evacuate the country, reported the motions of the Macedonian army; and the Cossaeans began to disband. Alexander, having received intelligence of the error, into which his movement had betrayed the enemy, detached a body of horse to secure the posts on the mountains: then wheeling round he joined the detachment of cavalry, and completed the conquest of the country. This circumstance, it was said, arising from Hephaestion's death, consoled Alexander for the loss of his friend.
32 In the palace of the Persian monarch Alexander read a bill of fare for the king's lunch and dinner, that was engraved on a column of brass: on which were also other regulations, which Cyrus had directed. It ran thus.
Of fine wheat flour four hundred artabae (a Median artaba is an Attic medimnus).
Of second flour three hundred artabae,
and of third flour the same.
In all one thousand artabae of wheat flour for dinner.
Of the finest barley flour two hundred artabae,
of the second four hundred,
and four hundred of the third.
60 After Iphicrates had ravaged the territory of the Odrysians, and had carried away a great quantity of booty, the Odrysians pursued him in great force. Iphicrates had only a small number of cavalry, but he ordered them to attack with flaming torches in their hands. The flames so frightened the horses of the enemy, who were unaccustomed to the sight of fire, that they did not withstand the attack, but turned around and fled.
61 Iphicrates once advanced against a city, which was built on the banks of a river. He needed to cross the river above the city, before he could begin to attack it. Therefore he crossed the river by night, so that the colour of the water, made muddy by the passage of so many men, would not reveal his approach to the enemy. The next morning he appeared before their gates, and began his attack, before they realised that he had crossed the river.
62 Iphicrates captured many of the Odrysians in Thrace. When he was being harassed by the enemy's slings and arrows, he stripped his prisoners naked, and with their hands tied behind their backs placed them in front of his army. The Odrysians saw that their friends had been put in the place of danger, and stopped attacking from a distance with slings and arrows.
63 Iphicrates was sent to Phoenicia with a fleet of a hundred thirty-oared ships. As soon as he approached the Phoenician coast, which was flat and muddy, he found that the enemy were drawn up to confront him. He ordered the captains of the ships to form a line and approach the coast, and to drop their anchors when the signal was given; after that, the soldiers were instructed to take up their weapons, and jump into the sea next to their respective oar. As soon as Iphicrates supposed that the sea was shallow enough for his purpose, he gave the signal. The ships immediately dropped anchor; the soldiers moved out of them in perfect order, and advanced to the shore under cover of their shields. The enemy, who were intimidated by the order and boldness of their attack, turned to flight. In the pursuit, Iphicrates' men killed some of the enemy, and captured others. They also took much booty, which they loaded onto their ships while they established a camp on the shore.
[10] Timotheus.
When there was a great shortage of money in the Attic camp, Timotheus persuaded the merchants to treat his documents as coinage. He assured them that the documents would all be redeemed with money. The merchants trusted in the general's honour, and supplied the army with provisions on the credit of his documents. The money was afterwards punctually paid, and Timotheus by this stratagem not only supplied the needs of his army, but strengthened his credit amongst the merchants.
2 Just as the fleet which Timotheus commanded was about to sail, one of the men was seized with a fit of sneezing. The helmsmen ordered them to halt; and the sailors refuse to embark on the triremes. Timotheus smiled, and with great composure remarked, "What kind of omen is this, that among so many men, one of them should happen to sneeze? " The sailors laughed when he said this, and proceeded to set sail. [see also: Frontinus, Str_1. 12'11]
3 Timotheus ordered his army to charge immediately, although some of the men had not yet arrived; one of his officers asked, whether it would be better to wait, until the others had caught up with them. "By no means," replied Timotheus: "all the men who will fight bravely are here, and those, who will not fight, are not worth waiting for. "
4 In a naval battle between the Athenians and Lacedaemonians at Leucas, Timotheus commanded the Athenians, and Nicolochus the Lacedaemonians. The battle was fought during the festival of Scira. In the morning Timotheus decorated his ships with myrtle, and then gave the signal for attack. His soldiers exerted themselves with uncommon courage, because they were confident that they were fighting under the direct protection of the goddess; and so he obtained a victory.
5 When Timotheus was besieging a city, he assigned to his soldiers a particular district, in which they might go out for foraging. But in the rest of the country, he told them to pay for what they took. He did not allow them to destroy any house or cottage, or even to cut down a growing tree, but merely to supply themselves with the produce of the countryside. By this conduct, he knew that if was successful he would be able to demand a larger tribute, and if the war was protracted, his army would not be lacking in either provisions or accommodation. And what was of still greater consequence, by this means he gained the goodwill of his enemies.
6 When Timotheus was about to fight at sea against the Lacedaemonians, he rested, having the crews of twenty triremes by his stern; and ordered the captains of twenty light vessels to advance against the enemy, whom they harassed with various movements and manoeuvres. As soon as he saw that the enemy appeared to be tired, and were handling their oars weakly, he advanced into action with the rest of the fleet. Being fresh and in full strength, he obtained an easy victory over an enemy who was exhausted after the long and laborious manoeuvres. [see also: Frontinus, Str_2. 5'47]
7 When Timotheus was passing by Olynthus, in order to avoid being harassed by the Olynthian cavalry, he marched in a rectangular formation; he placed his baggage and cavalry in the centre, with the carriages fastened to each other in continuous lines, and around the outside he placed his hoplites. As a result, the Olynthian cavalry were unable to make any impression on him.
