In the
admission
of candi-
this head by K.
this head by K.
William Smith - 1844 - Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities - c
81, 123, which have been thought is said to have pretended that he had been Euphor-
to assert or imply the visit of Pythagoras to Egypt, bus, the son of Panthus, in the Trojan war, as well
do not, on a more accurate examination, appear to as various other characters, a tradesman, a courte.
involve any such inference. (Krische, l. c. p. 5; zan, &c. (Porph. 26 ; Paus. ii. 17 ; Diog. Laërt. viii.
Ritter, Gesch. der Pythugorischen Philosophie, p. 27. ) 5; Horace, Od. i. 28, 1. 10). He is said to have dis-
According to one account, of no great authority, and covered the propositions that the triangle inscribed
mixed up with much that is absurd and incredible, in a semi-circle is right-angled (Diog. Laërt. i. 25),
Polycrates gave Pythagoras a letter of introduction that the square on the hypotenuse of a right-angled
to Amasis. (Diog. Laërt. viii. 3. ) Still it is not easy triangle is equal to the sum of the squares on the
to determine how far Pythagoras was indebted to the sides (Diog. Laërt, viii. 12 ; Plut. Non posse suav.
Egyptian priests, or, indeed, whether he learnt any vivi sec. Ep. p. 1094). There is a celebrated story
thing at all from them. That he was initiated into of his having discovered the arithmetical relations
their profoundest mysteries is in the highest degree of the musical scale by observing accidentally the
improbable. Geometry in Egypt seems to have various sounds produced by hammers of different
been chiefly of a practical kind, and the propositions weights striking upon an anvil, and suspending by
which Pythagoras is said to have discovered are strings weights eqnal to those of the different
such as to show that the science of geometry was hammers (Porph. in Ptol. Harm. p. 213; Diog.
still in its infancy. There was nothing in the Laërt. viii. 12; Nicom. Harm. i. 2, p. 10, Meib. ).
symbolical mode of representation which the Py. The retailers of the story of course never took the
thagoreans adopted, which bore the distinct traces trouble to verify the experiment, or they would
of an Egyptian origin. The secret religious usages have discovered that different hammers do not
of the Pythagoreans exhibited nothing (80 far as produce different sounds from the same anvil, any
can be traced with any degree of probability) but more than different clappers do from the same bell.
what might have been adopted, quite in the spirit Discoveries in astronomy are also attributed to
of the Greek religion, by those who knew nothing of Pythagoras (Diog. Laërt. viii. 14; Plin. H. N. ii.
Egyptian mysteries ; and what was peculiar to Pytha- 8). There can be little doubt that he paid great
goras in this respect admits of being referred with attention to arithmetic, and its application to
greater likelihood to the cultus of the Tyrrhenian weights, measures, and the theory of music; medi-
Pelasgians, with whom Pythagoras is said to have cine also is mentioned as included in the range of
been connected. (Ritter, Gesch. der Philos. vol. i. his studies (Diog. Laërt. viii. 12, 14, 32). A part
p. 363. ) Even the doctrine of metempsychosis in- from all direct testimony, however, it might safely
volves nothing which compels us to look to Egypt have been affirmed, that the very remarkable influ-
or the East for its origin. ' It is rather one of the ence exerted by Pythagoras, and even the fact
most obvious sensualistic modes in which the con- that he was made the hero of so many marvellous
tinued existence of the soul could be conceived. stories, prove him to have been a man both of
Pythagoras might have derived it quite as easily singular capabilities and of great acquirements.
