Now that my analysis is under way the time has come where I must elucidate more clearly what I
understand
by 'Post-war period'.
Sloterdijk-Post-War
ller
Following defeat in battle every culture receives the opportu- nity to re-evaluate its normative basic attitudes or as Sloterdijk puts it 'its moral grammar'. Procedures of this kind either end in a process assuming energies of revenge or the decision is made to transform the cultural rules ascertained as detrimental to behavioural patterns of a less harmful form. Is there such a thing as a civilizing influence of cultures by reorientation which brings about post-heroic values? Peter Sloterdijk uses the term 'metanoia' to describe this process. He does not mean by this Christian repentance but pragmatic relearning in order to in- crease civilisational viability (see p. 14). Sloterdijk calls the victor's post-stressory work of evaluation 'affirmation'.
In his, in reference to 'metanoia' and 'affirmation', exemplary "excursion into the jubilee culture" of Franco-German rela- tions Sloterdijk awards the Germans a "process which at no time complicated but also at no time threatened the metanoeth- ical tranformation process of the vanquished German people", which in its extreme forms consisted of triumphant self-hate and aggression towards each and every national tradition. This is reflected in the biographies of many Germans. In my case it was the same as in many other families, quarrels arose as to guilt and responsibility.
While German criticism spoke to a population which despite all antagonistic tendencies could not deny being guilty of the accusations made, French criticism was directed at a society acquitted and in need of elucidation as to their dro^le de libe? ra- tion. "This may well be the reason why the intellectual Ger-
1
many is the only place in the world where an old-fashioned correspondence theory of truth still dominates. Here defeat is called defeat (and a crime a crime) - and the remaining words are also gauged to this semantic primal scale. It is only here that the religion of the objective referee holds sway. The intel- lectual France prefers the politically more elegant and rhetori- cally more attractive position where words and things belong to separate systems. " (see p. 26).
Despite disparate post-war processes, in Germany 'metanoia' and in France 'affirmation' of the imaginary victor, both na- tions have come a long way together. It is a common belief that nothing will work in Europe unless France and Germany are in agreement. Franco-German relations, Franco-German affairs, Franco-German friendship: What next? The Franco-German methods of dealing with each other are often described as be- ing exemplary; it has almost become a legend. Peter Sloterdijk calls this legend into question by turning the political credo upside down.
He talks about Franco-German relations, regardless of the fact that "there is nothing new that can be said on this theme which could not come from audiotape" (see p. 10), Sloterdijk offers a preliminary rehearsal for philosophical commentary on the Franco-German day of commemoration taking place on 8th July 2012 marking the fiftieth anniversary of Charles de Gaulle and Konrad Adenauer attending the historical service of reconcilia- tion in the coronation cathedral in Reims. He calls the arrange- ment made by the French President and the German Chancel- lor "the healing disentanglement of the two nations" (see p. 45) According to Sloterdijk this represented the termination of a fatally closeknit relationship which reached back to the era of the Napoleonic wars at least. For a long time the Germans and the French had become caught up in an endless cycle of mim-
2
icry, imitation, one-upmanship and projective empathy with each other. What de Gaulle and Adenauer pledged each other was an everlasting non-attachment and in some ways even a permanent state of indifference. The good relationship, or at least functional relationship, which has existed since then rest on the solid foundations of the non-attachment which has been finally achieved - diplomatically described as friendship be- tween the two nations.
The post-war period began with a French policy of occupation, which was strongly characterized by 'improvisation'1. Neverthe- less in the spirit of 'affirmation' the objective was unanimously clear: to restore France to its former national greatness. Only as a late occupying power was France able to participate in the post-war policies concerning Germany by means of the conces- sions made by the other allies - or as Sloterdijk puts it "the re-interpretation of the results of the war". France was certainly not in a position to prepare for this role in advance. However, there had been considerations on the side of the French in the resistance groups in Algier and London before the end of the war in reference to a re-educational programme for Germany emanating from France2.
Right from the very beginning the French policy of occupa- tion was typified by a comprehensive cultural policy, partly as an aspect of the security policy and partly as a demonstration of France's cultural superiority in comparison with the other
Cheval, Rene? : ? Die Bildungspolitik in der Franzo? sischen Besatzungszone" in: Hein- emann, Manfred (Hg. ): Umerziehung und Wiederaufbau. Die Bildungspolitik der Be- satzungsma? chte in Deutschland und O? sterreich, Stuttgart 1981, p. 190-200, here p. 190
Gerard, Francis: Que faire de l'Allemagne? Algier 1943, see Ruge-Schatz: ? Grund- probleme der Kulturpolitik in der franzo? sischen Besatzungszone" in: Scharf, Claus und Schro? der, H. -J. (Hgs. ): Die Deutschlandpolitik Frankreichs und die Franzo? sische Zone 1945-1949, Wiesbaden 1983, p. 91-110
? 3
Allies. This so-called 'Machtersatzpolitik'3 which arose from intellectual-cultural Messianism had well-established roots in France. Among these were the Roman legacy, the influence of the Catholic church with its universal pretensions and the very early formation of a powerful central state drawing on the Cath- olic religion for support4. In addition the French Revolution supplied the values of democracy, liberty and progress. They made the civilisatory consciousness the business of an entire people. The Federal Republic of Germany seemed to France to be a "land in need of cultural missionary work"5. Eighteen French cultural institutes were created in the first ten years after the end of the war in Germany, considerably more than in any other western European country. The Germans on their part were, in the spirit of 'metanoethical' re-orientation, ini- tially very interested in the French cultural imports.
The scale on which this re-orientation and 'self-discovery' in the framework of rebuilding the nation progressed meant that the Germans began to develop a new self-assurance. They also became more confident and independent in their Franco-Ger- man initiatives in communication - and a kind of de-fascina- tion emerged. Those actively shaping the Franco-German cul- tural exchange observed an increasing disinterest in France in general and especially in contemporary French art and culture. Many Germans cling to a specific image of French culture "as if
Clemens, Gabriele: ? Die britische Kulturpolitik in Deutschland: Musik, Theater, Film und Literatur" in: Clemens, Gabriele (Hg. ): Die Kulturpolitik im besetzten Deut- schland, Stuttgart 1994, p. 200-218, here p. 203
Salon, Albert: L'Action culturelle de la France dans le monde, Paris 1983, p. 31 ff
see Hammer (1957): ? Gemeinsamer Markt des Geistes" in: Echo der Zeit 1954, quoted from: Mo? ller, Horst und Hildebrand, Klaus (Hg. ), Die Bundesrepublik Deut- schland und Frankreich: Dokumente 1949-1963, Bd. 3: Parteien, O? ffentlichkeit,
Kultur, Mu? nchen 1997, Dok. -Nr. 339, S. 895-898, here p. 896
? 4
the German idea of French culture has simply just stood still. "6 This stagnation is confirmed in the statistics on the atrophy in Franco-German communication skills. While 1950 in a survey in Allensbach 15% of Germans claimed to be able to 'read' a text written in French, in 1997 it was 16% according to a survey in the Spiegel. Current studies assume similar results. In France the situation is no different. Since the end of the war German's status as the first foreign language has dropped from 30% to 10% and as a second foreign language French was over- taken by Spanish long ago. In his speech to the French National Assembly on 30th November 1999 Gerhard Schro? der reassured the French people that "French culture and civilisation enjoy an elevated and lasting status in Germany". Ingo Kolbohm7 ex- posed this speech as a stereotype and says: "If the Chancellor wishes to be courteous in his statements this is all very well and good, but if this is supposed to reflect the actual facts of the case then he must be contradicted. "
With normalisation as 'euphemism of estrangement' Sloterdijk applies an apparent paradox: The pragmatic way in a benevo- lent and non-violent co-existence by means of mutual disinterest and defascination. "Do it the same way that we did, don't be too interested in each other! " This could be the message that people of Germany and France have the rest of the world to offer.
Fixed rituals are no longer adequate to justify the specialness of the Franco-German relationship. They no longer suffice to en- vigorate this relationship and to capture the interest of present
Mehdorn, Margarete, 1995-2007 president of the "Deutsch-Franzo? sischen Gesells- chaft Schleswig-Holstein e. V. ", since 2005 member of the board of directors of the "Vereinigung Deutsch-Franzo? sischer Gesellschaften in Deutschland und Frankre- ich, VDFG/FAFA"
Kolbohm, Ingo: ? Pla? doyer fu? r eine neue deutsch-franzo? sische Na? he: Wider die ? Normalisierung" als Diskurs der Entfremdung". In: Dokumente. Zeitschrift fu? r den deutsch-franzo? sischen Dialog, Heft 3, Juni 2000, p. 207-214
? 5
generations. This is because the functioning of the Franco- German mechanisms seems have been put into question by the fickelness and impusiveness of the new French President. The new normality will certainly require a bit more than just stag- ing some event on 8th July 2012 where we can expect to hear further speeches "from audiotape". Peter Sloterdijk's assump- tions could prove to be a valuable contribution to this process of re-orientation.
Despite all the attention to detail and interest in the intellectual highlights the brilliant philosopher does not lose sight of the triangular relationships which transcend the bipolar Franco- German system. And he does not lose sight of global influences either, for somewhere in the world there is always a post-war period - there should be a theory of post-war periods. And hardly a conflict in the world remains unnoticed. Sloterdijk quite rightly points out that great affective military mobilisa- tions of recent decades could only be implemented by the mass media in the form of coverage and sensationalism - and that these media, as a "vehicle of the dangerous mimesis" are today even more effective than before (see p. 48).
Sloterdijk refers to Herbert Marshall McLuhan (1911-1980)8 and postulates: Anybody wishing to get to the bottom of ex- tremism gone global cannot avoid combining the mimetological analysis with the mediological. The medium is the news - the terror is news and medium at the same time. Terrorism in a media driven society turns media into a plaything and into a tool and thus into potential abettor of terror. The terrorists are dependent on the media because they want to trigger off a psy- chological effect on the greatest number of people possible and
see Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung: ? McLuhan wird wiederentdeckt", 21. 02. 2007, Nr. 44, S. N 3 and Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung: ? Mosaiksteinchen", 19. 04. 2006, Nr. 91, S. N 3
? 6
add authority to their demands. Seen analytically we are deal- ing with a functional symbiosis between media and terrorism9.
The media driven battle of the cultures which is taking place beyond the borders of the European peace became the new boundary long ago running through all Europe's territorial or- der. A new type of stress has arisen which is however fed to the majority of people from virtual space. Its tripping device a im- ages taken from executions and torture or pictures of destruc- tion of towers of power considered to symbolize hubris10.
The flow of stress-images will not run dry. The spread of 'max- imal-stress-cooperation' (MSC) against terror has been real- ity for a long time now. Its unfolding is undifferentiated and paranoid. It seeks and finds its enemies and turns Huntington's ? clash of civilisations" into self fulfilling prophecy.
Sloterdijk's Freiburg lecture, available here in the form of a book, is a milestone. He presents to the world a philosophy which is simultaneously German and French. At the same time he presents a new type of 'consulting philosophy'. A political rhetoric has been developed by means of a new kind of cultural theoretical approach which is capable of having lasting effects.
*
Prof Dr Klaus-Dieter Mu? ller, born 1951 in Neumu? nster, Ger- many, is honorary professor at the Film & Television Academy (HFF) "Konrad Wolf" and head of the IBF "Institut Berufsfor- schung und Unternehmensplanung Medien e. V. " in Potsdam- Babelsberg.
