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[435] Strabo, XVII. 1.

[436] Strabo, XVII. 1.

[437] Strabo, XVI. 4; XVII.

[438] Strabo, XVII. 1.

[439] Diodorus Siculus, III. 43.

[440] Appian, _Preface_, § 10. --In 537, at Raphia, the Egyptian army
amounted to 70,000 foot, 5,000 cavalry, and 73 elephants. (Polybius, V.
79; see also V. 65. )--Polybius, who gives us these details, adds that
the pay of the officers was one mina (97 francs [£3 17_s. _ 7_d. _]) a
day. (XIII. ii. )

[441] Theocritus, _Idylls_, XVII. lines 90-102. --Athenæus (V. 36, p.
284) and Appian, _Preface_, § 10, give the details of this
fleet. --Ptolemy IV. Philopator went so far as to construct a ship of
forty ranges of rowers, which was 280 cubits long and 30 broad.
(Athenæus, V. 37, p. 285. )

[442] Herodotus, IV. 199. The plateau of Barca, now desert, was then
cultivated and well watered.

[443] The most important object of commerce of the Cyrenaica was the
_silphium_, a plant the root of which sold for its weight in silver. A
kind of milky gum was extracted from it, which served as a panacea with
the apothecaries and as a seasoning in the kitchen. When, in 658,
Cyrenaica was incorporated with the Roman Republic, the province paid an
annual tribute in silphium. Thirty pounds of this juice, brought to Rome
in 667, were regarded as a miracle; and when Cæsar, at the beginning of
the civil war, seized upon the public treasury, he found in the treasury
chest 1,500 pounds of silphium locked up with the gold and silver.
(Pliny, XIX. 3. )

[444] Diodorus Siculus, III. 49. --Herodotus, IV. 169. --Athenæus, XV. 22,
p. 487; 38, p. 514. --Strabo, XVII. iii. 712. --Pliny, _Natural History_,
XVI. 33; XIX. 3.

[445] Pindar, _Pythian Odes_, IV. 2. --Athenæus, III. 58, p. 392.

[446] Diodorus Siculus, XVII. 49.

[447] Aristotle, _Politics_, VII. 2, § 10.

[448] Josephus, _Jewish Antiquities_, XIII. 12, § 2, 3.

[449] Ælian, _History of Animals_, V. lvi. --Eustathius, _Comment. on
Dionysius Periegetes_, 508, 198, edit. Bernhardy.

[450] Strabo, XIV. 6. --Pliny, _Natural History_, XXXIV. 2.

[451] Virgil, _Æneid_, I. 415. --Statius, _Thebais_, V. 61.

[452] Strabo, X. 4.

[453] Polybius, XIII. 8.

[454] Cretan mercenaries are found in the service of Flamininus in 557
(Titus Livius, XXXIII. 3), in that of Antiochus in 564 (Titus Livius,
XXXVII. 40), in that of Perseus in 583 (Titus Livius, XLII. 51), and in
the service of Rome in 633.

[455] _Iliad_, II. 656.

[456] Polybius, XXX. 7, year of Rome 590.

[457] Strabo, XIV. 2. The town of _Rhoda_ in Spain, establishments in
the Baleares, _Gela_ in Sicily, _Sybaris_ and _Palæopolis_ in Italy,
were Rhodian colonies.

[458] This happened especially at the epoch when the famous Colossus of
Rhodes fell, and when the town was violently shaken by an earthquake.
Hiero, tyrant of Syracuse, Ptolemy, king of Egypt, Antigonus Doson, king
of Macedonia, and Seleucus, king of Syria, sent succours to the
Rhodians. (Polybius, V. 88, 89. )

[459] We see, in fact, with what care the Rhodians spared their allies
on the coast of the Pontus Euxinus. (Polybius, XXVII. 6. )

[460] Polybius, IV. 38.

[461] Strabo, VII. 4.

[462] Titus Livius, XXXIII. 18.

[463] During the siege of Rhodes, Demetrius had formed the design of
delivering to the flames all the public buildings, one of which
contained the famous painting of Ialysus, by Protogenes. The Rhodians
sent a deputation to Demetrius to ask him to spare this masterpiece.
After this interview, Demetrius raised the siege, sparing thus at the
same time the town and the picture. (Aulus Gellius, XV. 31. )

[464] In 555, twenty ships; in 556, twenty vessels with decks; in 563,
twenty-five ships with decks, and thirty-six vessels. This last fleet of
thirty-six vessels was destroyed, and yet the Rhodians were able to send
to sea again, the same year, twenty vessels. In 584 they had forty
vessels. (Titus Livius, XXXI. 46; XXXII. 16; XXXVI. 45; XXXVII. 9, 11,
12; XLII. 45. )

[465] Pliny, XXXIV. 17.