8 While he was encamped at Amphipolis, Timotheus was informed in the evening that the enemy were marching in force against him, and would arrive the next day. To avoid discouraging his troops, he concealed from them the true strength of the enemy; and as if he was advancing against an undisciplined enemy, he ordered the baggage and camp attendants to march first, directing their route along a rugged and unfrequented road, where it was probable that the enemy might not have placed a guard. Timotheus himself marched at the head of the phalanx; and he placed the light infantry in the rear. In this order he reached the river Strymon, where he embarked his army. He burnt all the others ships, which he did not need. After achieving all this in a single night, he made a safe retreat.
9 Timotheus hired seven thousand mercenaries for the siege of Samos. Because he was unable to give them their full pay, and observed that the island was rich and well cultivated, he allowed them to forage freely in a designated part of the island. He sold the produce of the rest of the island, but protected those who were employed in gathering it. From this sale he raised a considerable sum of money, with which he paid part of their arrears to his troops. In this way he persuaded them to persevere in the siege, and eventually he took the city by storm.
10 When Timotheus was besieging Samos, the continual influx of foreigners cause such a high consumption of provisions, that it created a shortage. Timotheus ordered no flour to be sold, nor a cotyla of oil or wine; no corn less than a medimnus could be sold, and no liquids less than one measure. He prohibited all corn-mills, except on the hills. As a result of these regulations, when the foreigners found that they could not buy in Samos what they needed for their daily use, they brought their own provisions with them. In this way, the whole produce of the island was kept for the use of the army.
11 Timotheus needed to send five ships, out of his fleet of forty ships, on a secret expedition with provisions for many days, but he had no money to pay for their expenses. He therefore ordered the whole fleet to set off, each ship taking on board three days' provisions, and to anchor at a certain island. He then ordered every captain to unload onto the island two days' provisions, which he secretly put on board the five ships, which were destined for the distant expedition. With the thirty-five remaining ships, he returned to his former station.
12 When Timotheus was about to fight against the Spartan admiral Nicolochus at Leucas, he ordered the crews of several ships to be landed, and to rest on the shore until they were summoned. Then he bore down on the enemy with twenty of his fastest ships. He ordered the captains not to come within range of the enemy's missiles, but to pass by them, advance and retreat, and by every possible manoeuvre to harass and weary them. After this kind of running fight, as soon as he saw that enemy were almost exhausted by heat and fatigue, he gave the signal for a retreat. He picked up the men, who had been left behind to rest on the shore during the distant fighting, and then renewed the fight with his weary foe. He captured many of their triremes, and disabled others. [see also: 3. 10'6]
13 When Timotheus was lying opposite the Lacedaemonian fleet, he was afraid that his store ships would be intercepted by ten of the enemy's ships, which their admiral had sent out for this purpose. He decided to retreat and protect them. At the same time, he was afraid that the enemy would attack him during his retreat, and if they caught up with him while the small vessels were still trying to form, they would force a battle with him while his fleet was in a disordered state. Therefore he ordered the captains of the triremes not to form again, but to head for the first land they could reach. Then, having cleared the decks and put the prisoners in the holds, he gently sailed away with the rest of his fleet in the shape of a crescent; their sterns were foremost, and their beaks remained pointing towards the enemy.
14 While Timotheus, assisted by Perdiccas, was commanding in a war against Chalcis, he mixed the Macedonian money with Cyprian copper, and from this alloy he struck a new coin, which had the value of five drachmas. A quarter of the content of these coins was silver, and the rest consisted of copper. After increasing his supply of money in this way, he persuaded the merchants and inhabitants of the country to accept it as normal currency, which he then received in payment back from them. Thus this money passed between the army and their suppliers, instead of more valuable coins.
15 When Timotheus was besieging Torone, the inhabitants of the city constructed moles of great height, consisting of bags of sand; but he contrived a means, by long machines with sharp metal points, which were fixed to the top of masts, to cut the bags and let out the sand. After this he forced the inhabitants of Torone to agree to the terms which he imposed on them.
16 Timotheus was the commander in a naval battle against the Lacedaemonians, in which he was assisted by the Corcyraeans and other allies. He placed his best ships in the first line; directing the rest of the fleet to lie on their oars, and keep still. As soon as he saw that the enemy's strength was weakened by the first attack, he gave the signal for the rest of the fleet to advance. The other ships, being quite fresh, easily completed the victory over an enemy who was already exhausted by the earlier manoeuvres. [see also: 3. 10'6]
17 Timotheus had defeated the Lacedaemonian fleet at Leucas, and destroyed several of their ships, but he was afraid of ten of them, which still remained undamaged and ready for action. Therefore he drew up his fleet in the form of a crescent; he placed his small ships in the centre of the curve, which projected towards the enemy; and in this formation he retreated, with the sterns foremost, and the beaks pointing towards the enemy. The enemy did not dare to attack him, and he made a safe retreat.
[11] Chabrias.
To stop his men inflicting unnecessary carnage, Chabrias reminded them that the victims of their swords, though enemies, were still men of flesh and blood, and of the same nature as themselves.
2 Chabrias won a naval victory at Naxos, on the sixteenth day of the month of Boedromion. He considered this date auspicious, because it is one of the days on which the Eleusinian mysteries are celebrated. It was on one of these days that Themistocles defeated the Persians at Salamis; but the day, on which the battle of Salamis was fought, was particularly dedicated to Iacchus, so that we may suppose that Themistocles was under the direct protection of the god; but Chabrias had on his side the support of the "seawards initiates".
3 Twelve Laconian ships, which had been sent out to observe Chabrias, escaped from him and made for land. To decoy them out to sea again, he detached twelve ships, fastened together in pairs, with their sails also joined together. The enemy, supposing them to be only six ships, weighed anchor and advanced against them. As soon as Chabrias thought that they were too far from the shore to escape, he separated the sails and set the individual ships free. They bore down on the enemy, and captured half of them, together with their crews.