Weichert, Stephan A. : ? Der inszenierte Terrorist". In: cover-Medienmagazin, 3, 2002, p. 74-75
see Neverla, Irene in: Michael Beuthner u. a. : Bilder des Terrors - Terror der Bilder? , Ko? ln 2003, p. 158
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Theory of the Post-War Periods
Observations on Franco-German relations since 1945
1 Europe, post-historical
Ladies and Gentlemen,
If one were to attempt to summarize in one sentence the shift in consciousness of Europeans in the period after 1945 from a German point of view, then this would have to summarize the following facts. The inhabitants of this continent, exhausted by the excesses and the pressures of the era from 1914 to 1945, turned their backs on historical passion and developed a post- historical modus vivendi in its stead. By historical I understand ad hoc the unity resulting from the tragedy enacted and written, as well as the unity resulting from the epic both enacted and written. Conceived in this sense 'history' for Europeans is a discarded option. By entering the shadow of catastrophe they have decided against an existence in tragic and epic style. They have chosen a form of coexistence in which a civilising force re- places tragedy and negotiation replaces the epic. From another perspective one would say that Europeans have ceased to pre- pare for war and have become much more concerned with the economic situation and having renounced the gods of warfare converted from heroism to consumerism.
It becomes apparent with this very abstract assumption, as in the appearance of the words 'post-war periods' of the title, that there is a shift in the meaning as compared to its everyday usage. Indeed, I would like to emphasize and demonstrate the function of the post-war period for the self-regulation of cultures and, on what scale the interpretation of the outcome of wars, by those
8
waging them, becomes a decisive factor for the way in which they conceive themselves. What must above all be emphasized, is the extent to which the victors and those defeated by them tend to attach importance to the fact of their being victorious or being defeated and, how this influences their languages and ways of life subsequently. In the case of this observation the somewhat generalized initial assumptions will disintegrate in more specific information on local post-war cultures. Then, it will be possible to focus clearly on German and French phenomena and then to discuss the so-called relationship existing between them, if such a thing exists - I am already giving a hint as to what my final the- sis is, and it is: that, due to strongly disparate post-war processes characterising these two countries, there can be no relations be- tween them and that their relationship which is officially set out in a treaty of friendship is, at best, what could be described as benevolent mutual disregard or benign estrangement as can be observed sometimes between two former partners in love - and why not also then between two former partners in hate.
Among the traits of the post-tragic and post-epic ways of life which the Europeans have adopted nolens volens, is the wide- spread sentiment of living in a disassociated reality in which there are no incidents of any consequence. The only exception is the sequence of political events between 1989 and 1991, which in retrospect, could be titled 'The collapse of Communism' - yet even this eventful period which is deeply engraved into the biog- raphies of those born between 1930 and 1975 was, to a certain degree, merely a late sequel to the tragic-epic period which we discarded. This final great event is like a letter, mailed at some time in history, which then got lost in the mail and finally reached the addressee at a much later date. One cannot help thinking of Sergei Krikalev who was at that time, 1990/1991, on the space station Mir and thus took off into outer space from the Soviet Un- ion and found himself in the new Russia when he landed again.
9
As a form of compensation for the post-historic deprivation of events which can be assessed as one of the all in all positive, albeit difficult to understand, traits of the new modus vivendi, contemporary civilisation has produced a number of surrogates apparent on all levels which close the gulf between the differ- ences in higher civilization and mass culture. I will mention only two peculiarities of this tendency which are especially notice- able, firstly the omnipotence of the principle of staging contem- porary event culture, and secondly the replacement of events by commemorative events which has given rise to a flourishing jubilee industry - a haute cuisine where there are only warmed up leftovers. In order to avoid any misunderstandings I would like to add that these tendencies, including excrescences, are a part of the price which has to be paid for the emancipation from heroism and tragicism. But we pay it gladly if we consider what the historical alternatives used to look like.
I will now take the liberty of taking an excursion into the jubi- lee culture and will refer to a commemorative event which we on both sides of the Rhine are awaiting. Despite the fact that it still lies four and a half years away, but inasmuch as one feels a certain attraction for hazardous themes, and moreover that one enjoys browsing through the calendar for culture and the arts it will have become evident how it already casts a shadow, or at least the shadow of a shadow. If we speak of Franco-German relations, regardless of the fact that there is nothing new that can be said on this theme which could not come from audio- tape, then only because we are already able to think about what should be said at the approaching event instead of the previous event - and these things normally remain unsaid and relatively pressing. The 8th of July of the said year will commemorate the fiftieth anniversary of the day when Frenchmen and Germans, represented by their fully justifiably termed statesmen Charles de Gaulle and Konrad Adenauer attended a service of recon-
10
ciliation in the coronation cathedral in Reims which antici- pated the signing of a treaty of friendship, the so-called Elyse? e Treaty of January 1963, which followed shortly afterwards. The solemn proceedings, which we will, when the appropriate time comes, re-enact with a contemporary cast, occurred under the highest symbolic auspices drawn from the traditions which we share. The Te Deum of Reims, commemorated in the presence of the Archbishop Franc? ois Marty, was carried out under the dais of longstanding Catholic universalism - which was used, for albeit a sentimental instant, in order to declare the chapter of historical excesses between our peoples, the era of infections and mobilisations and jealous murder and armed mass hysteria which crossed the Rhine in both directions, to be closed.
One can well imagine what the festivities in Reims, Paris, Ber- lin and other metropolises will be like around the time of the 8th July 2012. The protocol that the politicians will be required to carry out step by step will be prescribed to a T, leaving prac- tically no room for new gestures. Hardly any fantasy is required to envisage the speeches that we will have to hear given by both presidents and by other incumbent speakers from the fields of politics, culture, economics and religion. A little more fantasy is required in order to answer the question as to whether phi- losophers and cultural scientists from the two countries con- cerned should make their own contribution to this anniversary and should this be the case, what form it should assume. What I am about to suggest would serve better as a dry run for a philosophical commentary to the commemoration days which are approaching. A response as such, should in its final form, reconstruct the Franco-German rivalry which lasted a thou- sand years - from the division of the empire by Charlemagne's descendants until the disintegration of the Third Reich in the 20th century.
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2 Heiner Mu? hlmann's Maximal-Stress- Cooperation-Theory
It therefore follows that I can but only touch on a few points of this ambitious enterprise and then only fleetingly and tenta- tively. I will firstly confine the space of time of my considera- tions to the last 200 years, or to put it more precisely the era following the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars and then narrow this down to the epoch after 1945. The term post- war period applies eminently to both time spans and that they should be understood not only chronologically but more in re- gard to the mental and psychopolitical conditions of the times.
Now that my analysis is under way the time has come where I must elucidate more clearly what I understand by 'Post-war period'. The usage of this term prior to now implies that I see reasons to not only apply it in an everyday sense but to attach additional more discriminating meanings to the term. They will become apparent as soon as we transfer the term into the con- text of a general theory on the 'Nature of Cultures'. The phrase 'Nature of Cultures' stems from the cultural theorist Heiner Mu? hlmann who with his book of the same name in the year 1996 caused a stir firstly in system-theoretical, polemological, mediological and neurorhetorical circles. Mu? hlmann's work is devoted to the extremely ambitious resolution namely to pen- etrate the interrelationships between war and culture in the light of a generalized model of collective formations generated by stress. This undertaking, which in its descriptive part could also bear the title The Selfish Culture, is initially illustrated by examples stemming from ancient European history, starting with the Greek phalanx and to reveal step by step its ethical im- plications - ending with the ambitious model of the 'civilizing impact' by cultures through reorientation of post-heroic values and to an aesthetics of renouncement.
12
At the centre of the new culture dynamic explanatory model was a theory of stressory processes as discussed by circles as- sociated with Bazon Brock's Wuppertal school on the basis of the differentiation between eustressory and dysstressory phe- nomena introduced by Hans Seyle. Mu? hlmann's ingenious idea was to employ stress analysis to explain the possibility of social cohesion under maximum pressure. He succeeded in arriving at an extremely original vision in the spirit of eustressory co- operation of the birth of cultural groups resistant to conflict, transgenerational in nature and able to learn. This forms Mu? hl- mann's basic theory, which he succinctly calls the MSC-model, the abbreviation MSC stands for Maximal-Stress-Cooperation or eustressory fitness in successful groups. Accordingly, cul- tures are entities whose continuity is safeguarded horizontally by means of MSC-viability and vertically through memoactive fitness procedures (vulgo the creation of tradition through ed- ucation). In everyday terms this says nothing more than that groups which attach importance to long term success must be able to master existential crises through performance involving a high degree of cooperation under maximum pressure (which normally means proving oneself in war against competing cul- tures) - at the same time they are also dependent on the ability to remain vigilant in respect to the results of their conflicts with other groups and especially to be able to take the consequences of defeat and to anchor them in the cultural memory. Here one perceives by means of system theoretical alienation a modern echo of the Platonian allegory pertaining to weaving which claims that the arts of state and the arts of kingship consist of plaiting the heroic andreia and moral self-control sophrosyne into the fabric of the polity so as to render it resilient. 1
Politiko? s, 306a-311c. 13
? After what has been said, it should now be apparent why, within the scope of such a theory, such significance is attached to the post-war period of all things for moderating and controlling cul- tural units. At the end of bellicose conflicts - Mu? hlmann speaks of post-stressor phases of relaxation and introspection by the combatants in the wake of stress - the victors and also the van- quished inevitably must evaluate their own cultural assump- tions in the light of recent combat. This means that the victors generally construe their own positive result as a reinforcing sig- nal and feel their decorum confirmed, whereas the vanquished, as long as they do not seek refuge in renouncement, resentment and the excuses associated with these, feel prompted to ascer- tain the causes of their failure. This can lead to revolutionary change in the decorum of one's own culture i. e. the embodiment of locally defined norms and ways of life, if and inasmuch that the losers introspection arrives at the conclusion that the roots of their defeat not only are to be found in the strength of their opponent, but is also due to their own weakness and failure to adapt to the situation and in the most serious cases their own hubris and distorted picture of the world. Processes of this kind either give way to reform, thanks to moral, cognitive and techni- cal rearmament assume form (as is blatantly obvious in the case of Prussian reforms after the defeat of 1806 in Jena). Or one makes the decision in the phase of post-stressor contemplation to team up with the victorious culture in a peaceful alliance of a higher level - as practised by the Germans after 1945 as they decided to proclaim "Westintegration" as their the maxim. For the willingness to convert cultural rules diagnosed as detrimen- tal into less noxious patterns, I use the term metanoia. In this context it does not mean Christian repentance as such, but the embracing of new thought for the betterment of the viability of one's civilisation.
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3 Europe after Napoleon
These intimations will suffice, I hope, to make clear why from a cultural theoretical point of view an analysis of 'Franco-Ger- man relations', with the interactions of the two cultures whether this be in their changeful history of wars or also their just as changeful consolidatory phase in psychopolitical processes should be of such importance in recent times.