[466] Strabo, XIV. 2.

[467] Athenæus, XII. 35, p. 461.

[468] Titus Livius, XXIII. 34.

[469] Titus Livius, XXIII. 40.

[470] Titus Livius, XLI. 12, 17, 28. --The number of 80,000 men whom the
Sardinians lost in the campaign of T. Gracchus, in 578 and 579, was
given by the official inscription which was seen at Rome in the temple
of the goddess Matuta. (Titus Livius, XLI. 28. )

[471] Festus, p. 322, edit. O. Müller. --Titus Livius, XLI. 21.

[472] See Heeren, vol. IV. sect. I. chap. ii. --Polybius, I. 79. --Strabo,
V. ii. 187. --Diodorus Siculus, V. 15. --Titus Livius, XXIX. 36.

[473] Titus Livius, XXX. 38.

[474] Strabo, V. 2.

[475] Diodorus Siculus, V. 14. --The Corsicans having revolted, in 573,
had 2,000 slain. (Titus Livius, XL. 34. )--In 581, they lost 7,000 men,
and had more than 1,700 prisoners. (Titus Livius, XLII. 7. )

[476] Strabo, V. 2.

[477] Pliny, _Natural History_, III. 6.

[478] Diodorus Siculus, V. 13. --In 573, the Corsicans were taxed by the
Romans at 1,000,000 pounds of wax, and at 200,000 in 581. (Titus Livius,
XL. 34; XLII. 7. )

[479] Cicero, _Second Oration against Verres_, II. ii. 74. --The oxen
furnished hides, employed especially for the tents; the sheep, an
excellent wool for clothing.

[480] Cicero, _Second Oration against Verres_, II. III. 70.

[481] Titus Livius, XXV. 31.

[482] Polybius, I. 17, 18.

[483] Polybius, IX. 27. --Strabo, VI. 2.

[484] See what is said by Titus Livius (XXIX. 26) and Polybius (I. 41,
43, 46). --Florus, II. 2.

[485] See the work of the Duke of Serra di Falco, _Antichità della
Sicilia_.
[486] Thus the Jupiter of the Capitol and the Italic Juno, at least in
their official worship, were the protectors of virtuous morals and
punished the wicked, while the Phœnician Moloch and Hercules, worshipped
at Carthage, granted their favours to those who made innocent blood run
upon their altars. (Diodorus Siculus, XX. 14. )--See the remarkable
figures of Moloch holding a gridiron destined for human sacrifices.
(Alb. della Marmora, _Sardinian Antiquities_, pl. 23, 53, tom. ii. 254. )

[487] Polybius, I. 7, 11.

[488] Polybius, I. 16. --Zonaras, VIII. 16 _et seq. _

[489] We have seen before that Rome, after the capture of Antium (_Porto
d’Anzo_), had already a navy, but she had no galleys of three ranks or
five ranks of oars. Nothing, therefore, is more probable than the
relation of Titus Livius, who states that the Romans took for a model a
Carthaginian quinquireme wrecked on their coast. In spite of the
advanced state of science, we have not yet obtained a perfect knowledge
of the construction of the ancient galleys, and, even at the present
day, the problem will not be completely solved until chance furnishes us
with a model.

[490] The Romans employed the triremes of Tarentum, Locri, Elea, and
Naples to cross the Strait of Messina. The use of quinquiremes was
entirely unknown in Italy.

[491] Polybius, I. 20, 21.

[492] Each vessel carried 300 rowers and 120 soldiers, or 420 men, which
makes, for the Carthaginian fleet, 147,000 men, and, for the Roman
fleet, 138,600. (Polybius, I. 25 and 26. )

[493] Nearly thirteen millions of francs [£520,000]. (Polybius, I. 62. )

[494] Polybius, I. 36.

[495] Valerius Maximus, V. i. 2.

[496] Titus Livius, _Epitome_, XIX.

[497] Polybius, III. 10, 27, 28.