4 When Chabrias was obliged to retreat before a superior force, he posted his best troops in the rear, while he himself led the van. As he pursued his march in this order, no-one in the rear dared to desert his ranks, or to pass by their general against his orders, and so he achieved his retreat with little loss.
5 The treasury of Thamus, king of Egypt, was exhausted, and he needed more money. Chabrias advised him to command his wealthier subjects to contribute whatever gold and silver they could, towards his immediate needs; and their annual taxes would be remitted, in proportion to their contributions. By this means, he collected a great sum without harming anyone; and later the subjects all recovered the money which they had paid.
6 Chabrias made a raid on Sellasia in Laconia, and seized a great quantity of booty. When he needed to cross a river by night, he secured the booty by sending it over the river and lodging it in the territory of his allies. Then he halted with the rest of his army until mid-day, and ordered them to refresh themselves. As he expected, the Lacedaemonians, after they heard about the raid, marched out to intercept him at the river, and recover their possessions. After a long and laborious march of two hundred stades, they caught up with him, but they were exhausted, disordered, and in no way prepared for action. Chabrias on the other hand, with his troops well refreshed and in good order, attacked them and gained an easy victory.
7 Chabrias was sent as commander to Egypt, as an ally to the Egyptian king against the Persians, who had invaded his country with a numerous army and a powerful fleet. When he found that the Egyptians possessed many ships, but lacked sailors to man them, he selected a sufficient number of the strongest of the Egyptian youths, to provide crews for two hundred ships. He took the oars out of the ships, and told the Egyptians to sit in order on some benches, which he had placed on the shore. Then he gave them the oars, and send among them some sailors, who understood both the Egyptian and the Greek languages. These sailors taught them how to handle the oars, and in a short time the king possessed a fleet of two hundred ships, completely manned.
8 Chabrias, whenever his army consisted of new recruits, before he went into battle used to made a proclamation, that whoever was indisposed, could leave the ranks. The cowards took advantage of this order; they pretended illness and laid down their weapons. Therefore he never led those men into battle, but used them to secure strong points, where their number at least might make them formidable to the enemy. And as soon as he conveniently could, he reduced their pay.
9 When Chabrias was advancing against a hostile city, he landed a body of peltasts by night; and at the break of day he entered the harbour, and pretended to disembark his troops at some distance from the city. The citizens sallied out, to contest his landing; but then the peltasts emerged from their ambush and fell upon the enemy's rear. After killing some of them, they re-embarked with a considerable number of prisoners.
10 Chabrias landed ten of the strongest and bravest of the peltasts from each of his ships by night in the enemy's territory, with orders to ravage the countryside. The citizens sallied out of their city to protect their property, and advanced against the raiders. As soon as he observed this, Chabrias sailed with his fleet directly against the city. His attack drew the troops, who were advancing against the raiders, back to protect the city. Meanwhile he sent a squadron to land on the shore above the city, where the peltasts were able to re-embark. Then he sailed away with all the booty which his men had captured. [see also: Frontinus, Str_1. 4'14]
11 When Chabrias was about to fight a naval battle against Pollis at Naxos, he ordered the captains of his triremes, if they were ready to face the danger, secretly to lower the flags of their own ships, so that they would know how that any ships with flags belonged to the enemy. After they had done this, whenever the captains of Pollis' fleet encountered Athenian ships, they were confused because they were not showing an Attic flag, and sailed on by. But the Athenian captains, as they had been instructed, proceeded to make a double ramming attack against any ships with flags. This stratagem gained the victory for the Athenians.
* * *
[12] Phocion.
Phocion urged the Athenians not to march against the Boeotians; but they eagerly voted for war, and appointed Phocion as their general. He told the herald to proclaim: "All adult Athenians, under sixty years old, should take provisions for five days and follow me immediately from the assembly. " There was a great uproar; the old citizens in particular cried out, jumped up, and protested loudly. Then Phocion said, "You are not being asked to do anything unreasonable; because I will be there with you as your general, even though I am eighty years old. " When the Athenians heard this, they changed their minds and ceased to be so eager to go to war.
[13] Chares.
Chares, who suspected that the enemy had spies in his camp, placed a strong guard outside the trenches, and ordered every man to question his neighbour, and not to part till each had told the other, who he was, and to what company, and band, he belonged. By this device the spies were revealed and caught: because they were unable to tell either their company, band, comrade, or the password.
2 When he was in Thrace, and the weather was very severe, Chares observed that his men were reluctant to use all their clothes and, benumbed with cold, did not show their usual alertness in carrying out his orders. He therefore ordered them to change clothes with each other. The soldiers were then no longer concerned to spare another's clothes, as they had done their own. They wrapped themselves up warm; and became ready, and alert as usual, in executing their general's commands.
3 While Chares was retreating from Thrace, the Thracians pursued him closely, and harassed his rear. In order to retard the enemy's pursuit, when he had some dangerous ground to cross, he mounted his trumpeters and detached some horsemen to accompany them. He ordered them to take a circuitous route, and as soon as they had got upon the enemy's rear, to sound the charge. On hearing this, the Thracians halted: and, supposing themselves surrounded by an ambush, they left their ranks, and fled. Then Chares was able to make good his retreat without further loss or danger.
[14] Charidemus.