If we now look at the potent time span from 1806 to 1945, which is for our theme of the greatest priority, we are confronted by an entire sequence of entangled but yet culturally produc- tive post-war periods, (although this productivity had primarily pathological roots). In his recent book Rene? Girard has pro- vided important stimuli in understanding the mimetic proc- esses of exchange in the Franco-German duel and its extremist dynamic - I will return to this later. Suffice it to say I can only but broadly outline the agenda in such an enterprise as this. We will content ourselves with the fact that it was Napoleon's appearance that marked a fateful turning point in the relations between the two countries. The abundant consequences of his interventions were literally incalculable for the course of Ger- man affairs - and would possibly still be if it had not been for Germany's and France's rapprochement and reconciliation under the two previously mentioned statesmen which finally unshackled the two countries from this fatal state of affairs. For it is Napoleon, from a German standpoint, who was not only the liquidator of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, not only the man whose military genius defeated Austria and Russia in the Battle of Austerlitz of 1805, not only the victor of Jena and Auerstedt in 1806 - in short not only the 'war god', as according to Clausewitz, through whose intensity France, torn apart by the revolution, succeeded in transforming the transi- tion from monarchy to republic from an internal to an external
15
affair and moreover to a global messianic campaign for the dis- semination of French principles in the form of launching a glo- bal war of conquest. Through this, his impact became so great, that he created the epoch making archetype of political genius which due to his brilliant successes fatally sowed the seeds of resentment and imitatory rivalry fed by love and hate, and this in all the European countries he had attacked from the Atlantic to the Urals.
If one wishes to attach full meaning to the term 'post-war period' in regard to the entire European development after 1815 then there is no avoiding the fact that the chain of reactions triggered off by French attacks, despite the influence regional diversity, spanned more than 150 years, was most effective in the anti- liberal and anti-modern currents in Germany which lasted until Hitler's suicide in the spring of 1945, and in Spain where the blockade against political and cultural modernity continued until Franco's death in 1975. It should also be pointed out in reference to the 'post-war period' that Napoleon's image as role model or bogeyman in the art, in the philosophy and the politics of Europe remained virulent for over a century. From a clinical point of view too, it was not until the second half of the 20th century that the number of patients who considered themselves to be Napoleon began to steadily drop at least in asylums. The way in which the Corsican continued to make his presence felt on the scene is called to account by Andre? Glucksmann in a chapter of his political autobiography which he titled not with- out a touch of bitter humour "A nous deux, Napole? on! ". Here we learn what price had to be paid but until recently before a French adolescent was healed of the disease of 'Napoleonitis' - including homeopathic treatment employing Maoism. 2 Histo- rians of political ideas have quite rightly pointed out the fact
Andre? Glucksmann: Une rage d'enfant, Plon 2006, p. 104-127
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that reviewing the Napoleon shock in the European countries most effected, led to the separation of nationalistic tendencies from the liberal modernistic currents. This modernising pathol- ogy typical of large parts of the 19th and early 20th centuries is due to an immediately transparent but nonetheless irresistible psychopolitical mechanism which was to play an especially im- portant role for the Germans in their catastrophe dictated by the resentments of having been vanquished. Incidentally the outcome of this first European experiment in nation building under French leadership leads one to fear that the results for enterprises along the same lines in our own times will be simi- larly poor.
17
4 Italy 1918: Falsifications of the results of war, politics in a big way
At this point I do not wish to restrict my focus to the post-war periods of the 20th century. And it is here that attention will be paid to German and French developments which took place af- ter 1945 and their possible correlation. In order to illustrate the conceptual framework of this examination which is becoming more concrete, it will be essential to introduce an analytical in- termezzo dealing with certain anomalies of consequence in the post-war period starting in 1918 so that the processes are co- herent. We will focus our attention on Italy because it is the key to understanding further considerations, and it is here that the concept of 'war result falsification' first materializes clearly. In connection with Mu? hlmann's model of post-stressory decorum- revision we have already mentioned that the rule is that after battles fought a culture gets the opportunity to re-evaluate and possibly revise its basic normative attitudes, one could also say its moral grammar, in the light of the results of the combat. The benchmarks for this examination are called affirmation in the case of victory and metanoia in the case of defeat.
Now we should remember that in 1918 the Italians found them- selves in a position where neither of these two alternatives was applicable. As is generally known the Italians withdrew from the alliance of 1882 with Germany and Austria-Hungary (the so-called Triple Alliance) in August 1914 thus signalling their having become ambivalently neutral. Sometime later as a result of the secret treaty of London (which promised Italy in the event of victory considerable territorial gains) it defected to the Al- lied camp by declaring war on Austria-Hungary at the end of May 1915. But despite many heroic sacrifices victory was not to be for the Italians. Only thanks to massive allied assistance was it possible that Italy, although it was completely finished
18
militarily and on the verge of political collapse (especially after the disastrous defeat in the 12th Battle of the Isonzo near Tol- mein in October 1917), found itself on the winning side at the end of the war.
The ambiguity of this position accounts for the troubles of post- war history in Italy. One spoke of vittoria mutilata when one should have termed it a defeat which had turned into a coun- terfeit victory. This explains why Italy was only in a position to achieve a semi-metanoia. The first signs of this manifested themselves in the initial successes of the Socialists in 1919 and 1920 in which a newly emerged ultra-nationalist party called for an immediate heroic affirmation and shortly afterwards es- tablished itself along these lines - Mussolini winning nothing less than 66% of the votes in the elections in January 1924.
Out of this situation, which fed the most vehement forms of dis- clamatory affirmation, emerged the movement of pure activism, mobilization for its own sake, which went down in history under the name of Fascism. Among the countless enquiries devoted to this subject there is hardly one which befittingly sheds light on the basic fact that primary Fascism was the result of a falsification of the actual outcome of the war in which the real or virtual loser presented himself as victor nevertheless, or better still as hyper- victor. It wished to indulge in the illusion that it could avoid the work involved in reviewing its cultural decorum and substitute it by reinforcing the pattern which had led to failure. In general terms this merely proves that of all people, it was those who had most reason for a metanoic turnaround contrary to the rules that had applied up till that time, who often most furiously plunged into the affirmation of values which had all but propelled them into total disaster. There is no need to demonstrate in detail that this also applied to the extreme German rightwing of the Weimar Republic. In Germany the falsification of the results of the war
19
had begun shortly after November 1918 with the infamous 'stab in the back' of the supposedly undefeated army and as of 1933 displayed the well-known consequences.
In the light of these considerations, Fascism in its original form appears not only as the much discussed transfer of modern war- fare to the modus operandi of the entire culture and eo ipso as the neutralization of the difference between war and peace un- der the prefix of permanent mobilization, but moreover its psy- chopolitical form betrays its wilful falsification of the outcome of war and rejection of metanoia. Its distinguishing marks are the triumphalism of the loser and the forced affirmation of the heroistic code by those, who in view of their recently acquired experience, would have been better advised to radically review their relationship to the set of rules of the heroic life.
20
5 France 1945: The double falsification
At this point of my discussion I can leave the stage of preview- ing and explication of theoretical premises and turn to the sub- ject matter proper, the comparative examination of the Franco- German post-war periods as of 1945. What immediately strikes us is the similarity of the French position after 1945 with the Italian position of 1918. Just as the Allies erected a last front for the Italians as of November 1917 who were then able to stay the course until the German surrender, so did the Allies bear the brunt of the war for the French until the unforgettable day of libe? ration in August 1944 on which de Gaulle, at the head of his own improvised forces, returned to Paris. The decisive difference lies in the fact that the defeat of the French in 1940 turned out to be much more unequivocal than that of Italy in 1917 in that the French ranks (who were absent only in Yalta) were much more conspicuous under the allied powers than the Italians at the end of the 1st World War. It is well known that the latter were only conceded a subordinate role in the peace treaties of 1919. Above all one is astonished at the analogy between the Italian and the French dilemmas as soon as they find their basis in the above-mentioned model of post-stress self-evaluation. In both cases we can see that after being given victory there is an oscillating between metanoethical and af- firmative tendencies, an oscillation which finally is neutralized in order to initiate a more or less comprehensive falsification of the results of the war.
All the same one can say that the French, while reviewing the shadows of stress after 1945 despite all tendencies to reverse the facts, against all the odds, were lucky, because in the end their form of national reconstruction 'only' led to Gaullism. The trivial phrase "de Gaulle was not Mussolini" assumes formi- dable meaning in this context. It marks, despite all the simi-
21
larities, the considerable gap between the post-war reactions of these peoples. While the Italians with their near defeat made things much worse by taking flight by marching forwards, the French, after the indecisive and ambivalent interlude of the Fourth Republic, chose the lesser of two evils, the Gaullistic therapy. Furthermore the French interpretation of the defeat of 1940 which miraculously led to victory in 1945 was deeply di- vided right from the beginning. Running parallel to the Gaullist evasion in the national affirmation the French left-wing devel- oped a second front of falsification according to which the 'bet- ter' France or the France of the re? sistance, we may now, evoke German analogies, was supposed to have won the war on the side of Stalin and the Red Army.
Only within the framework of such a theory of the post war pe- riod is it possible to grasp that the much cited division of the overpolarized political camps, that hermeneutic gallic war be- tween the French post-war right-wing and the French post-war left-wing, was in reality the conflict between two incompatible strategies the purpose of which in both cases was to falsify the results of the war.
At this point it is not necessary to expound in detail how the Gaullist departure into neo-grandeur took place. Nor does a mention have to be made of the beginnings of an authentic French metanoia which miscarried during the Fourth Republic mainly due the humiliations the nation suffered in the conflicts in Indochina and North Africa at time of decolonialization. It will have to suffice to point out the main symptom of the French reaction: As de Gaulle returned a second time as a knight in shining armour to the pinnacle of power he dictated the con- stitution of the Fifth Republic which is still valid today and whose strong presidential fixation was to prove a problem for the country itself and for the rest of Europe. The elevation of
22
the presidency only makes sense if one suspects the Elyse? e of wanting to be a sort of European White House, or to use exam- ples closer to home, something somewhere between Versailles and Bayreuth. The fantasy had been prevalent in the Elyse? e Palace for some decades as Parisian students suddenly got it into their heads that their fantasy should replace the prevalent one in a turbulent month of May. The President's command of France's newly acquired nuclear weaponry (the Force de dis- suasion nucle? aire fully operational since 1964) utterly embod- ies the form of expression which has come to a head of a post- stressor strategy of affirmation, or to use clinical terminology a contraphobic compensation.
De Gaulle never wanted to be a Gaullist and it would be unjust to simply deny that the General's work had certain metanoethi- cal qualities - the scene in Reims mentioned at the beginning alone speaks against a one-sided affirmationistic interpreta- tion. Moreover the fact that terms such as de? tente, entente and coope? ration increasingly appeared in his vocabulary empha- sized like leitmotivs, reveal how he was trying to show the con- servative elements in France the way to reviewing their colo- nial, imperial and heroistic legacy. One of his greatest achieve- ments will always be his reconciling of the old right-wing with modern republicanism.
The more interesting as far as the history of ideas are con- cerned, and in terms of ideology much more alluring form of falsification of results of war took place however on a different side of the inner French front. While the Gaullist departure into semi-imperial affirmation succeeded in getting by with stand- ard emotions and basic processes of accentuation of a national identity, i. e. patriotic enlargement of the self and modernising their weaponry, an ideological and psychopolitical transforma- tion occurred in the left wing which was to have unforeseeable
23
consequences. It was here that as of 1944 a singular form of pseudo-metanoethical literature developed the critical reflec- tion of which has still hardly begun. 3 It simultaneously trig- gered off a large importation of German philosophers such as Hegel and Heidegger or Marx, Nietzsche and Carl Schmitt. This occurred as if to illustrate the observation put forth by cul- tural theoreticians that romanticism flourishes if, in the realm of ideas, a compensation for political defeat is on the agenda.