from Pherecydes as from the Egyptians. Greater The general tendency of the speculations of the
stress might be laid upon some external observances, Pythagorean school is evidence that the statements
such as the refraining from eating beans and fish, with regard to his mathematical researches are well
were it not that doubt exists even with regard to founded. But whatever weight there may be in
these. (Aristoxenus denied the fact of the in- the conjecture of Ritter, that through his descent
terdiction of beans ; see Gellius, N. A. iv. 11. ) from the Tyrrhenian Pelasgians Pythagoras de-
Nor, in any case, would initiation by the Egyptian rived by tradition a peculiar and secret cultus,
priests be necessary to account for it. In short, no which he needed not so much to alter, as to develop
foreign influence can be traced, which in any way so as to suit his peculiar aims, there can be little
illustrates or accounts for either the philosophy or doubt that the above-named author is correct in
the institutions of Pythagoras. These exhibit only viewing the religious element as the predominant
what might easily have been developed by a Greek one in his character, and a religious ascendancy in
mind exposed to the ordinary influences of the age. connection with a certain mystic religious system
Even the ancient authorities point to a similar as that which it was his immediate and chief ob
result in connecting the religious and ascetic pecu- ject to secure. And it was this religious element
liarities of Pythagoras with the Orphic or Cretan which made the profoundest impression upon his
mysteries (Iambl. c. 25; Porph. c. 17; Diog. Laërt. contemporaries. That they regarded him as stand-
viii
. 3), or the Delphic oracle (Ariston. ap. Diog. ing in a peculiarly close connection with the gods
Laërt. viii. 8, 21; Porph. 41).
is certain. The Cavtoniates even identified hime
## p. 618 (#634) ############################################
618
PYTHAGORAS.
PYTHAGORAS.
with the Hyperborean Apollo. (Porph. I. c. 20 ; 1 members of the club of 300 is not so probable.
lambl. l. c. 31, 110; Aelian, V. ì. i. 26 ; Diog. Krische (1. C. p. 45) considers that these female
Laërt. viii. 36. ) And without viewing him as an Pythagoreans were only the wives and relations of
impostor, we may easily believe that he himself to members of the brotherhood, who were instructed
some extent shared the same views. He is said to in some of the Pythagorean doctrines. These would
have pretended to divination and prophecy. (Cic. doubtless be mainly those connected with the reli-
de Divin. j. 3,46 ; Porph. I. c. 29. ) " In his promi- gious part of his system. (Comp. Menage, Hisl.
nent vocation, analogous to that of Epimenides, de Mul. Philos. )
Orpheus, or Melampus, he appears as the revealer With respect to the internal arrangements and
of a mode of life calculated to raise his disciples discipline of this brotherhood only a few leading
above the level of mankind, and to recommend features seem to rest upon a basis of evidence and
them to the favour of the gods. ” (Grote, vol. iv. probability sufficient to warrant our bestowing any
p. 529. )
attention upon them. All accounts agree that what
No certainty can be arrived at as to the length was done and taught among the members was kept
of time spent by Pythagoras in Egypt or the East, a profound secret towards all without its pale. But
or as to his residence and efforts in Samos or other we are also told that there were gradations among
Grecian cities, before his removal to Italy. Ritter the members themselves. It was an old Pythago-
is inclined to believe from the expressions of He- rean maxim, that every thing was not to be told to
rodotus that the secret cultus or orgies of Pytha- every body (Diog. Laërt. viii
. 15; Arist. ap. lamb.
goras had gained some footing in Greece or lonia, 31, év Tois rávu dropsúrous). The division of
even before Crotona became the focus of his influ- classes is usually described as one into lowtepikol
ence (Gesch. der Phil. vol. i. p. 364, Gesch. der and EWTepuxol, though these terms themselves
Pyth. Phil. p. 31). In the visits to various places in are probably of later origin. Other names giren
p
Greece-- Delos, Sparta, Phlius, Crete, &c. which to corresponding divisions are, livêayopeloi and
are ascribed to him, he appears commonly either in Iudayopiotal (lambl. 80). Other accounts, again,
his religious or priestly character, or else as a law-speak of a division into three classes, Iudayopikol,
giver (lambl. 1. c. 25; Porph. l. c. 17; Diog. Ivoazópeloi, and livdayopiorai, according to the
Laërt. viii. 3, 13; Cic. Tusc. Qu. v. 3).
degree of intimacy which they enjoyed with Py-
It is in the highest degree probable that the thagoras ; the first class being those who held the
reason why Pythagoras removed to Crotona is to closest communion with him ; or into gebaotiKOL,
be found in the unfavourable condition of his TOMT ikoi, and uaðnuatikol, according as the sub-
native country, while under the tyranny of Poly-ject of their studies related mainly to religion, to
crates, for the realisation of his schemes. Later politics, or to mathematical and physical science
admirers were content to believe that, from the high(Phot. Cod. 249). Other authorities speak of
estimation in which he was held by his fellow-drovouatikol and manuatikol (lambl. l. c. ), or
citizens, he was so overburdened with public duties, Acustici, Mathematici, and Physici (Gell. N. A.