[498] The Sardinians owed their civilisation to the Phœnicians; the
Sicilians had received theirs from the Greeks. This difference explains
the attachment of the first for Carthage, and the repulsion of the
others for the Punic rule.

[499] Polybius, II. 4, 5, 10.

[500] Hahn, _Albanesische Studien_.

[501] Florus, II. 5. --Appian, _Wars of Illyria_, 7.

[502] Polybius, II. 11 _et seq. _

[503] Titus Livius, _Epitome_, XX. , year of Rome 533. --Orosius, IV.
xiii.

[504] Polybius, III. 16 _et seq. _

[505] A people situated between the Rhone and the Alps. (Polyb. , II. 22,
34. )

[506] “It was not Rome alone that the Italians, terrified by the Gaulish
invasion, believed they had thus to defend; they understood that it was
their own safety which was in danger. ” (Polybius, II. 23. )

[507] The following, according to Polybius (II. 24), was the number of
the forces of Italy:--

FOOT. HORSE.
Two consular armies, each of two legions,
of 5,200 foot and 300 cavalry 20,800 1,200
Allied troops 30,000 2,000
Sabines and Etruscans 50,000 more than 4,000
Umbrians and Sarsinates, inhabitants of
the Apennines 20,000 --
Cenomani and Veneti 30,000 --
At Rome 20,000 1,500
Allies (of the reserve) 30,000 2,000
Latins 80,000 5,000
Samnites 70,000 7,000
Iapygians and Messapians 50,000 16,000
Lucanians 30,000 3,000
Marsi, Marrucini, Frentani, and Vestini 20,000 4,000
In Sicily and at Tarentum, two legions of
4,200 foot and 200 horse 8,400 400
Roman and Campanian citizens 250,000 23,000
------- ------
699,200 69,100



[508] See the Memoir of Zumpt, _Stand der Bevölkerung im Alterthum_.
Berlin, 1841.

[509] Polybius, III. 30.

[510] Titus Livius, XXI. 7.

[511] Appian, _Wars of Spain_, 10.

[512] Polybius, III. 90. --“The allies had till then remained firm in
their attachment. ” (Titus Livius, XXII. 61. )--“This fidelity which they
have preserved towards us in the midst of our reverses. ” (_Speech of
Fabius_, Titus Livius, XXII. 39. )

[513] There were among the Roman troops Samnite cavalry. (Titus Livius,
XXVII. 43. )

[514] Titus Livius, XXII. 49; XXIII. 12. --“In the second Punic war, the
use of rings had already become common; otherwise it would have been
impossible for Hannibal to send three _modii_ of rings to Carthage. ”
(Pliny, XXXIII. 6. )--We read in Appian: “The tribunes of the soldiers
wear the gold ring, their inferiors have it of ivory. ” (_Punic Wars_,
VIII. cv. )

[515] “The Greek towns, inclined to maintain their alliance with Rome. ”
(Titus Livius, XXIV. 1. )--Even in Bruttium, the small town of Petelia
defended itself against Hannibal with the greatest energy; the women
fought like the men. (Appian, VII. 29. )

[516] Eutropius, III. 6.

[517] Titus Livius, XXVI. 1.

[518] Titus Livius, XXIV. 14.

[519] “The Oppian law, proposed by the tribune C. Oppius, under the
consulship of Q. Fabius and Tiberius Sempronius (539), in the height of
the second Punic war, forbad the women to have for their use more than
half an ounce of gold, to wear dresses of different colours, &c. , to be
driven or carried about Rome, within a radius of seven miles, in a
chariot drawn by horses, except to attend the public sacrifices. ” This
law, being only temporary, was revoked, in spite of the opposition of P.
Cato, in 559. (Titus Livius, XXXIV. 1, 6. )

[520] Valerius Maximus, I. i. 15.

[521] “It was in his cavalry that Hannibal placed all his hopes. ”
(Polybius, III. 101. )--“Hannibal’s cavalry alone caused the victories of
Carthage and the defeats of Rome. ” (Polybius, IX. 3. )--“The loss of 500
Numidians was felt more by Hannibal than any other check, and from that
time he had no longer the superiority in cavalry which had previously
given him so much advantage” (543). (Titus Livius, XXVI. 38. )

[522] “Hannibal remembered how he had failed before Placentia. ” (Titus
Livius, XXVII. 39. )

[523] Titus Livius, XXIII. 15 and 18. --Hannibal reduced by famine the
fortresses of Casilinum and Nuceria; as to the citadel of Tarentum, it
resisted five years, and could not be taken by force. (Titus Livius,
XXVII. 25. )

[524] “Hannibal descends towards Naples, having at heart to secure a
maritime place to receive succours from Africa. ” (Titus Livius, XXIII.
15. )

[525] Polybius, III. 106.