The main approach of the Left in falsifying war results was not, as was the case of the Right in escaping into the national tradi- tion of greatness, but an escape into socialist super-greatness. This naturally had the grave error that its representative on the world stage in that critical time bore the name of Stalin. Strangely enough this detail hardly seemed to trouble anybody as long as the French left-wing, thanks to this manoeuvre, not only could save its injured conscience but also could construe a victory of its own - simply as if it were possible to reattribute the successes of the Red Army to the left-wing resistance. And by means of this, one was free to pseudo-metanoethically deal with the failure of the Third Republic, with the infamy of col- laboration and French colonialism not to mention the internal contradictions of Gaullist reconstruction without ever having to come down from the victor's high horse. As a result a rhe- torical apparatus for the articulation of triumphal self-hate and hypermoralistic aggression against national and bourgeois tra- ditions came into being which lent itself well for use at home and abroad.
In the second nucleus of victory falsification a culturally he- genomous scene speedily consolidated and raised the banner
Cf. Tony Judt: Past Imperfect. French Intellectuals 1944-1956, Berkeley Los Ange- les Oxford 1992
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of militantism thus managing to make the word 'commitment' a synonym for French intellectualism throughout the world. By these means every form of collaboration was to be severely criticized in future including collaboration with the elemen- tary facts. This battling church of belated resistance grasped how to promote itself for the general criticism of the bourgeois society and neo-capitalistic age by blending Marxism, semiol- ogy and psychoanalysis into a suggestive amalgam. The export successes of French theoretical literature which continued on into the 90's relied above all on their polemical utility value for analogous critical subcultures of the countries importing it, notably Italy and Germany. In the USA it was made especially welcome as the young intelligentsia of the country were, after the debacle in Vietnam, suddenly willing to learn a foreign lan- guage in order to radically and critically talk about their own culture. Even today the remains of this product under the cat- egories of French Theory or Critical Theory can be acquired in bookshops on American campuses.
In these shelves, and only in these shelves by the way, has the only phenomenon occurred which perhaps deserves to be termed a Franco-German relationship - that is the convergence of all those discursive machines purporting to explain every- thing, which were to be found on both sides of the Rhine in sug- gestive elaboration and with which young people were taught until recently to see through and to condemn the existing con- ditions as if they themselves did not have a part in them. Since however, the analogous discourse in German criticism of itself and the world after 1945 arose in an entirely different context and operated in entirely different climate than the French one, then even this seemingly close affinity must be considered to be a misunderstanding.
25
What distinguishes French from German criticism is their en- tirely different types of cultural integration and consequently their diametrically opposed tendency as to policies of the truth. While German criticism speaks to a population which, de- spite their reluctance, was not able to deny being guilty of the charges, French criticism was directed at a society acquitted, and in need of elucidation as to their dro^le de libe? ration. This may well be the reason why the intellectual Germany is the only place in the world where an old-fashioned correspondence theory of truth still dominates. Here defeat is called defeat (and a crime a crime) - and the remaining words are also gauged to this semantic primal scale. It is only here that the religion of the objective referee holds sway. The intellectual France prefers the politically more elegant and rhetorically more attractive po- sition where words and things belong to separate systems.
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6 Germany 1945: Metanoia
It goes without saying that the German population had plenty work to do after 1945 which was generally termed the 'Wied- eraufbau' (rebuilding the nation). The priorities for rebuilding the nation were something they had in common with their de- feated and yet liberated French neighbours even though this assumed an entirely different manner. In its German connota- tion the word of course particularly signifies the material aspect of dealing with the damage done by the war which was evident enough after the bombardment by allied forces. Furthermore, it signified the sum of the efforts which the Germans subjected themselves to in order to recover morally and culturally. Cer- tainly Adenauer was not de Gaulle - yet another trivial sentence with formidable implifications. The name of the first German chancellor stands for national reconstruction with very little in common with the affirmative arts of Gaullism. He symbolizes the pragmatic and everyday side of the metanoethical work in Germany. In the course of its unwavering progress the Wied- eraufbau combined the reconstruction of the towns and cities with a political and moral reorientation. The German economic boom as it was subsequently named, acted as an economic con- firmation of the course that had been taken to bring about the metamorphosis.
In order to plot the graph showing the progress of this self- reconstruction it will suffice to recall the admission of guilt by all German Protestant Christians in Stuttgart on 19th October 1945 which can be legitimately termed the beginning of spir- itual history in what was to become the Federal Republic of Germany. Further points along the curve mark, apart from the treaty of reparation with Israel in 1952, were the scene of 12th July in 1962 in Reims and Willy Brandt kneeling at the memo- rial in the Warsaw ghetto on 7th December 1970. The inaugu-
27
ration of Berlin's memorial to the Jews killed in Europe, the subject of many years of discussion, on 10th May 2005 forms a contemporary cornerstone of this evolution. 4
From the point of view of the theory of post-stressor decorum reviews in post-war periods it can be easily seen that the above- mentioned events all lie on the same line. They may all be at- tributed to the same process which at no time was uncompli- cated, but at no time threatened by a reversal of the metanoeth- ical tranformation process of the vanquished German people. Seen from today's standpoint one may justifiably claim that it formed the most reliable of constants in the history of ideas and mentality of Europeans after 1945. Only if we look at the process as a whole can we comprehend how it was possible for Germany to rearm itself without this involving a general remili- tarisation of politics, and how social and cultural rebuilding could occur without any connection worth mentioning to nos- talgia for antidemocratic traditions, and how there was a boost- ing of efficiency nationwide without re-germanification, and a West German economic boom without submitting to imperialist temptations, and a national recovery without opinionatedness. Nobody will deny that political and cultural life in Germany did not have to face some hard tests during this period. In the notorious 'bleak period' (die bleierne Zeit), the suffocating at- mosphere of which those who experienced it recall with the greatest uneasiness, the silence reigned long concerning what had happened. As the silence was finally broken the pendu- lum suddenly veered in the other direction. Therefore hybrid forms of hate also flourished against their own kind. Here also, outraged later generations exploited their interest in achieving
The fifteen-year debate is well-documented in the book Der Denkmalstreit - das Denkmal? Die Debatte um das ,Denkmal fu? r die ermordeten Juden in Europa' (Ute Heimrod, Gu? nter Schlusche, Horst Seferens (eds. ), Philo Verlagsgesellschaft, Dres- den 1999.
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rapid superiority over the older generations with their complex life stories, and here also as on the other side of the Rhine ap- peared pseudopolitical 'Maitre Penseur' to boot, who treated the distinction between a totalitarian state of the past and a democratic state of the present like something of negligible significance - so that one had the impression of seeing reve- nants from the NS period everywhere when it would have been enough to observe unpractised democrats learning their roles. Here too there were as was the case in France, a heinous repu- diatory hardening on the right-wing and self-righteous pseudo- metanoethical excesses on the left-wing. One almost antici- pated a restaging of left-wing fascism which for the purposes of sidetracking called itself anti-fascism and just like its role model advocated the use of weapons - which is why in the style of Lenin it claimed the right to kill self-proclaimed enemies of the people for the better good. Nevertheless, these eruptions were not able to bring the German post-war process decisively off its basic course. It remained unperturbedly orientated to its task and that was to re-evaluate and review the German deco- rum handed down complete with its gloomily romantic, hero- istic and resentful hereditary burden in the light of the results of the war and, moreover in the light of the catastrophe in which they had been complicit.
29
7 France 2007: Imperial temptation and the implosion of the left-wing
In front of the backdrop of these observations on French and German post-war periods and the differences which have thus come to light during the cultural evaluation and integration of results of war, I would like to now pursue the question as if one had to give a speech based on the cultural political aspects of both countries. To begin with the case of France, one thing would be appear to be clear especially in the light of 2007, and that is that the Gallic war for the political and ideological appropriation of the Libe? ration has been decided in the mean- time. The result lies on the borderline of average psychopoliti- cal plausibilities. With increasing remoteness from the critical events a post-Gaullist moderate left wing has established itself on the broadest of fronts, which no one wishes to call middle- class simply because nobody is really certain what the word 'middle-class' means under today's conditions. The unusually compact centre-right currents in France at present cater for the everyday political Narcissm as a matter of routine and at a safe distance from the dramatic tension of the first post-war period. It is this Narcissm which supplies the material from which pa- triotism is created in non-neurotic peoples.
The rest of Europe including Germany could live with that if it were not for the fact that France's Gaullist structural heritage has developed a life of its own which is by no means harm- less. This ranges from the scantily veiled unilateralism of the French nuclear doctrine, to the anti-European tendencies of France's sovereignism and on to the sub-imperialistic antics of the French army in Africa and overseas. 5 However the most
Which will be compensated for by President Sarkozy's announcement of France's return to NATO
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dubious is the hysterogenous potential growing out of the liai- son between presidentialism and media populism, a potential with which de Gaulle as a political Nietzschean and illusionist reverted to with great virtuosity in serving the whole. Even with its worn down profile the genetic material of Gaullism poses a volatile risk for Europe. And members of the European Union will be well advised to observe closely the Sarkozy experiment which the French chose in May 2007. After the new president was forced to realize that a Cecilia Ciganer cannot be a sec- ond Jacky Kennedy the next lesson for him would be, despite suggestions to the contrary, that there is definitely no room in Europe for a White House. If he really wants to show generosity of spirit and make a big impact by remodelling France in a con- temporary manner he could, by introducing the much overdue post-Gaullist constitution and thus becoming the first man of the sixth republic to make the headlines.
The clear outcome of the neo-gallic war over the interpretation of Libe? ration contains a historically ideological and remarkable characteristic. Numerous observers have recently unanimously come to the conclusion that the previously high-profile French left-wing has after a prolonged weak phase, beginning in Mit- te? rand's last years if not earlier, sunk into oblivion within a very short time. This process which was to recently become apparent by the number of ballot boxes, is accompanied by an intellectual erosion which beggars all description. Even the in- terpretation of the above by those concerned leaves a lot to be desired, (there has been for some time talk of the demise of la Grande Nation as if France had happened to collide with an iceberg one cold night) but this heavy-handedness comes as no surprise in view of its record. All the same the new theoretical nonentity of the left camp in France and its far-reaching practi- cal disintegration represents a serious brainteaser for histori- ans of mentality and ideas.
31
With reference to what was mentioned above we now have a plausible explanation why the implosion of the left-wing in France should not be entirely attributed to local appropriation of the neo-capitalist and postpolitical Zeitgeist which has been impressing every Western nation for well over twenty years. The question with this phenomenon has much more to do with the final collapse of the pseudo-metanoethical system with which the French left-wing understood how to create falsified victo- ries and phantomatic sovereignty in the troubled area of post- war affects and post-war discourse. They continued to defend these achievements for decades without taking contexts into account - well over the best-before-date for illusions. In the meantime however, they too have been overtaken by the change in affairs. The disruption of French discoursal culture becomes apparent simply by the fact that the country's left-wing has for many years failed to produce a book of any merit not to men- tion new perspectives. What was left was only the romantic po- lemical stance which allows it adepts to swear by militancy and deviation as in the good old days. The intellectual decomposi- tion has been most evident during recent years in the media driven witchhunts sweeping the nation against alleged converts or traitors of the progressive cause who one tried to sacrifice to public opinion after pseudo-moralistic propaganda trials on the Place de Gre`ve. For the external observer these attacks were against the new reactionaries as they are derisively called or more recently the conservateurs, unmistakable evidence that the French left-wing having stooped to resorting to helpless and hysterical progressivism has been standing in the rain for a long time and whose day is only brightened by the occasional flash in the pan. The analogy to the German phenomena of scandal of the last fifteen years is obvious - for here in Germany too, the dominant leftist liberal feuilleton was only able to compensate for its ever increasing disassociation from the workings of the world by getting overexcited and moralising. In this connection
32
the number of votes by the Left in the referendum against the European Constitution was symptomatic.