as to have no time to bestow upon philosophy, and i. 9). Most of these divisions, however, presup-
so withdrew from Samos (lambl. 28; Porph. 9). pose a more marked separation between the dif-
The reason why he selected Crotona as the sphereferent branches of human knowledge, or between
of his operations, it is impossible to ascertain from philosophical training and political activity, than
any existing evidence. All that is adduced on existed at that time.
In the admission of candi-
this head by K. O. Müller (Dorians, iii. 9. & 17, dates Pythagoras is said to have placed great re-
vol. ii. p. 189, &c. ) is mere conjecture, and is of the liance on his physiognomical discernment (Gell.
tlost unsatisfactory kind. Grote (vol. iv. p. 538) 1. c. ). . If admitted, they had to pass through a
supposes that the celebrity of Crotona for the cul- period of probation, in which their powers of main-
tivation of the art of medicine may possibly have taining silence (exeuvoia) were especially tested,
had some influence with him. That on his arrival as well as their general temper, disposition, and
there he speedily attained extensive influence, and mental capacity (Ariston. ap. lambl. 94). That
gained over great numbers to enter into his views, they had to maintain silence for five years, and
is all that can safely be affirmed in the midst of during the whole of that period were never allowed
the marvellous stories told by later biographers of to behold the face of Pythagoras, while they were
the effects of his eloquent discourses in leading the from time to time exposed to various severe ordeals
Crotoniates to abandon their luxurious and cor-|(lambl. 68), are doubtless the exaggerations of a
rupting manner of life and devote themselves to later age. There is more probability in the state-
that purer system which he came to introduce. ment (Taurus, ap. Gell. i. 9) that the period of
(Porph. 18 ; Iambl. 37, &c. ) His adherents were noviciate varied according to the aptitude which
chiefly of the noble and wealthy classes. Three the candidates manifested for the Pythagorean dis-
hundred of these were formed into a select brother- cipline. As regards the nature of the esoteric in-
hood or club, bound by a sort of vow to Pythagoras struction to which only the most approved members
and each other, for the purpose of cultivating the of the fraternity were admitted, some (e. g. Meiners,
religious and ascetic observances enjoined by their Gesch. der Wissenschaften) have supposed that it
master, and of studying his religious and philoso- had reference to the political views of Pythagoras.
phical theories. The statement that they threw all Ritter (l. c. p. 47, &c. ), with greater probability,
their property into a common stock has not suffi- holds that it bad reference mainly to the orgies,
cient evidence to support it, and was perhaps in or secret religious doctrines and usages, which un-
the first instance only an inference from certain doubtedly formed a prominent feature in the Py-
Pythagorean maxims and practices (comp. Cic. de thagorean system, and were peculiarly connected
Leg. i. 12, de off. i. 7; Diog. Laërt. viii. 10; with the worship of Apollo (Aelian, V. H. ii. 26 ;
Krische, l. c. p. 27, &c. ; Ritter, l. c. p. 39). That Diog. Laërt. viii. 13 ; Tambl. 8. 91, 141; comp.
there were several women among the adherents of Krische, l. c. p. 37 ; Brandis, l. c. p. 432 ; Müller,
Pythagoras is pretty certain. That any were | Dorians, iii. 9. & 17). The admission of women to
## p. 619 (#635) ############################################
PYTHAGORAS.
m
a
PYTHAGORAS.