When the inhabitants of Ilium were ravaging the territory of his city, Charidemus seized one of their servants, who was loaded with booty; and by promise of great rewards prevailed on him to betray the city into his hands. To help the traitor gain the trust of the guards, Charidemus supplied him with sheep and other booty, on his nocturnal expeditions. He shared these amongst the watch; and thereby obtained leave to go out and return as he wished. On a night agreed on between them, he went out of the gates, with a group of men whom he had engaged, on the pretext of assisting him in bringing back a greater spoil. Charidemus seized his companions, and kept them as prisoners; he dressed some of his own troops in their clothes, and furnished them with a quantity of plunder, including a horse. In order to admit the horse, the sentinel opened the whole gate; then the soldiers, together with the horse, rushed in, slew the guards, and opened the gates to the rest of the army. In this way they gained control of the city; and it could be said, in jest, that Ilium was captured for a second time by the stratagem of a horse. [see also: Plutarch, Sert_1'3]
[15] Demetrius Phalereus.
# When Demetrius Phalereus was close to being captured by the king of Thrace, he hid himself in a load of straw; and in this way he escaped into a neighbouring country.
[16] Philocles.
# Philocles, a general of Ptolemy, who was besieging Caunus, bribed the superintendents of the corn supply to help him. Accordingly, they announced in the city, that they intended to give out the corn to the soldiers on that day. The soldiers immediately left the walls, to see the corn measured out. Philocles took advantage of the absence of the soldiers from their posts, and, while the walls were left undefended, he made his attack, and captured the town.
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Polyaenus: Stratagems
- BOOK 4, Chapters 1-3
Adapted from the translation by R. Shepherd (1793). See key to translations for an explanation of the format.
The Greek text of Book 4 is available in archive. org.
CONTENTS: 1 Argaeus ; 2 Philippus ; 3 Alexander ; → Following Chapters (4-21)
[Preface] This book of stratagems I also address to your most sacred majesties, Antoninus and Verus; which I have written with more particular pleasure than the rest, because it contains the exploits of our heroic ancestors, who filled the throne of Macedonia.
[1] Argaeus.
In the reign of Argaeus king of Macedonia, the Taulantii under their king Galaurus made an incursion into Macedonia. Argaeus, whose force was very small, directed the Macedonian young women, as the enemy advanced, to show themselves from mount Ereboea. They accordingly did so; and in a numerous body they poured down from the mountain, their faces covered by wreaths, and brandishing their thyrsi instead of spears. Galaurus, intimidated by the numbers of those, whom instead of women he supposed to be men, sounded a retreat; whereupon the Taulantii, throwing away their weapons, and whatever else might retard their escape, abandoned themselves to a precipitate flight. Argaeus, having thus obtained a victory without the hazard of a battle, erected a temple to Dionysus Pseudanor; and ordered the priestesses of the god, who were before called Kladones by the Macedonians, to ever afterwards be distinguished by the title of Mimallones.
[2] Philippus.
Philippus once dismissed (? ) Docimus of Tarentum, who had a command in his army, because he used warm baths, saying: "You seem a stranger to the Macedonian customs, which do not indulge the use of warm water even to a woman in childbirth.
2 Engaging the Athenians at Chaeroneia, Philippus made a sham retreat: and Stratocles, the Athenian general, ordered his men to push forwards, crying out, "We will pursue them to the heart of Macedonia. " Philippus observed, "The Athenians know not how to conquer:" and ordered his phalanx to keep close and firm, and to retreat slowly, covering themselves with their shields from the attacks of the enemy. As soon as he had by the manoeuvre drawn them from their advantageous ground, and gained an eminence, he halted; and encouraging his troops to a vigorous assault, he attacked the Athenians and won a brilliant victory.
3 Philippus, while encamped against the Thebans, was informed that two of his generals, Aeropus and Damasippus had taken a singing girl from an inn, and introduced her into the camp: and the fact being proved, he banished both of them from the kingdom.
4 Having attacked a city of Thrace, Philippus sent envoys to the enemy: who convened an assembly, and introduced the envoys, anxious to know the enemy's proposals. Philippus in the mean time directed a vigorous attack, and carried the city: while the people were more attentive to the supposed conditions of peace, than the real attacks of war.
5 After an engagement with the Illyrians, Philippus proposed a truce with them, for the purpose of burying their dead: which being agreed to, as soon as the last man was buried, his army being drawn up and waiting the signal to engage, he instantly ordered them to charge; and put the enemy, who were unprepared, to a general rout.
6 While Philippus was trying his strength with Menegetes in wrestling: the soldiers around were clamorous for their pay; in which he was much in arrears to them, and had not the means at the present to make it good. Dripping with sweat, and covered as he was with dust, he ran up to them with a laugh; "You are right," said he, "my fellow soldiers; and I have been preparing myself with that barbarian, in order to pay my respects to you, for the credit you have been so obliging as to give me. " Having thus said, he ran through the midst of them, and plunged into a pool. The Macedonians laughed at the humour of the prince: who continued amusing himself in the water, till the soldiers were tired out with the neglect he paid to their remonstrances, and went away. In his hours of gaiety Philippus often used to mention this device, by which he had with a stroke of buffoonery got rid of demands, that no arguments could have reasoned away.