Following defeat in battle every culture receives the opportu- nity to re-evaluate its normative basic attitudes or as Sloterdijk puts it 'its moral grammar'. Procedures of this kind either end in a process assuming energies of revenge or the decision is made to transform the cultural rules ascertained as detrimental to behavioural patterns of a less harmful form. Is there such a thing as a civilizing influence of cultures by reorientation which brings about post-heroic values? Peter Sloterdijk uses the term 'metanoia' to describe this process. He does not mean by this Christian repentance but pragmatic relearning in order to in- crease civilisational viability (see p. 14). Sloterdijk calls the victor's post-stressory work of evaluation 'affirmation'.
In his, in reference to 'metanoia' and 'affirmation', exemplary "excursion into the jubilee culture" of Franco-German rela- tions Sloterdijk awards the Germans a "process which at no time complicated but also at no time threatened the metanoeth- ical tranformation process of the vanquished German people", which in its extreme forms consisted of triumphant self-hate and aggression towards each and every national tradition. This is reflected in the biographies of many Germans. In my case it was the same as in many other families, quarrels arose as to guilt and responsibility.
While German criticism spoke to a population which despite all antagonistic tendencies could not deny being guilty of the accusations made, French criticism was directed at a society acquitted and in need of elucidation as to their dro^le de libe? ra- tion. "This may well be the reason why the intellectual Ger-
1
many is the only place in the world where an old-fashioned correspondence theory of truth still dominates. Here defeat is called defeat (and a crime a crime) - and the remaining words are also gauged to this semantic primal scale. It is only here that the religion of the objective referee holds sway. The intel- lectual France prefers the politically more elegant and rhetori- cally more attractive position where words and things belong to separate systems. " (see p. 26).
Despite disparate post-war processes, in Germany 'metanoia' and in France 'affirmation' of the imaginary victor, both na- tions have come a long way together. It is a common belief that nothing will work in Europe unless France and Germany are in agreement. Franco-German relations, Franco-German affairs, Franco-German friendship: What next? The Franco-German methods of dealing with each other are often described as be- ing exemplary; it has almost become a legend. Peter Sloterdijk calls this legend into question by turning the political credo upside down.
He talks about Franco-German relations, regardless of the fact that "there is nothing new that can be said on this theme which could not come from audiotape" (see p. 10), Sloterdijk offers a preliminary rehearsal for philosophical commentary on the Franco-German day of commemoration taking place on 8th July 2012 marking the fiftieth anniversary of Charles de Gaulle and Konrad Adenauer attending the historical service of reconcilia- tion in the coronation cathedral in Reims. He calls the arrange- ment made by the French President and the German Chancel- lor "the healing disentanglement of the two nations" (see p. 45) According to Sloterdijk this represented the termination of a fatally closeknit relationship which reached back to the era of the Napoleonic wars at least. For a long time the Germans and the French had become caught up in an endless cycle of mim-
2
icry, imitation, one-upmanship and projective empathy with each other. What de Gaulle and Adenauer pledged each other was an everlasting non-attachment and in some ways even a permanent state of indifference. The good relationship, or at least functional relationship, which has existed since then rest on the solid foundations of the non-attachment which has been finally achieved - diplomatically described as friendship be- tween the two nations.
The post-war period began with a French policy of occupation, which was strongly characterized by 'improvisation'1. Neverthe- less in the spirit of 'affirmation' the objective was unanimously clear: to restore France to its former national greatness. Only as a late occupying power was France able to participate in the post-war policies concerning Germany by means of the conces- sions made by the other allies - or as Sloterdijk puts it "the re-interpretation of the results of the war". France was certainly not in a position to prepare for this role in advance. However, there had been considerations on the side of the French in the resistance groups in Algier and London before the end of the war in reference to a re-educational programme for Germany emanating from France2.
Right from the very beginning the French policy of occupa- tion was typified by a comprehensive cultural policy, partly as an aspect of the security policy and partly as a demonstration of France's cultural superiority in comparison with the other
Cheval, Rene? : ? Die Bildungspolitik in der Franzo? sischen Besatzungszone" in: Hein- emann, Manfred (Hg. ): Umerziehung und Wiederaufbau. Die Bildungspolitik der Be- satzungsma? chte in Deutschland und O? sterreich, Stuttgart 1981, p. 190-200, here p. 190
Gerard, Francis: Que faire de l'Allemagne? Algier 1943, see Ruge-Schatz: ? Grund- probleme der Kulturpolitik in der franzo? sischen Besatzungszone" in: Scharf, Claus und Schro? der, H. -J. (Hgs. ): Die Deutschlandpolitik Frankreichs und die Franzo? sische Zone 1945-1949, Wiesbaden 1983, p. 91-110
? 3
Allies. This so-called 'Machtersatzpolitik'3 which arose from intellectual-cultural Messianism had well-established roots in France. Among these were the Roman legacy, the influence of the Catholic church with its universal pretensions and the very early formation of a powerful central state drawing on the Cath- olic religion for support4. In addition the French Revolution supplied the values of democracy, liberty and progress. They made the civilisatory consciousness the business of an entire people. The Federal Republic of Germany seemed to France to be a "land in need of cultural missionary work"5. Eighteen French cultural institutes were created in the first ten years after the end of the war in Germany, considerably more than in any other western European country. The Germans on their part were, in the spirit of 'metanoethical' re-orientation, ini- tially very interested in the French cultural imports.
The scale on which this re-orientation and 'self-discovery' in the framework of rebuilding the nation progressed meant that the Germans began to develop a new self-assurance. They also became more confident and independent in their Franco-Ger- man initiatives in communication - and a kind of de-fascina- tion emerged. Those actively shaping the Franco-German cul- tural exchange observed an increasing disinterest in France in general and especially in contemporary French art and culture. Many Germans cling to a specific image of French culture "as if
Clemens, Gabriele: ? Die britische Kulturpolitik in Deutschland: Musik, Theater, Film und Literatur" in: Clemens, Gabriele (Hg. ): Die Kulturpolitik im besetzten Deut- schland, Stuttgart 1994, p. 200-218, here p. 203
Salon, Albert: L'Action culturelle de la France dans le monde, Paris 1983, p. 31 ff
see Hammer (1957): ? Gemeinsamer Markt des Geistes" in: Echo der Zeit 1954, quoted from: Mo? ller, Horst und Hildebrand, Klaus (Hg. ), Die Bundesrepublik Deut- schland und Frankreich: Dokumente 1949-1963, Bd. 3: Parteien, O? ffentlichkeit,
Kultur, Mu? nchen 1997, Dok. -Nr. 339, S. 895-898, here p. 896
? 4
the German idea of French culture has simply just stood still. "6 This stagnation is confirmed in the statistics on the atrophy in Franco-German communication skills. While 1950 in a survey in Allensbach 15% of Germans claimed to be able to 'read' a text written in French, in 1997 it was 16% according to a survey in the Spiegel. Current studies assume similar results. In France the situation is no different. Since the end of the war German's status as the first foreign language has dropped from 30% to 10% and as a second foreign language French was over- taken by Spanish long ago. In his speech to the French National Assembly on 30th November 1999 Gerhard Schro? der reassured the French people that "French culture and civilisation enjoy an elevated and lasting status in Germany". Ingo Kolbohm7 ex- posed this speech as a stereotype and says: "If the Chancellor wishes to be courteous in his statements this is all very well and good, but if this is supposed to reflect the actual facts of the case then he must be contradicted. "
With normalisation as 'euphemism of estrangement' Sloterdijk applies an apparent paradox: The pragmatic way in a benevo- lent and non-violent co-existence by means of mutual disinterest and defascination. "Do it the same way that we did, don't be too interested in each other! " This could be the message that people of Germany and France have the rest of the world to offer.
Fixed rituals are no longer adequate to justify the specialness of the Franco-German relationship. They no longer suffice to en- vigorate this relationship and to capture the interest of present
Mehdorn, Margarete, 1995-2007 president of the "Deutsch-Franzo? sischen Gesells- chaft Schleswig-Holstein e. V. ", since 2005 member of the board of directors of the "Vereinigung Deutsch-Franzo? sischer Gesellschaften in Deutschland und Frankre- ich, VDFG/FAFA"
Kolbohm, Ingo: ? Pla? doyer fu? r eine neue deutsch-franzo? sische Na? he: Wider die ? Normalisierung" als Diskurs der Entfremdung". In: Dokumente. Zeitschrift fu? r den deutsch-franzo? sischen Dialog, Heft 3, Juni 2000, p. 207-214
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generations. This is because the functioning of the Franco- German mechanisms seems have been put into question by the fickelness and impusiveness of the new French President. The new normality will certainly require a bit more than just stag- ing some event on 8th July 2012 where we can expect to hear further speeches "from audiotape". Peter Sloterdijk's assump- tions could prove to be a valuable contribution to this process of re-orientation.
Despite all the attention to detail and interest in the intellectual highlights the brilliant philosopher does not lose sight of the triangular relationships which transcend the bipolar Franco- German system. And he does not lose sight of global influences either, for somewhere in the world there is always a post-war period - there should be a theory of post-war periods. And hardly a conflict in the world remains unnoticed. Sloterdijk quite rightly points out that great affective military mobilisa- tions of recent decades could only be implemented by the mass media in the form of coverage and sensationalism - and that these media, as a "vehicle of the dangerous mimesis" are today even more effective than before (see p. 48).
Sloterdijk refers to Herbert Marshall McLuhan (1911-1980)8 and postulates: Anybody wishing to get to the bottom of ex- tremism gone global cannot avoid combining the mimetological analysis with the mediological. The medium is the news - the terror is news and medium at the same time. Terrorism in a media driven society turns media into a plaything and into a tool and thus into potential abettor of terror. The terrorists are dependent on the media because they want to trigger off a psy- chological effect on the greatest number of people possible and
see Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung: ? McLuhan wird wiederentdeckt", 21. 02. 2007, Nr. 44, S. N 3 and Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung: ? Mosaiksteinchen", 19. 04. 2006, Nr. 91, S. N 3
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add authority to their demands. Seen analytically we are deal- ing with a functional symbiosis between media and terrorism9.
The media driven battle of the cultures which is taking place beyond the borders of the European peace became the new boundary long ago running through all Europe's territorial or- der. A new type of stress has arisen which is however fed to the majority of people from virtual space. Its tripping device a im- ages taken from executions and torture or pictures of destruc- tion of towers of power considered to symbolize hubris10.
The flow of stress-images will not run dry. The spread of 'max- imal-stress-cooperation' (MSC) against terror has been real- ity for a long time now. Its unfolding is undifferentiated and paranoid. It seeks and finds its enemies and turns Huntington's ? clash of civilisations" into self fulfilling prophecy.
Sloterdijk's Freiburg lecture, available here in the form of a book, is a milestone. He presents to the world a philosophy which is simultaneously German and French. At the same time he presents a new type of 'consulting philosophy'. A political rhetoric has been developed by means of a new kind of cultural theoretical approach which is capable of having lasting effects.
*
Prof Dr Klaus-Dieter Mu? ller, born 1951 in Neumu? nster, Ger- many, is honorary professor at the Film & Television Academy (HFF) "Konrad Wolf" and head of the IBF "Institut Berufsfor- schung und Unternehmensplanung Medien e. V. " in Potsdam- Babelsberg.