619
a knowledge of these (if indeed they were members sections, that they might devote themselves exclu-
of the club) is far more intelligible than their ini- sively to religious and philosophical contemplatione.
tiation into political secrets. And the avrds épa of Rather he aimed at the production of a calm bear-
the master connects itself most easily with the ing and elevated tone of character, through which
priestly character of Pythagoras, and the belief those trained in the discipline of the Pythagorean
which his disciples, and probably he himself also, life should exhibit in their personal and social ca-
entertained, that he enjoyed a closer and more pacities a reflection of the order and harmony of
direct intercourse with the gods than other men. the universe. But the question whether he had
It is possible enough, however, that some of the any distinct political designs in the foundation of
inore recondite speculations of the philosopher were his brotherhood, has been variously answered. It
connected with these religious views, while the was perfectly natural, even without any express
ordinary scientific studies — mathematics, music, design on his part, that a club such as the Three
astronomy, &c. :- were open to all the disciples. Hundred of Crotona should gradually come to
That there were some outward peculiarities of an mingle political with other objects, and by the faci-
ascetic kind (many of which had, perhaps, a sym- lities afforded by their secret and compact organi-
bolical meaning) in the mode of life to which the sation should speedily gain extensive political
members of the brotherhood were subjected, seems influence, wbich, moreover, the political condition
pretty certain (comp. Porph. 32 ; lambl. 96, &c. ). of Crotona, where the aristocracy was with diffi-
Some represent him as forbidding all animal food culty holding its ground, rendered more than usu-
(118 Empedocles did afterwards, Arist. Rhet. i. 14. ally easy. That this influence should be decisively
$2 ; Sext. Emp. ix. 127. This was also one of on the side of aristocracy or oligarchy, resulted
the Orphic precepts, Aristoph. Ran. 1032). This, naturally both from the nature of the Pythagorean
if to any extent the case, may have had reference institutions, and from the rank and social position
to the doctrine of metempsychosis (comp. Plut. de of the members of the brotherhood. Through them,
Esu Carn. pp. 993, 996, 997). It is, however, of course, Pythagoras himself exercised a large
pointed out by Grote (vol. iv. p. 533), that all the amount of indirect influence over the affairs both of
members cannot have been subjected to this prohibi- Crotona and of other Italian cities. It does not
tion ; Milo, for instance, could not possibly have appear however that he ever held any official rank,
dispensed with animal food. The best authorities though we are told that the senate urged him to
contradict the statement. According to Ariston accept the office of Prytanis. But we have no evi-
(ap. Diog. Laërt. viii. 20) he allowed the use of all dence that the objects of Pythagoras were (as
kinds of animal food except the flesh of oxen used Krische, Müller, and others believe) from the first
for ploughing, and rams (comp. Porph. 7 ; lambl. predominantly political, or even that he had any
85, 108). There is a similar discrepancy as to the definite political designs at all in the formation of
prohibition of fish and beans (Diog. Laërt. vii. 19, his club. That he intended to exhibit in Crotona
34 ; Gell. iv. Il ; Porph. 34, de Alst i. 26 ; the model of a pure Dorian aristocracy (Müller,
Iambl. 98). But temperance of all kinds seems to Dorians, iii. 9. § 16), is a mere fancy (comp. Grote,
have been strictly enjoined. It is also stated that yol. iv. p. 545, note). It is true that the club
they had common meals, resembling the Spartan was in practice at once “a philosophical school, a
Byssitia, at which they met in companies of ten religious brotherhood, and a political association"
(Iambl. 98 ; Strabo, vi. p. 263). Considerable im- (Thirlwall, Hist. of Greece, vol. ii. p. 148), but
portance seems to have been attached to music and there is nothing to show that “ all these characters
gymnastics in the daily exercises of the disciples. appear to have been inseparably united in the
Their whole discipline is represented as tending to founder's mind. " Mr. Grote, more in accordance
produce a lofty serenity and self-possession, regard- with the earliest and best authority on the subject
ing the exhibition of which various anecdotes were (Plato, de Rep. . p. 600, comp. de Leg. vi. p.
current in antiquity (Athen. xiv. p. 623 ; Aelian, | 782, who contrasts Pythagoras, as the institutor
V. H. xiv. 18 ; Iambl. 197 ; comp. Krische, loc. of a peculiar mode of private life, with those who
p. 42).