7 Philippus, at Chaeroneia, knowing the Athenians were impetuous and inexperienced, and the Macedonians inured to fatigues and exercise, contrived to prolong the action: and reserving his principal attack to the latter end of the engagement, the enemy weak and exhausted were unable to sustain the charge. [see also: Frontinus, Str. 2. 1. 9]
8 Having marched against the territory of Amphissa, Philippus found himself obstructed by the Athenians and Thebans; who had made themselves masters of a defile, which he was unable to force; and therefore resorted to a stratagem. He wrote a letter to Antipater in Macedonia, informing him that the Thracians were in rebellion, and that he was obliged for the present to defer his expedition against Amphissa, and to march into Thrace. This letter he dispatched by a way, where he knew it would be intercepted: which accordingly was the case; and Chares and Proxenus the generals, who commanded against him, because they were convinced by the contents of the letter, abandoned the post they possessed. Philippus immediately availed himself of their movements; and passing the defile without opposition, afterwards defeated the allies, and took Amphissa. [see also: Frontinus, Str. 1. 4. 13]
9 Philippus was not more successful in his arms, than he was in treaties and negotiations: and indeed he prided himself more on advantages gained by these, than by dint of arms. For in the latter he observed his soldiers shared in the glory, but in the other it was all his own. [see also: Diodorus, 16. 95. 3]
10 Philippus accustomed the Macedonians to constant exercise, before they went to war: so that he would frequently make them march three hundred stades, carrying with them their helmets, shields, greaves, and spears; and, besides those arms, their provisions likewise, and utensils for common use.
11 When Philippus advanced to Larissa, he pretended a fit of illness; in order to lure some of the Aleuades to visit him: intending to seize them. But Boiscus apprised the Aleuades of the stratagem: which thereby failed in its intent.
12 Philippus desired permission in a full assembly to address the Sarnusians; which being granted, he directed the soldiers, who attended him, to carry cords under their arms. When reaching out his arm, as if to harangue them, the signal he had fixed on, his men immediately seized on all the Sarnusians present, bound them, and sent more than ten thousand prisoners into Macedonia.
13 When closely pursued by the Thracians, Philippus ordered that as soon as he sounded a retreat, the rear under cover of their shields, should sustain the enemy's attack; and, by acting only on the defensive, retard their pursuit, and thus facilitate the retreat of the army.
14 When advancing into Boetia, Philippus' direct march was through a narrow pass, which the Boeotians had secured, and from which he could not dislodge them; he therefore took another route, and laid waste the whole country before him. The Boeotians, not bearing to see their country thus desolated, abandoned their post; and gave him an opportunity of passing the defile, and continuing the march he first projected.
15 Philippus had raised the scaling-ladders against the walls of Methone; and a strong body of Macedonians advanced to the attack. As soon as they had mounted the walls, he ordered the ladders to be taken away: thereby leaving the assailants no hopes of safety, but in their courage.
16 The country of the Orbelians, which Philippus had invaded, was rough, and craggy, and covered with wood. The barbarians concealed themselves in the thickets: where Philippus, a stranger to the country, knew not how to follow them, but by tracing their steps with blood-hounds.
17 When the Athenians demanded of Philippus the restitution of Amphipolis; because he was at that time engaged in a war with the Illyrians, although unwilling to give it up to the Athenians, he consented to make it free: and Athenians appeared contented with this. Philippus therefore, as soon as he had finished the Illyrian war, returned at the head of a powerful army to Amphipolis; and in defiance of the Athenians made himself master of the place.
18 Philippus having besieged Pharcedon, a city of Thessaly, the Pharcedonians capitulated; and his mercenaries entered the city to take possession. But an ambush was placed on the houses and towers, and the mercenaries fell victims to a shower of javelins and stones. While the attention of the citizens was thus directed to that part of the city, where the mercenaries entered, and the ambush was placed; Philippus raised the scaling ladders against the walls on the opposite part of the town, and by a vigorous assault carried it; before the force, employed in the ambush, had time to return to their posts, and man the walls.
19 Philippus, when he formed the design of conquering Thessaly, did not directly make war on the Thessalians. But when Pallene was engaged in war with Pharsalus, and Pherae with Larissa; and the other states in Thessaly with each other: his practice was in those struggles to give assistance to which ever power applied to him for it. And his victories on those occasions were never marked with cruelty or devastations. He neither disarmed the conquered, nor destroyed their fortifications: but his great object was to create factions, rather than heal them; to protect the weak, and crush the powerful. He endeavoured always to ingratiate himself with the bulk of the people, and cultivated the favour of demagogues. By these stratagems Philippus made himself master of Thessaly, and not by arms.
20 After a long siege of Carae, a well-fortified town, which he was unable to capture, Philippus found his best exertions necessary to effect a safe retreat, and carry off with him his machines. For this purpose he availed himself of a very dark night; and ordered the smiths to take his machines in pieces, imitating in the noise, as much as they could, the fabrication of new ones. The inhabitants of Carae, hearing the sound of hammers, applied themselves to strengthen their gates, and to counter-work the effect of the enemy's supposed operations by new erections. And while they were thus employed, Philippus in the night struck his tents, and carried off his machines.
21 When Philippus advanced against the Byzantines, he found them strongly supported by various allies. To break the confederacy, he dispatched deserters to propagate a report, that he had detached forces into the different countries of the allies; and that some of their cities were at that instant in danger of being taken. And to give colour to this intelligence, he made detachments from his army, which he ordered out on short marches different ways, without any intention to act offensively. These movements agreeing with the report of the deserters, the allies left the Byzantines, to repair to the assistance of their respective countries. [see also: Frontinus, Str. 1. 4. 13]
22 As Philippus, after having ravaged the territory of Abdera and Maroneia, was returning from his expedition with a great fleet, and powerful army; Chares placed an ambuscade of twenty ships near Neapolis to attack him. Philippus, suspecting such an attempt, manned four of his best-sailing vessels with the stoutest and most experienced oarsmen he could pick out: and ordered them to make what sail they could before the fleet, and to pass Neapolis, holding not far from the shore. In pursuit of those four ships, Chares pushed out with his twenty ships: with which however, being light, and well-manned, he was unable to catch up. And while he was chasing them without effect, Philippus sailed safely by Neapolis with the rest of the fleet.
[3] Alexander.