Weichert, Stephan A. : ? Der inszenierte Terrorist". In: cover-Medienmagazin, 3, 2002, p. 74-75
see Neverla, Irene in: Michael Beuthner u. a. : Bilder des Terrors - Terror der Bilder? , Ko? ln 2003, p. 158
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Theory of the Post-War Periods
Observations on Franco-German relations since 1945
1 Europe, post-historical
Ladies and Gentlemen,
If one were to attempt to summarize in one sentence the shift in consciousness of Europeans in the period after 1945 from a German point of view, then this would have to summarize the following facts. The inhabitants of this continent, exhausted by the excesses and the pressures of the era from 1914 to 1945, turned their backs on historical passion and developed a post- historical modus vivendi in its stead. By historical I understand ad hoc the unity resulting from the tragedy enacted and written, as well as the unity resulting from the epic both enacted and written. Conceived in this sense 'history' for Europeans is a discarded option. By entering the shadow of catastrophe they have decided against an existence in tragic and epic style. They have chosen a form of coexistence in which a civilising force re- places tragedy and negotiation replaces the epic. From another perspective one would say that Europeans have ceased to pre- pare for war and have become much more concerned with the economic situation and having renounced the gods of warfare converted from heroism to consumerism.
It becomes apparent with this very abstract assumption, as in the appearance of the words 'post-war periods' of the title, that there is a shift in the meaning as compared to its everyday usage. Indeed, I would like to emphasize and demonstrate the function of the post-war period for the self-regulation of cultures and, on what scale the interpretation of the outcome of wars, by those
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waging them, becomes a decisive factor for the way in which they conceive themselves. What must above all be emphasized, is the extent to which the victors and those defeated by them tend to attach importance to the fact of their being victorious or being defeated and, how this influences their languages and ways of life subsequently. In the case of this observation the somewhat generalized initial assumptions will disintegrate in more specific information on local post-war cultures. Then, it will be possible to focus clearly on German and French phenomena and then to discuss the so-called relationship existing between them, if such a thing exists - I am already giving a hint as to what my final the- sis is, and it is: that, due to strongly disparate post-war processes characterising these two countries, there can be no relations be- tween them and that their relationship which is officially set out in a treaty of friendship is, at best, what could be described as benevolent mutual disregard or benign estrangement as can be observed sometimes between two former partners in love - and why not also then between two former partners in hate.
Among the traits of the post-tragic and post-epic ways of life which the Europeans have adopted nolens volens, is the wide- spread sentiment of living in a disassociated reality in which there are no incidents of any consequence. The only exception is the sequence of political events between 1989 and 1991, which in retrospect, could be titled 'The collapse of Communism' - yet even this eventful period which is deeply engraved into the biog- raphies of those born between 1930 and 1975 was, to a certain degree, merely a late sequel to the tragic-epic period which we discarded. This final great event is like a letter, mailed at some time in history, which then got lost in the mail and finally reached the addressee at a much later date. One cannot help thinking of Sergei Krikalev who was at that time, 1990/1991, on the space station Mir and thus took off into outer space from the Soviet Un- ion and found himself in the new Russia when he landed again.
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As a form of compensation for the post-historic deprivation of events which can be assessed as one of the all in all positive, albeit difficult to understand, traits of the new modus vivendi, contemporary civilisation has produced a number of surrogates apparent on all levels which close the gulf between the differ- ences in higher civilization and mass culture. I will mention only two peculiarities of this tendency which are especially notice- able, firstly the omnipotence of the principle of staging contem- porary event culture, and secondly the replacement of events by commemorative events which has given rise to a flourishing jubilee industry - a haute cuisine where there are only warmed up leftovers. In order to avoid any misunderstandings I would like to add that these tendencies, including excrescences, are a part of the price which has to be paid for the emancipation from heroism and tragicism. But we pay it gladly if we consider what the historical alternatives used to look like.
I will now take the liberty of taking an excursion into the jubi- lee culture and will refer to a commemorative event which we on both sides of the Rhine are awaiting. Despite the fact that it still lies four and a half years away, but inasmuch as one feels a certain attraction for hazardous themes, and moreover that one enjoys browsing through the calendar for culture and the arts it will have become evident how it already casts a shadow, or at least the shadow of a shadow. If we speak of Franco-German relations, regardless of the fact that there is nothing new that can be said on this theme which could not come from audio- tape, then only because we are already able to think about what should be said at the approaching event instead of the previous event - and these things normally remain unsaid and relatively pressing. The 8th of July of the said year will commemorate the fiftieth anniversary of the day when Frenchmen and Germans, represented by their fully justifiably termed statesmen Charles de Gaulle and Konrad Adenauer attended a service of recon-
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ciliation in the coronation cathedral in Reims which antici- pated the signing of a treaty of friendship, the so-called Elyse? e Treaty of January 1963, which followed shortly afterwards. The solemn proceedings, which we will, when the appropriate time comes, re-enact with a contemporary cast, occurred under the highest symbolic auspices drawn from the traditions which we share. The Te Deum of Reims, commemorated in the presence of the Archbishop Franc? ois Marty, was carried out under the dais of longstanding Catholic universalism - which was used, for albeit a sentimental instant, in order to declare the chapter of historical excesses between our peoples, the era of infections and mobilisations and jealous murder and armed mass hysteria which crossed the Rhine in both directions, to be closed.
One can well imagine what the festivities in Reims, Paris, Ber- lin and other metropolises will be like around the time of the 8th July 2012. The protocol that the politicians will be required to carry out step by step will be prescribed to a T, leaving prac- tically no room for new gestures. Hardly any fantasy is required to envisage the speeches that we will have to hear given by both presidents and by other incumbent speakers from the fields of politics, culture, economics and religion. A little more fantasy is required in order to answer the question as to whether phi- losophers and cultural scientists from the two countries con- cerned should make their own contribution to this anniversary and should this be the case, what form it should assume. What I am about to suggest would serve better as a dry run for a philosophical commentary to the commemoration days which are approaching. A response as such, should in its final form, reconstruct the Franco-German rivalry which lasted a thou- sand years - from the division of the empire by Charlemagne's descendants until the disintegration of the Third Reich in the 20th century.
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2 Heiner Mu? hlmann's Maximal-Stress- Cooperation-Theory
It therefore follows that I can but only touch on a few points of this ambitious enterprise and then only fleetingly and tenta- tively. I will firstly confine the space of time of my considera- tions to the last 200 years, or to put it more precisely the era following the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars and then narrow this down to the epoch after 1945. The term post- war period applies eminently to both time spans and that they should be understood not only chronologically but more in re- gard to the mental and psychopolitical conditions of the times.
Now that my analysis is under way the time has come where I must elucidate more clearly what I understand by 'Post-war period'. The usage of this term prior to now implies that I see reasons to not only apply it in an everyday sense but to attach additional more discriminating meanings to the term. They will become apparent as soon as we transfer the term into the con- text of a general theory on the 'Nature of Cultures'. The phrase 'Nature of Cultures' stems from the cultural theorist Heiner Mu? hlmann who with his book of the same name in the year 1996 caused a stir firstly in system-theoretical, polemological, mediological and neurorhetorical circles. Mu? hlmann's work is devoted to the extremely ambitious resolution namely to pen- etrate the interrelationships between war and culture in the light of a generalized model of collective formations generated by stress. This undertaking, which in its descriptive part could also bear the title The Selfish Culture, is initially illustrated by examples stemming from ancient European history, starting with the Greek phalanx and to reveal step by step its ethical im- plications - ending with the ambitious model of the 'civilizing impact' by cultures through reorientation of post-heroic values and to an aesthetics of renouncement.
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At the centre of the new culture dynamic explanatory model was a theory of stressory processes as discussed by circles as- sociated with Bazon Brock's Wuppertal school on the basis of the differentiation between eustressory and dysstressory phe- nomena introduced by Hans Seyle. Mu? hlmann's ingenious idea was to employ stress analysis to explain the possibility of social cohesion under maximum pressure. He succeeded in arriving at an extremely original vision in the spirit of eustressory co- operation of the birth of cultural groups resistant to conflict, transgenerational in nature and able to learn. This forms Mu? hl- mann's basic theory, which he succinctly calls the MSC-model, the abbreviation MSC stands for Maximal-Stress-Cooperation or eustressory fitness in successful groups. Accordingly, cul- tures are entities whose continuity is safeguarded horizontally by means of MSC-viability and vertically through memoactive fitness procedures (vulgo the creation of tradition through ed- ucation). In everyday terms this says nothing more than that groups which attach importance to long term success must be able to master existential crises through performance involving a high degree of cooperation under maximum pressure (which normally means proving oneself in war against competing cul- tures) - at the same time they are also dependent on the ability to remain vigilant in respect to the results of their conflicts with other groups and especially to be able to take the consequences of defeat and to anchor them in the cultural memory. Here one perceives by means of system theoretical alienation a modern echo of the Platonian allegory pertaining to weaving which claims that the arts of state and the arts of kingship consist of plaiting the heroic andreia and moral self-control sophrosyne into the fabric of the polity so as to render it resilient. 1
Politiko? s, 306a-311c. 13
? After what has been said, it should now be apparent why, within the scope of such a theory, such significance is attached to the post-war period of all things for moderating and controlling cul- tural units. At the end of bellicose conflicts - Mu? hlmann speaks of post-stressor phases of relaxation and introspection by the combatants in the wake of stress - the victors and also the van- quished inevitably must evaluate their own cultural assump- tions in the light of recent combat. This means that the victors generally construe their own positive result as a reinforcing sig- nal and feel their decorum confirmed, whereas the vanquished, as long as they do not seek refuge in renouncement, resentment and the excuses associated with these, feel prompted to ascer- tain the causes of their failure. This can lead to revolutionary change in the decorum of one's own culture i. e. the embodiment of locally defined norms and ways of life, if and inasmuch that the losers introspection arrives at the conclusion that the roots of their defeat not only are to be found in the strength of their opponent, but is also due to their own weakness and failure to adapt to the situation and in the most serious cases their own hubris and distorted picture of the world. Processes of this kind either give way to reform, thanks to moral, cognitive and techni- cal rearmament assume form (as is blatantly obvious in the case of Prussian reforms after the defeat of 1806 in Jena). Or one makes the decision in the phase of post-stressor contemplation to team up with the victorious culture in a peaceful alliance of a higher level - as practised by the Germans after 1945 as they decided to proclaim "Westintegration" as their the maxim. For the willingness to convert cultural rules diagnosed as detrimen- tal into less noxious patterns, I use the term metanoia. In this context it does not mean Christian repentance as such, but the embracing of new thought for the betterment of the viability of one's civilisation.
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3 Europe after Napoleon
These intimations will suffice, I hope, to make clear why from a cultural theoretical point of view an analysis of 'Franco-Ger- man relations', with the interactions of the two cultures whether this be in their changeful history of wars or also their just as changeful consolidatory phase in psychopolitical processes should be of such importance in recent times.