Iamblichus (96–101, apparently on the exercised a direct influence upon public life), re
authority of Aristoxenus) gives a long description marks, “We cannot construe the scheme of Pytha-
of the daily routine of the members, which suggests goras as going farther than the formation of a
many points of comparison with the ordinary life private, select order of brethren, embracing his
of Spartan citizens. It is not unlikely that religious fancies, ethical tone, and germs of scien-
many of the regulations of Pythagoras were sug- tific idea, and manifesting adhesion by those ob-
gested by what he saw in Crete and Sparta. Among servances which Herodotus and Plato call the
the best ascertained features of the brotherhood are Pythagorean orgies and mode of life. And his
the devoted attachment of the members to each privato order became politically powerful because
other, and their sovereign contempt for those who he was skilful or fortunate enough to enlist a suffi-
did not belong to their ranks (Ariston, ap. Iambl. cient number of wealthy Crotoniates, possessing
94, 101, &c. , 229, &c. ; comp. the story of Damon individual influence, which they strengthened iin-
and Phintias ; Porph. 60 ; Iambl 233, &c. ). It mensely by thus regimenting themselves in intimate
appears that they had some secret conventional union” (Hist. of Greece, vol. iv. p. 544). The
ymbols, by which members of the fraternity could notion of Müller and Niebuhr, that the 300 Py-
recognise each other, even if they had never metthagoreans constituted a kind of smaller senate at
before (Schol. ad Arist. Nub. 611 ; lambl 237, Crotona, is totally without foundation. On the
238 ; Krische, pp. 43, 44). Clubs similar to that other hand, it seems quite as unfounded to infer
at Crotona were established at Sybaris, Metapon- from the account that Pythagoras was the first to
tum, Tarentum, and other cities of Magna Graecia apply to himself the epithet Dindoopos (Cic. Tusc.
The institutions . of Pythagoras were certainly v. 3 ; Diog. Laërt.
to assert or imply the visit of Pythagoras to Egypt, bus, the son of Panthus, in the Trojan war, as well
do not, on a more accurate examination, appear to as various other characters, a tradesman, a courte.
involve any such inference. (Krische, l. c. p. 5; zan, &c. (Porph. 26 ; Paus. ii. 17 ; Diog. Laërt. viii.
Ritter, Gesch. der Pythugorischen Philosophie, p. 27. ) 5; Horace, Od. i. 28, 1. 10). He is said to have dis-
According to one account, of no great authority, and covered the propositions that the triangle inscribed
mixed up with much that is absurd and incredible, in a semi-circle is right-angled (Diog. Laërt. i. 25),
Polycrates gave Pythagoras a letter of introduction that the square on the hypotenuse of a right-angled
to Amasis. (Diog. Laërt. viii. 3. ) Still it is not easy triangle is equal to the sum of the squares on the
to determine how far Pythagoras was indebted to the sides (Diog. Laërt, viii. 12 ; Plut. Non posse suav.
Egyptian priests, or, indeed, whether he learnt any vivi sec. Ep. p. 1094). There is a celebrated story
thing at all from them. That he was initiated into of his having discovered the arithmetical relations
their profoundest mysteries is in the highest degree of the musical scale by observing accidentally the
improbable. Geometry in Egypt seems to have various sounds produced by hammers of different
been chiefly of a practical kind, and the propositions weights striking upon an anvil, and suspending by
which Pythagoras is said to have discovered are strings weights eqnal to those of the different
such as to show that the science of geometry was hammers (Porph. in Ptol. Harm. p. 213; Diog.
still in its infancy. There was nothing in the Laërt. viii. 12; Nicom. Harm. i. 2, p. 10, Meib. ).
symbolical mode of representation which the Py. The retailers of the story of course never took the
thagoreans adopted, which bore the distinct traces trouble to verify the experiment, or they would
of an Egyptian origin. The secret religious usages have discovered that different hammers do not
of the Pythagoreans exhibited nothing (80 far as produce different sounds from the same anvil, any
can be traced with any degree of probability) but more than different clappers do from the same bell.
what might have been adopted, quite in the spirit Discoveries in astronomy are also attributed to
of the Greek religion, by those who knew nothing of Pythagoras (Diog. Laërt. viii. 14; Plin. H. N. ii.