[526] Appian, _Wars of Hannibal_, 26.

[527] Plutarch, _Marcellus_, 11, 33.

[528] Titus Livius, XXVII. 49.

[529] Appian, _Wars of Hannibal_, 54.

[530] In 536, Rome had at sea 220 quinquiremes and 20 small vessels
(Titus Livius, XXI. 17), with which she protected efficiently the coasts
of Sicily and Italy. (Titus Livius, XXI. 49, 51. )--In 537, Scipio, with
35 vessels, destroyed a Carthaginian fleet at the mouth of the Ebro
(Titus Livius, XXII. 19), and the consul Servilius Geminus effected a
landing in Africa with 120 vessels, in order to prevent Carthage from
sending reinforcements to Hannibal. (Titus Livius, XXII. 31. )--In 538,
the fleet of Sicily is reinforced with 25 ships. (Titus Livius, XXII.
37. )--In 539, Valerius Lævinus had 25 vessels to protect the coast of
the Adriatic, and Fluvius the same number to watch the coast of Ostia
(Titus Livius, XXIII. 32) after which the Adriatic fleet, raised to 55
sails, is sent to act as a check upon Macedonia. (Titus Livius, XXIII.
38. )--The same year, the fleet of Sicily, under Titus Otacilius, defeats
the Carthaginians. (Titus Livius, XXIII. 41. )--In 540 Rome has 150
vessels (Titus Livius, XXIV. 11) this year and the following, the Roman
fleet defends Apollonia, attacked by the King of Macedonia, and lands
troops which ravage the territory of Utica. The effective strength of
the Roman fleet appears not to have varied until 543, the epoch at which
Greece again required the presence of 50 Roman ships and Sicily 100.
(Titus Livius, XXVI. 1. )--In 544, 20 vessels were stationed in the
waters of Rhegium, to secure the passage of provisions between Sicily
and the garrison of Tarentum. (Titus Livius, XXVI. 39. )--In 545, 30
sails are detached from the fleet of Sicily to cruise before that town.
(Titus Livius, XXVII. 22. )--In 546, Carthage was preparing a formidable
fleet of 200 sails (Titus Livius, XXVII. 22); Rome opposes it with 280
ships: 30 defend the coast of Spain, 50 guard Sardinia, 50 the mouths of
the Tiber, 50 Macedonia, 100 are stationed in Sicily, ready to make a
descent in Africa, and the Carthaginian fleet is beaten before Clupea.
(Titus Livius, XXVII. 29. )--Lastly, in 547, a second victory gained by
Valerius Lævinus renders the sea entirely free. (Titus Livius, XXVIII.
4. )

[531] “The Carthaginians, occupied only with the care of maintaining
themselves in Spain, sent no succour to Hannibal, as though he had had
nothing but successes in Italy. ” (Titus Livius, XXVIII. 12. )

[532] Titus Livius, XXIII. 13 and 41.

[533] Appian, _Wars of Hannibal_, liv.

[534] In 540, Rome had on foot eighteen legions; in 541, twenty legions;
in 542 and 543, twenty-three legions; in 544 and 546, twenty-one; in
547, twenty-three; in 551, twenty; in 552, sixteen; in 553, fourteen; in
554, the number is reduced to six. (Titus Livius, XXIV. 11-44; XXV. 3;
XXVI. 1, 28; XXVII. 22, 36; XXX. 2, 27, 41; XXXI. 8. )

[535] “The Romans raised their infantry and cavalry only in Rome and
Latium. ” (Titus Livius, XXII. 37. )

[536] Titus Livius, XXIII. 23.

[537] Q. Metellus said “that the invasion of Hannibal had re-awakened
the slumbering virtue of the Roman people. ” (Valerius Maximus, VII. ii.
3. )

[538] The Senate demanded of thirty colonies men and money. Eighteen
gave both with eagerness, namely, Signia, Norba, Saticulum, Brundusium,
Fregellæ, Luceria, Venusia, Adria, Firmum, Ariminum, Pontia, Pæstum,
Cosa, Beneventum, Isernia, Spoletum, Placentia, and Cremona.