If we now look at the potent time span from 1806 to 1945, which is for our theme of the greatest priority, we are confronted by an entire sequence of entangled but yet culturally produc- tive post-war periods, (although this productivity had primarily pathological roots). In his recent book Rene? Girard has pro- vided important stimuli in understanding the mimetic proc- esses of exchange in the Franco-German duel and its extremist dynamic - I will return to this later. Suffice it to say I can only but broadly outline the agenda in such an enterprise as this. We will content ourselves with the fact that it was Napoleon's appearance that marked a fateful turning point in the relations between the two countries. The abundant consequences of his interventions were literally incalculable for the course of Ger- man affairs - and would possibly still be if it had not been for Germany's and France's rapprochement and reconciliation under the two previously mentioned statesmen which finally unshackled the two countries from this fatal state of affairs. For it is Napoleon, from a German standpoint, who was not only the liquidator of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, not only the man whose military genius defeated Austria and Russia in the Battle of Austerlitz of 1805, not only the victor of Jena and Auerstedt in 1806 - in short not only the 'war god', as according to Clausewitz, through whose intensity France, torn apart by the revolution, succeeded in transforming the transi- tion from monarchy to republic from an internal to an external
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affair and moreover to a global messianic campaign for the dis- semination of French principles in the form of launching a glo- bal war of conquest. Through this, his impact became so great, that he created the epoch making archetype of political genius which due to his brilliant successes fatally sowed the seeds of resentment and imitatory rivalry fed by love and hate, and this in all the European countries he had attacked from the Atlantic to the Urals.
If one wishes to attach full meaning to the term 'post-war period' in regard to the entire European development after 1815 then there is no avoiding the fact that the chain of reactions triggered off by French attacks, despite the influence regional diversity, spanned more than 150 years, was most effective in the anti- liberal and anti-modern currents in Germany which lasted until Hitler's suicide in the spring of 1945, and in Spain where the blockade against political and cultural modernity continued until Franco's death in 1975. It should also be pointed out in reference to the 'post-war period' that Napoleon's image as role model or bogeyman in the art, in the philosophy and the politics of Europe remained virulent for over a century. From a clinical point of view too, it was not until the second half of the 20th century that the number of patients who considered themselves to be Napoleon began to steadily drop at least in asylums. The way in which the Corsican continued to make his presence felt on the scene is called to account by Andre? Glucksmann in a chapter of his political autobiography which he titled not with- out a touch of bitter humour "A nous deux, Napole? on! ". Here we learn what price had to be paid but until recently before a French adolescent was healed of the disease of 'Napoleonitis' - including homeopathic treatment employing Maoism. 2 Histo- rians of political ideas have quite rightly pointed out the fact
Andre? Glucksmann: Une rage d'enfant, Plon 2006, p. 104-127
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that reviewing the Napoleon shock in the European countries most effected, led to the separation of nationalistic tendencies from the liberal modernistic currents. This modernising pathol- ogy typical of large parts of the 19th and early 20th centuries is due to an immediately transparent but nonetheless irresistible psychopolitical mechanism which was to play an especially im- portant role for the Germans in their catastrophe dictated by the resentments of having been vanquished. Incidentally the outcome of this first European experiment in nation building under French leadership leads one to fear that the results for enterprises along the same lines in our own times will be simi- larly poor.
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4 Italy 1918: Falsifications of the results of war, politics in a big way
At this point I do not wish to restrict my focus to the post-war periods of the 20th century. And it is here that attention will be paid to German and French developments which took place af- ter 1945 and their possible correlation. In order to illustrate the conceptual framework of this examination which is becoming more concrete, it will be essential to introduce an analytical in- termezzo dealing with certain anomalies of consequence in the post-war period starting in 1918 so that the processes are co- herent. We will focus our attention on Italy because it is the key to understanding further considerations, and it is here that the concept of 'war result falsification' first materializes clearly. In connection with Mu? hlmann's model of post-stressory decorum- revision we have already mentioned that the rule is that after battles fought a culture gets the opportunity to re-evaluate and possibly revise its basic normative attitudes, one could also say its moral grammar, in the light of the results of the combat. The benchmarks for this examination are called affirmation in the case of victory and metanoia in the case of defeat.
Now we should remember that in 1918 the Italians found them- selves in a position where neither of these two alternatives was applicable. As is generally known the Italians withdrew from the alliance of 1882 with Germany and Austria-Hungary (the so-called Triple Alliance) in August 1914 thus signalling their having become ambivalently neutral. Sometime later as a result of the secret treaty of London (which promised Italy in the event of victory considerable territorial gains) it defected to the Al- lied camp by declaring war on Austria-Hungary at the end of May 1915. But despite many heroic sacrifices victory was not to be for the Italians. Only thanks to massive allied assistance was it possible that Italy, although it was completely finished
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militarily and on the verge of political collapse (especially after the disastrous defeat in the 12th Battle of the Isonzo near Tol- mein in October 1917), found itself on the winning side at the end of the war.
The ambiguity of this position accounts for the troubles of post- war history in Italy. One spoke of vittoria mutilata when one should have termed it a defeat which had turned into a coun- terfeit victory. This explains why Italy was only in a position to achieve a semi-metanoia. The first signs of this manifested themselves in the initial successes of the Socialists in 1919 and 1920 in which a newly emerged ultra-nationalist party called for an immediate heroic affirmation and shortly afterwards es- tablished itself along these lines - Mussolini winning nothing less than 66% of the votes in the elections in January 1924.
Out of this situation, which fed the most vehement forms of dis- clamatory affirmation, emerged the movement of pure activism, mobilization for its own sake, which went down in history under the name of Fascism. Among the countless enquiries devoted to this subject there is hardly one which befittingly sheds light on the basic fact that primary Fascism was the result of a falsification of the actual outcome of the war in which the real or virtual loser presented himself as victor nevertheless, or better still as hyper- victor. It wished to indulge in the illusion that it could avoid the work involved in reviewing its cultural decorum and substitute it by reinforcing the pattern which had led to failure. In general terms this merely proves that of all people, it was those who had most reason for a metanoic turnaround contrary to the rules that had applied up till that time, who often most furiously plunged into the affirmation of values which had all but propelled them into total disaster. There is no need to demonstrate in detail that this also applied to the extreme German rightwing of the Weimar Republic. In Germany the falsification of the results of the war
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had begun shortly after November 1918 with the infamous 'stab in the back' of the supposedly undefeated army and as of 1933 displayed the well-known consequences.
In the light of these considerations, Fascism in its original form appears not only as the much discussed transfer of modern war- fare to the modus operandi of the entire culture and eo ipso as the neutralization of the difference between war and peace un- der the prefix of permanent mobilization, but moreover its psy- chopolitical form betrays its wilful falsification of the outcome of war and rejection of metanoia. Its distinguishing marks are the triumphalism of the loser and the forced affirmation of the heroistic code by those, who in view of their recently acquired experience, would have been better advised to radically review their relationship to the set of rules of the heroic life.
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5 France 1945: The double falsification
At this point of my discussion I can leave the stage of preview- ing and explication of theoretical premises and turn to the sub- ject matter proper, the comparative examination of the Franco- German post-war periods as of 1945. What immediately strikes us is the similarity of the French position after 1945 with the Italian position of 1918. Just as the Allies erected a last front for the Italians as of November 1917 who were then able to stay the course until the German surrender, so did the Allies bear the brunt of the war for the French until the unforgettable day of libe? ration in August 1944 on which de Gaulle, at the head of his own improvised forces, returned to Paris. The decisive difference lies in the fact that the defeat of the French in 1940 turned out to be much more unequivocal than that of Italy in 1917 in that the French ranks (who were absent only in Yalta) were much more conspicuous under the allied powers than the Italians at the end of the 1st World War. It is well known that the latter were only conceded a subordinate role in the peace treaties of 1919. Above all one is astonished at the analogy between the Italian and the French dilemmas as soon as they find their basis in the above-mentioned model of post-stress self-evaluation. In both cases we can see that after being given victory there is an oscillating between metanoethical and af- firmative tendencies, an oscillation which finally is neutralized in order to initiate a more or less comprehensive falsification of the results of the war.
All the same one can say that the French, while reviewing the shadows of stress after 1945 despite all tendencies to reverse the facts, against all the odds, were lucky, because in the end their form of national reconstruction 'only' led to Gaullism. The trivial phrase "de Gaulle was not Mussolini" assumes formi- dable meaning in this context. It marks, despite all the simi-
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larities, the considerable gap between the post-war reactions of these peoples. While the Italians with their near defeat made things much worse by taking flight by marching forwards, the French, after the indecisive and ambivalent interlude of the Fourth Republic, chose the lesser of two evils, the Gaullistic therapy. Furthermore the French interpretation of the defeat of 1940 which miraculously led to victory in 1945 was deeply di- vided right from the beginning. Running parallel to the Gaullist evasion in the national affirmation the French left-wing devel- oped a second front of falsification according to which the 'bet- ter' France or the France of the re? sistance, we may now, evoke German analogies, was supposed to have won the war on the side of Stalin and the Red Army.
Only within the framework of such a theory of the post war pe- riod is it possible to grasp that the much cited division of the overpolarized political camps, that hermeneutic gallic war be- tween the French post-war right-wing and the French post-war left-wing, was in reality the conflict between two incompatible strategies the purpose of which in both cases was to falsify the results of the war.
At this point it is not necessary to expound in detail how the Gaullist departure into neo-grandeur took place. Nor does a mention have to be made of the beginnings of an authentic French metanoia which miscarried during the Fourth Republic mainly due the humiliations the nation suffered in the conflicts in Indochina and North Africa at time of decolonialization. It will have to suffice to point out the main symptom of the French reaction: As de Gaulle returned a second time as a knight in shining armour to the pinnacle of power he dictated the con- stitution of the Fifth Republic which is still valid today and whose strong presidential fixation was to prove a problem for the country itself and for the rest of Europe. The elevation of
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the presidency only makes sense if one suspects the Elyse? e of wanting to be a sort of European White House, or to use exam- ples closer to home, something somewhere between Versailles and Bayreuth. The fantasy had been prevalent in the Elyse? e Palace for some decades as Parisian students suddenly got it into their heads that their fantasy should replace the prevalent one in a turbulent month of May. The President's command of France's newly acquired nuclear weaponry (the Force de dis- suasion nucle? aire fully operational since 1964) utterly embod- ies the form of expression which has come to a head of a post- stressor strategy of affirmation, or to use clinical terminology a contraphobic compensation.
De Gaulle never wanted to be a Gaullist and it would be unjust to simply deny that the General's work had certain metanoethi- cal qualities - the scene in Reims mentioned at the beginning alone speaks against a one-sided affirmationistic interpreta- tion. Moreover the fact that terms such as de? tente, entente and coope? ration increasingly appeared in his vocabulary empha- sized like leitmotivs, reveal how he was trying to show the con- servative elements in France the way to reviewing their colo- nial, imperial and heroistic legacy. One of his greatest achieve- ments will always be his reconciling of the old right-wing with modern republicanism.
The more interesting as far as the history of ideas are con- cerned, and in terms of ideology much more alluring form of falsification of results of war took place however on a different side of the inner French front. While the Gaullist departure into semi-imperial affirmation succeeded in getting by with stand- ard emotions and basic processes of accentuation of a national identity, i. e. patriotic enlargement of the self and modernising their weaponry, an ideological and psychopolitical transforma- tion occurred in the left wing which was to have unforeseeable
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consequences. It was here that as of 1944 a singular form of pseudo-metanoethical literature developed the critical reflec- tion of which has still hardly begun. 3 It simultaneously trig- gered off a large importation of German philosophers such as Hegel and Heidegger or Marx, Nietzsche and Carl Schmitt. This occurred as if to illustrate the observation put forth by cul- tural theoreticians that romanticism flourishes if, in the realm of ideas, a compensation for political defeat is on the agenda.