Egyptian mysteries ; and what was peculiar to Pytha- 8). There can be little doubt that he paid great
goras in this respect admits of being referred with attention to arithmetic, and its application to
greater likelihood to the cultus of the Tyrrhenian weights, measures, and the theory of music; medi-
Pelasgians, with whom Pythagoras is said to have cine also is mentioned as included in the range of
been connected. (Ritter, Gesch. der Philos. vol. i. his studies (Diog. Laërt. viii. 12, 14, 32). A part
p. 363. ) Even the doctrine of metempsychosis in- from all direct testimony, however, it might safely
volves nothing which compels us to look to Egypt have been affirmed, that the very remarkable influ-
or the East for its origin. ' It is rather one of the ence exerted by Pythagoras, and even the fact
most obvious sensualistic modes in which the con- that he was made the hero of so many marvellous
tinued existence of the soul could be conceived. stories, prove him to have been a man both of
Pythagoras might have derived it quite as easily singular capabilities and of great acquirements.
from Pherecydes as from the Egyptians. Greater The general tendency of the speculations of the
stress might be laid upon some external observances, Pythagorean school is evidence that the statements
such as the refraining from eating beans and fish, with regard to his mathematical researches are well
were it not that doubt exists even with regard to founded. But whatever weight there may be in
these. (Aristoxenus denied the fact of the in- the conjecture of Ritter, that through his descent
terdiction of beans ; see Gellius, N. A. iv. 11. ) from the Tyrrhenian Pelasgians Pythagoras de-
Nor, in any case, would initiation by the Egyptian rived by tradition a peculiar and secret cultus,
priests be necessary to account for it. In short, no which he needed not so much to alter, as to develop
foreign influence can be traced, which in any way so as to suit his peculiar aims, there can be little
illustrates or accounts for either the philosophy or doubt that the above-named author is correct in
the institutions of Pythagoras. These exhibit only viewing the religious element as the predominant
what might easily have been developed by a Greek one in his character, and a religious ascendancy in
mind exposed to the ordinary influences of the age. connection with a certain mystic religious system
Even the ancient authorities point to a similar as that which it was his immediate and chief ob
result in connecting the religious and ascetic pecu- ject to secure. And it was this religious element
liarities of Pythagoras with the Orphic or Cretan which made the profoundest impression upon his
mysteries (Iambl. c. 25; Porph. c. 17; Diog. Laërt. contemporaries. That they regarded him as stand-
viii
. 3), or the Delphic oracle (Ariston. ap. Diog. ing in a peculiarly close connection with the gods
Laërt. viii. 8, 21; Porph. 41).
is certain. The Cavtoniates even identified hime
## p. 618 (#634) ############################################
618
PYTHAGORAS.
PYTHAGORAS.
with the Hyperborean Apollo. (Porph. I. c. 20 ; 1 members of the club of 300 is not so probable.
lambl. l. c. 31, 110; Aelian, V. ì. i. 26 ; Diog. Krische (1. C. p. 45) considers that these female
Laërt. viii. 36. ) And without viewing him as an Pythagoreans were only the wives and relations of
impostor, we may easily believe that he himself to members of the brotherhood, who were instructed
some extent shared the same views. He is said to in some of the Pythagorean doctrines. These would
have pretended to divination and prophecy. (Cic. doubtless be mainly those connected with the reli-
de Divin. j. 3,46 ; Porph. I. c. 29. ) " In his promi- gious part of his system. (Comp. Menage, Hisl.
nent vocation, analogous to that of Epimenides, de Mul. Philos. )
Orpheus, or Melampus, he appears as the revealer With respect to the internal arrangements and
of a mode of life calculated to raise his disciples discipline of this brotherhood only a few leading
above the level of mankind, and to recommend features seem to rest upon a basis of evidence and
them to the favour of the gods. ” (Grote, vol. iv. probability sufficient to warrant our bestowing any
p. 529. )
attention upon them. All accounts agree that what
No certainty can be arrived at as to the length was done and taught among the members was kept
of time spent by Pythagoras in Egypt or the East, a profound secret towards all without its pale. But
or as to his residence and efforts in Samos or other we are also told that there were gradations among
Grecian cities, before his removal to Italy. Ritter the members themselves. It was an old Pythago-
is inclined to believe from the expressions of He- rean maxim, that every thing was not to be told to
rodotus that the secret cultus or orgies of Pytha- every body (Diog. Laërt. viii
. 15; Arist. ap. lamb.