Alexander whose ambition was, to unite all mankind to him, as their common head, declared that they should no longer be called mortals, human beings, or men, but Alexanders.
2 Alexander, in his wars, directed his generals to order the Macedonians to shave their faces, that their enemies in engaging might never lay hold on their beards. [see also: Plutarch, Thes. 5. 4]
3 At the siege of Tyre, Alexander having resolved to join the city, which was then an island, to the mainland, by raising a mound in the surrounding waters, himself first carried a basket of sand, which he threw into it. As soon as the Macedonians saw their king at work with his own hands, they all instantly threw aside their robes, and soon raised the ground.
4 Having left a part of his army before Tyre, Alexander himself marched into Arabia. His absence gave the Tyrians new spirits: they advanced beyond their walls, engaged the Macedonians in battle, and frequently defeated them. Parmenion, Alexander's general, gave him notice of what had happened. He suddenly returned, and seeing the Macedonians retreating before the enemy, instead of flying to their assistance, marched directly to the town; which he surprised, evacuated by the Tyrian forces, and took it by storm. The Tyrians, finding their city taken, surrendered themselves and their arms to the discretion of the Macedonian conqueror. [see also: Plutarch, Alex. 24-25]
5 When Alexander advanced against Darius, he ordered the Macedonians, as soon as they drew near the Persians, to fall down on their hands and knees: and, as soon as ever the trumpet sounded the charge, to rise up and vigorously attack the enemy. They did so: and the Persians, considering it as an act of reverence, abated of their impetuosity, and their minds became softened towards the prostrate foe. Darius too was led to think, he had gained a victory without the hazard of a battle. When on sound of the trumpet, the Macedonians sprung up, and made such an impression on the enemy, that their centre was broken, and the Persians entirely defeated.
6 At Arbela, where the last battle between Alexander and Darius was fought, a considerable body of Persians had made a circuit, and seized the Macedonian carriage-horses and baggage. Parmenion, observing their movement, desired Alexander to order a detachment to protect them. By no means, replied Alexander; my business is with the enemy here; and I must not weaken my phalanx. If we be conquered, we shall not want our baggage: and if we conquer, both ours and the enemy's will become our own. [see also: Plutarch, Alex. 32]
7 After the conquest of Asia, the Macedonians being insistent with Alexander, and extravagant in their demands, he ordered them to take their posts by themselves in arms: and opposite to them he ordered his Persian troops to do the same. The forces being thus separated, "Now," said he, "Macedonians, choose our general: and I will take the Persians. If you beat me, I will comply with all your demands: and you, if I beat you, will learn to be quiet. " Struck with the greatness of soul, which the stratagem revealed, the Macedonians ever after conducted themselves with more moderation. [see also: Plutarch, Alex. 71]
8 In his first action with the Persians, Alexander seeing the Macedonians give way, rode through the ranks, calling out to his men, "One effort more, my Macedonians, one glorious effort. " Animated by their prince, they made a vigorous attack: and the enemy abandoned themselves to flight. Thus did that critical moment determine the victory.
9 Alexander in his Indian expedition advanced to the Hydaspes with intention to cross it: when Porus appeared with his army on the other side, determined to dispute his passage. Alexander then marched towards the head of the river, and attempted to cross it there. Thither also Porus marched, and drew up his army on the opposite side. He then made the same effort lower down; there too Porus opposed him. Those frequent appearances of intention to cross it, without ever making one real attempt to effect it, the Indians ridiculed: and concluding that he had no real design to pass the river, they became more negligent in attending his movements. Then Alexander by a rapid march reached the banks, and effected his purpose on barges, boats, and hides stuffed with straw, before the enemy had time to come up with him, because they had been deceived by so many false attempts. [see also: Plutarch, Alex. 60]
10 Alexander found that his men, glutted with the immense wealth of which they had possessed themselves in Persia, and which they carried about with them in carriages, did not at all relish a new expedition into India. He ordered first the royal carriages to be destroyed; and afterwards all the rest. The Macedonians, thus deprived of their treasures, immediately became anxious for more; and, in order to obtain it, of course ready for new enterprises. [see also: Plutarch, Alex. 57]
11 When the Thracians endeavoured to make an impression on the Macedonian phalanx by a great number of chariots, which were directed against them, Alexander ordered his men to avoid them, if they could; and if not, to throw themselves on the ground, holding over them their shields; by which means the carriages quickly passed over, without hurting them. And by this manoeuvre the numerous carriages of the enemy were rendered useless. [see also: Arrian, Anab. 1. 1'7-9]
12 When Alexander advanced against Thebes, he planted in ambush a concealed body of troops under the command of Antipater; while he himself marched openly against the enemy's strongest works: which the Thebans with great obstinacy defended. In the midst of the engagement Antipater secretly quitted his ambush, and wheeling round attacked the walls in an opposite quarter, where they were weakest, and ill-manned; and made himself master of the city. He immediately raised a signal, which Alexander saw and called out, "The town was his own. " The Thebans, who had till then made a gallant resistance, as soon as they saw their city in the possession of the enemy, abandoned themselves to flight. [see also: Diodorus, 17. 12]
13 The Macedonians having fled from battle, Alexander changed their body armour into a breast-plate: which was a protection to them, as long as they boldly faced the enemy: but if they fled, they exposed to the foe their naked backs. This had the effect: that they never afterwards fled; but, if they were overpowered, always retreated in good order.
14 After Alexander had learned from the soothsayers, that the sacrifices were propitious, he ordered the victims to be carried round the army; that the soldiers, not depending on what was told them, might be convinced with their own eyes of the ground of their hopes in the ensuing action.