The main approach of the Left in falsifying war results was not, as was the case of the Right in escaping into the national tradi- tion of greatness, but an escape into socialist super-greatness. This naturally had the grave error that its representative on the world stage in that critical time bore the name of Stalin. Strangely enough this detail hardly seemed to trouble anybody as long as the French left-wing, thanks to this manoeuvre, not only could save its injured conscience but also could construe a victory of its own - simply as if it were possible to reattribute the successes of the Red Army to the left-wing resistance. And by means of this, one was free to pseudo-metanoethically deal with the failure of the Third Republic, with the infamy of col- laboration and French colonialism not to mention the internal contradictions of Gaullist reconstruction without ever having to come down from the victor's high horse. As a result a rhe- torical apparatus for the articulation of triumphal self-hate and hypermoralistic aggression against national and bourgeois tra- ditions came into being which lent itself well for use at home and abroad.
In the second nucleus of victory falsification a culturally he- genomous scene speedily consolidated and raised the banner
Cf. Tony Judt: Past Imperfect. French Intellectuals 1944-1956, Berkeley Los Ange- les Oxford 1992
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of militantism thus managing to make the word 'commitment' a synonym for French intellectualism throughout the world. By these means every form of collaboration was to be severely criticized in future including collaboration with the elemen- tary facts. This battling church of belated resistance grasped how to promote itself for the general criticism of the bourgeois society and neo-capitalistic age by blending Marxism, semiol- ogy and psychoanalysis into a suggestive amalgam. The export successes of French theoretical literature which continued on into the 90's relied above all on their polemical utility value for analogous critical subcultures of the countries importing it, notably Italy and Germany. In the USA it was made especially welcome as the young intelligentsia of the country were, after the debacle in Vietnam, suddenly willing to learn a foreign lan- guage in order to radically and critically talk about their own culture. Even today the remains of this product under the cat- egories of French Theory or Critical Theory can be acquired in bookshops on American campuses.
In these shelves, and only in these shelves by the way, has the only phenomenon occurred which perhaps deserves to be termed a Franco-German relationship - that is the convergence of all those discursive machines purporting to explain every- thing, which were to be found on both sides of the Rhine in sug- gestive elaboration and with which young people were taught until recently to see through and to condemn the existing con- ditions as if they themselves did not have a part in them. Since however, the analogous discourse in German criticism of itself and the world after 1945 arose in an entirely different context and operated in entirely different climate than the French one, then even this seemingly close affinity must be considered to be a misunderstanding.
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What distinguishes French from German criticism is their en- tirely different types of cultural integration and consequently their diametrically opposed tendency as to policies of the truth. While German criticism speaks to a population which, de- spite their reluctance, was not able to deny being guilty of the charges, French criticism was directed at a society acquitted, and in need of elucidation as to their dro^le de libe? ration. This may well be the reason why the intellectual Germany is the only place in the world where an old-fashioned correspondence theory of truth still dominates. Here defeat is called defeat (and a crime a crime) - and the remaining words are also gauged to this semantic primal scale. It is only here that the religion of the objective referee holds sway. The intellectual France prefers the politically more elegant and rhetorically more attractive po- sition where words and things belong to separate systems.
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6 Germany 1945: Metanoia
It goes without saying that the German population had plenty work to do after 1945 which was generally termed the 'Wied- eraufbau' (rebuilding the nation). The priorities for rebuilding the nation were something they had in common with their de- feated and yet liberated French neighbours even though this assumed an entirely different manner. In its German connota- tion the word of course particularly signifies the material aspect of dealing with the damage done by the war which was evident enough after the bombardment by allied forces. Furthermore, it signified the sum of the efforts which the Germans subjected themselves to in order to recover morally and culturally. Cer- tainly Adenauer was not de Gaulle - yet another trivial sentence with formidable implifications. The name of the first German chancellor stands for national reconstruction with very little in common with the affirmative arts of Gaullism. He symbolizes the pragmatic and everyday side of the metanoethical work in Germany. In the course of its unwavering progress the Wied- eraufbau combined the reconstruction of the towns and cities with a political and moral reorientation. The German economic boom as it was subsequently named, acted as an economic con- firmation of the course that had been taken to bring about the metamorphosis.
In order to plot the graph showing the progress of this self- reconstruction it will suffice to recall the admission of guilt by all German Protestant Christians in Stuttgart on 19th October 1945 which can be legitimately termed the beginning of spir- itual history in what was to become the Federal Republic of Germany. Further points along the curve mark, apart from the treaty of reparation with Israel in 1952, were the scene of 12th July in 1962 in Reims and Willy Brandt kneeling at the memo- rial in the Warsaw ghetto on 7th December 1970. The inaugu-
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ration of Berlin's memorial to the Jews killed in Europe, the subject of many years of discussion, on 10th May 2005 forms a contemporary cornerstone of this evolution. 4
From the point of view of the theory of post-stressor decorum reviews in post-war periods it can be easily seen that the above- mentioned events all lie on the same line. They may all be at- tributed to the same process which at no time was uncompli- cated, but at no time threatened by a reversal of the metanoeth- ical tranformation process of the vanquished German people. Seen from today's standpoint one may justifiably claim that it formed the most reliable of constants in the history of ideas and mentality of Europeans after 1945. Only if we look at the process as a whole can we comprehend how it was possible for Germany to rearm itself without this involving a general remili- tarisation of politics, and how social and cultural rebuilding could occur without any connection worth mentioning to nos- talgia for antidemocratic traditions, and how there was a boost- ing of efficiency nationwide without re-germanification, and a West German economic boom without submitting to imperialist temptations, and a national recovery without opinionatedness. Nobody will deny that political and cultural life in Germany did not have to face some hard tests during this period. In the notorious 'bleak period' (die bleierne Zeit), the suffocating at- mosphere of which those who experienced it recall with the greatest uneasiness, the silence reigned long concerning what had happened. As the silence was finally broken the pendu- lum suddenly veered in the other direction. Therefore hybrid forms of hate also flourished against their own kind. Here also, outraged later generations exploited their interest in achieving
The fifteen-year debate is well-documented in the book Der Denkmalstreit - das Denkmal? Die Debatte um das ,Denkmal fu? r die ermordeten Juden in Europa' (Ute Heimrod, Gu? nter Schlusche, Horst Seferens (eds. ), Philo Verlagsgesellschaft, Dres- den 1999.
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rapid superiority over the older generations with their complex life stories, and here also as on the other side of the Rhine ap- peared pseudopolitical 'Maitre Penseur' to boot, who treated the distinction between a totalitarian state of the past and a democratic state of the present like something of negligible significance - so that one had the impression of seeing reve- nants from the NS period everywhere when it would have been enough to observe unpractised democrats learning their roles. Here too there were as was the case in France, a heinous repu- diatory hardening on the right-wing and self-righteous pseudo- metanoethical excesses on the left-wing. One almost antici- pated a restaging of left-wing fascism which for the purposes of sidetracking called itself anti-fascism and just like its role model advocated the use of weapons - which is why in the style of Lenin it claimed the right to kill self-proclaimed enemies of the people for the better good. Nevertheless, these eruptions were not able to bring the German post-war process decisively off its basic course. It remained unperturbedly orientated to its task and that was to re-evaluate and review the German deco- rum handed down complete with its gloomily romantic, hero- istic and resentful hereditary burden in the light of the results of the war and, moreover in the light of the catastrophe in which they had been complicit.
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7 France 2007: Imperial temptation and the implosion of the left-wing
In front of the backdrop of these observations on French and German post-war periods and the differences which have thus come to light during the cultural evaluation and integration of results of war, I would like to now pursue the question as if one had to give a speech based on the cultural political aspects of both countries. To begin with the case of France, one thing would be appear to be clear especially in the light of 2007, and that is that the Gallic war for the political and ideological appropriation of the Libe? ration has been decided in the mean- time. The result lies on the borderline of average psychopoliti- cal plausibilities. With increasing remoteness from the critical events a post-Gaullist moderate left wing has established itself on the broadest of fronts, which no one wishes to call middle- class simply because nobody is really certain what the word 'middle-class' means under today's conditions. The unusually compact centre-right currents in France at present cater for the everyday political Narcissm as a matter of routine and at a safe distance from the dramatic tension of the first post-war period. It is this Narcissm which supplies the material from which pa- triotism is created in non-neurotic peoples.
The rest of Europe including Germany could live with that if it were not for the fact that France's Gaullist structural heritage has developed a life of its own which is by no means harm- less. This ranges from the scantily veiled unilateralism of the French nuclear doctrine, to the anti-European tendencies of France's sovereignism and on to the sub-imperialistic antics of the French army in Africa and overseas. 5 However the most
Which will be compensated for by President Sarkozy's announcement of France's return to NATO
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dubious is the hysterogenous potential growing out of the liai- son between presidentialism and media populism, a potential with which de Gaulle as a political Nietzschean and illusionist reverted to with great virtuosity in serving the whole. Even with its worn down profile the genetic material of Gaullism poses a volatile risk for Europe. And members of the European Union will be well advised to observe closely the Sarkozy experiment which the French chose in May 2007. After the new president was forced to realize that a Cecilia Ciganer cannot be a sec- ond Jacky Kennedy the next lesson for him would be, despite suggestions to the contrary, that there is definitely no room in Europe for a White House. If he really wants to show generosity of spirit and make a big impact by remodelling France in a con- temporary manner he could, by introducing the much overdue post-Gaullist constitution and thus becoming the first man of the sixth republic to make the headlines.
The clear outcome of the neo-gallic war over the interpretation of Libe? ration contains a historically ideological and remarkable characteristic. Numerous observers have recently unanimously come to the conclusion that the previously high-profile French left-wing has after a prolonged weak phase, beginning in Mit- te? rand's last years if not earlier, sunk into oblivion within a very short time. This process which was to recently become apparent by the number of ballot boxes, is accompanied by an intellectual erosion which beggars all description. Even the in- terpretation of the above by those concerned leaves a lot to be desired, (there has been for some time talk of the demise of la Grande Nation as if France had happened to collide with an iceberg one cold night) but this heavy-handedness comes as no surprise in view of its record. All the same the new theoretical nonentity of the left camp in France and its far-reaching practi- cal disintegration represents a serious brainteaser for histori- ans of mentality and ideas.
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With reference to what was mentioned above we now have a plausible explanation why the implosion of the left-wing in France should not be entirely attributed to local appropriation of the neo-capitalist and postpolitical Zeitgeist which has been impressing every Western nation for well over twenty years. The question with this phenomenon has much more to do with the final collapse of the pseudo-metanoethical system with which the French left-wing understood how to create falsified victo- ries and phantomatic sovereignty in the troubled area of post- war affects and post-war discourse. They continued to defend these achievements for decades without taking contexts into account - well over the best-before-date for illusions. In the meantime however, they too have been overtaken by the change in affairs. The disruption of French discoursal culture becomes apparent simply by the fact that the country's left-wing has for many years failed to produce a book of any merit not to men- tion new perspectives. What was left was only the romantic po- lemical stance which allows it adepts to swear by militancy and deviation as in the good old days. The intellectual decomposi- tion has been most evident during recent years in the media driven witchhunts sweeping the nation against alleged converts or traitors of the progressive cause who one tried to sacrifice to public opinion after pseudo-moralistic propaganda trials on the Place de Gre`ve. For the external observer these attacks were against the new reactionaries as they are derisively called or more recently the conservateurs, unmistakable evidence that the French left-wing having stooped to resorting to helpless and hysterical progressivism has been standing in the rain for a long time and whose day is only brightened by the occasional flash in the pan. The analogy to the German phenomena of scandal of the last fifteen years is obvious - for here in Germany too, the dominant leftist liberal feuilleton was only able to compensate for its ever increasing disassociation from the workings of the world by getting overexcited and moralising. In this connection
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the number of votes by the Left in the referendum against the European Constitution was symptomatic.