goras had gained some footing in Greece or lonia, 31, év Tois rávu dropsúrous). The division of
even before Crotona became the focus of his influ- classes is usually described as one into lowtepikol
ence (Gesch. der Phil. vol. i. p. 364, Gesch. der and EWTepuxol, though these terms themselves
Pyth. Phil. p. 31). In the visits to various places in are probably of later origin. Other names giren
p
Greece-- Delos, Sparta, Phlius, Crete, &c. which to corresponding divisions are, livêayopeloi and
are ascribed to him, he appears commonly either in Iudayopiotal (lambl. 80). Other accounts, again,
his religious or priestly character, or else as a law-speak of a division into three classes, Iudayopikol,
giver (lambl. 1. c. 25; Porph. l. c. 17; Diog. Ivoazópeloi, and livdayopiorai, according to the
Laërt. viii. 3, 13; Cic. Tusc. Qu. v. 3).
degree of intimacy which they enjoyed with Py-
It is in the highest degree probable that the thagoras ; the first class being those who held the
reason why Pythagoras removed to Crotona is to closest communion with him ; or into gebaotiKOL,
be found in the unfavourable condition of his TOMT ikoi, and uaðnuatikol, according as the sub-
native country, while under the tyranny of Poly-ject of their studies related mainly to religion, to
crates, for the realisation of his schemes. Later politics, or to mathematical and physical science
admirers were content to believe that, from the high(Phot. Cod. 249). Other authorities speak of
estimation in which he was held by his fellow-drovouatikol and manuatikol (lambl. l. c. ), or
citizens, he was so overburdened with public duties, Acustici, Mathematici, and Physici (Gell. N. A.
as to have no time to bestow upon philosophy, and i. 9). Most of these divisions, however, presup-
so withdrew from Samos (lambl. 28; Porph. 9). pose a more marked separation between the dif-
The reason why he selected Crotona as the sphereferent branches of human knowledge, or between
of his operations, it is impossible to ascertain from philosophical training and political activity, than
any existing evidence. All that is adduced on existed at that time.
In the admission of candi-
this head by K. O. Müller (Dorians, iii. 9. & 17, dates Pythagoras is said to have placed great re-
vol. ii. p. 189, &c. ) is mere conjecture, and is of the liance on his physiognomical discernment (Gell.
tlost unsatisfactory kind. Grote (vol. iv. p. 538) 1. c. ). . If admitted, they had to pass through a
supposes that the celebrity of Crotona for the cul- period of probation, in which their powers of main-
tivation of the art of medicine may possibly have taining silence (exeuvoia) were especially tested,
had some influence with him. That on his arrival as well as their general temper, disposition, and
there he speedily attained extensive influence, and mental capacity (Ariston. ap. lambl. 94). That
gained over great numbers to enter into his views, they had to maintain silence for five years, and
is all that can safely be affirmed in the midst of during the whole of that period were never allowed
the marvellous stories told by later biographers of to behold the face of Pythagoras, while they were
the effects of his eloquent discourses in leading the from time to time exposed to various severe ordeals
Crotoniates to abandon their luxurious and cor-|(lambl. 68), are doubtless the exaggerations of a
rupting manner of life and devote themselves to later age. There is more probability in the state-
that purer system which he came to introduce. ment (Taurus, ap. Gell. i. 9) that the period of
(Porph. 18 ; Iambl. 37, &c. ) His adherents were noviciate varied according to the aptitude which
chiefly of the noble and wealthy classes. Three the candidates manifested for the Pythagorean dis-
hundred of these were formed into a select brother- cipline. As regards the nature of the esoteric in-
hood or club, bound by a sort of vow to Pythagoras struction to which only the most approved members
and each other, for the purpose of cultivating the of the fraternity were admitted, some (e. g. Meiners,
religious and ascetic observances enjoined by their Gesch. der Wissenschaften) have supposed that it
master, and of studying his religious and philoso- had reference to the political views of Pythagoras.