15 When Alexander entered Asia, to make Memnon the general of the enemy's forces suspected by the Persians, he ordered the party, he had detached to ravage the country, not to touch his property, nor commit any depredations on his estates.
16 When Alexander saw the advantageous position of the Persians on the opposite side of the Granicus, ready to dispute his passage over the river; he led the Macedonians to the right, and outflanked the enemy. Then his phalanx attacked the enemy and routed them.
17 At the battle of Arbela, Darius planted the ground between the two camps with caltrops. When Alexander discovered this, he led out his right wing and ordered his army to follow him at a slant to the right, skirting the ground that held the caltrops. To oppose that manoeuvre, and throw him upon the ground he seemed to avoid, the Persian weakened his lines and detached his cavalry to his left. Observing this, Alexander, with the support of Parmenion, and flanked by the caltrops, fell upon the weakened lines of the enemy, threw them into disorder, and began the rout.
18 Alexander, after he had passed the Tigris, while the Persians were laying the whole country waste with fire, sent a detachment to pursue them closely, so that they would have regard for their own preservation, and spare the country.
19 Alexander, when in Hyrcania, having been informed that his character and conduct were disparaged both by the Macedonians and Greeks, assembled his friends, and told them; the situation of his affairs at home required him to send letters to Macedonia, and inform his subjects, that he should certainly return within three years: and he desired his officers at the same time to write letters to their respective friends, to the same purport; which to a man they all did. As soon as the letter-carriers had got about three stathmoi from the camp, he ordered them to be brought back, and opened all the letters. From them he learned the opinion, that every one entertained of him. [see also: Diodorus, 17. 80]
20 Alexander having closely besieged a fortified place in India, the besieged agreed to evacuate the fort on condition that they might be permitted to march out with their arms. Then the garrison marched out, and encamped on a hill; where they entrenched themselves, and posted a guard. When Alexander advanced against them, the Indians appealed to the terms of the treaty. To which the Macedonian replied, "I gave you leave to quit the fort; but not a word was mentioned in the treaty of any further movement. " [see also: Diodorus, 17. 84]
21 Pittacus, the grandson of Porus, advantageously posted himself in a narrow valley to intercept Alexander in his march. The valley was long, but not more than four stades wide: and terminated in a very straight defile. Adapting his march to the nature of the ground, Alexander formed his cavalry into a double phalanx; and ordered them, bearing upon their reins, to ride in a close compact body: and, as soon as the enemy attacked their right wing, to receive them upon their spears, and give their horses the rein; and, when they saw the rear of the formation on the right, to attack the enemy. Having thus given his orders, he began his march nearly in the shape of a gnomon. As soon as those, who were posted in the left wing, saw the rear of the detachment on the right, they set up a shout, and in the same manner giving reins to their horses, they attacked the enemy. The Indians, afraid of being blocked up in the valley, precipitately fled to the narrow exit, in order to make their escape. Then many were cut to pieces by the Macedonians, and many more trampled to death by their own horse.
22 In the battle against Porus Alexander posted part of his cavalry in the right wing, and part he left as a body of reserve at a small distance on the plain. His left wing consisted of the phalanx and his elephants. Porus ordered his elephants to be formed against him, himself taking station on an elephant at the head of his left wing. The elephants were drawn up within fifty yards of each other; and in between them was posted his infantry; so that his front exhibited the appearance of a great wall, the elephants looked like so many towers, and the infantry like the parapet between them. Alexander directed his infantry to attack the enemy in front; while himself at the head of his horse advanced against the cavalry. Against those movements Porus ably guarded. But the beasts could not be kept in their ranks; and, wherever they deserted them, the Macedonians in a compact body pouring in closed the with the enemy, and attacked them both in front and flank. The body of reserve in the mean time wheeling round, and attacking their rear, completed the defeat. [see also: Diodorus, 17. 87]
23 When the Thessalians were guarding Tempe, and Alexander saw it impracticable to force, he cut holes in the rugged rock of Ossa, which served as steps. Across these he marched his army: and thus opened himself a passage over the top of Ossa into Thessaly; while the Thessalians were employed in defending the pass at Tempe. Anyone travelling through Tempe can still see the rock of Ossa cut in the manner of a ladder, which now bears the name of Alexander's ladder.
24 Among the Macedonians and among the Greeks, Alexander's court of justice was plain and simple; but among the barbarians, in order to strike them with the greater awe, it was most splendid and imperial. In Bactria, Hyrcania, and India when he heard causes, the apparatus and formality of his court were as follows. The pavilion was large enough to contain a hundred tables; and was supported by fifty pillars of gold: and the canopy was adorned with various gold ornaments. Stationed round the pavilion within were, first, five hundred Persian bodyguards [melophoroi], dressed in purple and white uniforms: and next to those an equal number of archers in different uniforms, yellow, blue, and scarlet. Before those stood five hundred Macedonians, with silver shields, the tallest men that could be picked out. In the middle of the pavilion was a golden throne, on which the monarch sat to hear causes: attended on either side by his guards. Round the pavilion on the outside were ranged a number of elephants, and a thousand Macedonians in Macedonian costumes. Behind those were five hundred Susians in purple uniforms: and the whole was surrounded with ten thousand Persians, distinguished for their appearance, and size, and dressed in the Persian manner, with scimitars at their sides. Such was the court of Alexander among the barbarians.
25 Alexander and his army, marching through a sandy desert, were in great distress for water; when one of the scouts, having in the hollow of a rock discovered a little, brought it to him in his helmet. After he had showed it to his army, in order to revive their spirits with the hope of water being near at hand; without moving it to his lips, before them all he poured it out upon the ground. The Macedonians immediately set up a shout, and bade him lead on; for their king's example had taught them to conquer thirst. [see also: Plutarch, Alex. 42]
26 Alexander by a forced march was endeavouring to gain the river Tigris, before Darius: when a panic seized his rear, and ran through the army. The king ordered trumpets to sound the signal of safety, the first rank immediately to throw down their arms at their feet, and the next to do the same. This order being observed through the whole army, they were convinced the cause of their confusion was panic: from whence as soon as they recovered themselves, they took up their arms, and pursued their march.
27 After Alexander had defeated Darius at the battle of Arbela, Phrasaortes a relation of that monarch in great force posted himself at the gates of Susa; which is a narrow pass between high and steep mountains. This the Macedonians in vain endeavoured to force: the barbarians easily defended it, pelting the enemy with arrows, slings, and stones. Alexander ordered a retreat, and encamped about thirty stades distant. The oracle at Delphi had formerly declared, that a lycus ["wolf"] should be his guide against the Persians. A herdsman came up to Alexander, in his rustic dress, saying that he was a Lycian; and informed him, there was a secret road, which wound round the mountains, covered with trees, and known to no one but himself; and well known to him, as affording excellent pasturage. Alexander remembered the oracle, and listened to the herdsman's information. He then ordered the whole army to remain in camp, and light a number of fires in such conspicuous places, as might be best seen by the Persians: and gave private orders to Philotas and Hephaestion, as soon as they saw the Macedonians show themselves on the mountains, to attack the enemy below. Himself with his guards, one phalanx of hoplites, and all the Scythian archers, marched eighty stades along the secret road; and halted in the middle of a thick wood. About midnight by a circuitous march he gained a position a little above the enemy; who were then buried in sleep: and in the morning sounded the charge from the top of the mountains. Hephaestion and Philotas immediately marched out of the camp, and advanced against them on the plain. The Persians, thus attacked both above and below, were part of them cut to pieces, some thrown from the precipices, and others taken prisoner. [see also: Plutarch, Alex. 37]
28 Alexander having been obliged in the heat of summer to make a speedy retreat, the enemy hanging upon his rear, directed his march near a river. Observing that his men, who were very thirsty, looked anxiously at the water; lest by stopping to drink they should lose their ranks, and also retard his march, he ordered proclamation to be made, "That no man should touch the river, for its waters were foul. " Fearing the consequences they refrained from drinking it, and without intermission continued their march. As soon as they had halted, and the army was encamped; both Alexander and his officers drank openly of the stream; and the soldiers, laughing at the trick their general had played them, drank freely of it too; liberated from every fear either of the enemy, or the water.
29 When Alexander penetrated into Sogdiana, a rough and rugged country, his march was attended with great difficulties. In the middle of it extended a high and craggy rock; its tops accessible only to the birds. Around it was a thick and continuous wood: which rendered access to the place still more difficult. There Ariomazes posted himself, with a numerous and determined band of Sogdians. On the part of the rock, where he had fortified himself, were fine springs, and plenty of provision. Alexander riding round, and reconnoitring the place, observed behind the rock a slope particularly well-covered with wood. There he ordered three hundred young men, expert in climbing precipices, without their arms to endeavour to make their way through the trees, assisting each other by fastening as they went up small cords to the boughs. And as soon as they had reached the top, loosing the white belts they had on, they were directed to fix them upon poles, and extend them above the trees; that the gleaming girdles brandished about might be seen as well by the Macedonians below, as thebarbarians above them. The active and intrepid band, as soon as they had with difficulty reached the top, at sun-rise according to orders brandished their belts: when the Macedonians set up a general shout. Ariomazes, supposing in his astonishment that the whole army were in possession of the top of the mountain, and above their heads, surrendered himself and his rock to Alexander, considering his power and abilities divine.
30 After the Cathaeans, a people of India, had desperately resisted him, Alexander utterly exterminated them, slaying all that were able to bear arms, and levelling their city Sangala with the ground. This act prejudiced him much in the opinion of the Indians; who considered him as a bloodthirsty savage. In order to remove these prejudices, from the next city he reduced in India, he took hostages; and advancing against a third city, which was large and populous, he placed before his army the hostages, old men, and boys, and women. As soon as the enemy saw their own countrymen, and from the condition in which they appeared concluded the humanity with which their conqueror had treated them, they opened their gates, and with his hostages readily received him: and this account of his clemency being studiously propagated induced other Indian nations voluntarily to submit to him. [see also: Diodorus, 17. 91]
31 The country of the Cossaeans Alexander found rough and uncultivated, the mountains high and almost inaccessible; and on the mountains was a numerous and resolute body of men. He had therefore little hopes of making himself master of it. At that time he received information of the death of Hephaestion, who died at Babylon: in consequence of which he ordered a general mourning; and put the army in motion, in order to celebrate his funeral. The Cossaean scouts seeing that, and supposing them going to evacuate the country, reported the motions of the Macedonian army; and the Cossaeans began to disband. Alexander, having received intelligence of the error, into which his movement had betrayed the enemy, detached a body of horse to secure the posts on the mountains: then wheeling round he joined the detachment of cavalry, and completed the conquest of the country. This circumstance, it was said, arising from Hephaestion's death, consoled Alexander for the loss of his friend.
32 In the palace of the Persian monarch Alexander read a bill of fare for the king's lunch and dinner, that was engraved on a column of brass: on which were also other regulations, which Cyrus had directed. It ran thus.
Of fine wheat flour four hundred artabae (a Median artaba is an Attic medimnus).
Of second flour three hundred artabae,
and of third flour the same.
In all one thousand artabae of wheat flour for dinner.
Of the finest barley flour two hundred artabae,
of the second four hundred,
and four hundred of the third.