phical theories. The statement that they threw all Ritter (l. c. p. 47, &c. ), with greater probability,
their property into a common stock has not suffi- holds that it bad reference mainly to the orgies,
cient evidence to support it, and was perhaps in or secret religious doctrines and usages, which un-
the first instance only an inference from certain doubtedly formed a prominent feature in the Py-
Pythagorean maxims and practices (comp. Cic. de thagorean system, and were peculiarly connected
Leg. i. 12, de off. i. 7; Diog. Laërt. viii. 10; with the worship of Apollo (Aelian, V. H. ii. 26 ;
Krische, l. c. p. 27, &c. ; Ritter, l. c. p. 39). That Diog. Laërt. viii. 13 ; Tambl. 8. 91, 141; comp.
there were several women among the adherents of Krische, l. c. p. 37 ; Brandis, l. c. p. 432 ; Müller,
Pythagoras is pretty certain. That any were | Dorians, iii. 9. & 17). The admission of women to
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PYTHAGORAS.
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a
PYTHAGORAS.
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a knowledge of these (if indeed they were members sections, that they might devote themselves exclu-
of the club) is far more intelligible than their ini- sively to religious and philosophical contemplatione.
tiation into political secrets. And the avrds épa of Rather he aimed at the production of a calm bear-
the master connects itself most easily with the ing and elevated tone of character, through which
priestly character of Pythagoras, and the belief those trained in the discipline of the Pythagorean
which his disciples, and probably he himself also, life should exhibit in their personal and social ca-
entertained, that he enjoyed a closer and more pacities a reflection of the order and harmony of
direct intercourse with the gods than other men. the universe. But the question whether he had
It is possible enough, however, that some of the any distinct political designs in the foundation of
inore recondite speculations of the philosopher were his brotherhood, has been variously answered. It
connected with these religious views, while the was perfectly natural, even without any express
ordinary scientific studies — mathematics, music, design on his part, that a club such as the Three
astronomy, &c. :- were open to all the disciples. Hundred of Crotona should gradually come to
That there were some outward peculiarities of an mingle political with other objects, and by the faci-
ascetic kind (many of which had, perhaps, a sym- lities afforded by their secret and compact organi-
bolical meaning) in the mode of life to which the sation should speedily gain extensive political
members of the brotherhood were subjected, seems influence, wbich, moreover, the political condition
pretty certain (comp. Porph. 32 ; lambl. 96, &c. ). of Crotona, where the aristocracy was with diffi-
Some represent him as forbidding all animal food culty holding its ground, rendered more than usu-
(118 Empedocles did afterwards, Arist. Rhet. i. 14. ally easy. That this influence should be decisively
$2 ; Sext. Emp. ix. 127. This was also one of on the side of aristocracy or oligarchy, resulted
the Orphic precepts, Aristoph. Ran. 1032). This, naturally both from the nature of the Pythagorean
if to any extent the case, may have had reference institutions, and from the rank and social position
to the doctrine of metempsychosis (comp. Plut. de of the members of the brotherhood. Through them,
Esu Carn. pp. 993, 996, 997). It is, however, of course, Pythagoras himself exercised a large
pointed out by Grote (vol. iv. p. 533), that all the amount of indirect influence over the affairs both of
members cannot have been subjected to this prohibi- Crotona and of other Italian cities. It does not
tion ; Milo, for instance, could not possibly have appear however that he ever held any official rank,
dispensed with animal food. The best authorities though we are told that the senate urged him to
contradict the statement. According to Ariston accept the office of Prytanis. But we have no evi-
(ap. Diog. Laërt. viii. 20) he allowed the use of all dence that the objects of Pythagoras were (as
kinds of animal food except the flesh of oxen used Krische, Müller, and others believe) from the first
for ploughing, and rams (comp. Porph. 7 ; lambl. predominantly political, or even that he had any
85, 108). There is a similar discrepancy as to the definite political designs at all in the formation of
prohibition of fish and beans (Diog. Laërt. vii. 19, his club. That he intended to exhibit in Crotona
34 ; Gell. iv. Il ; Porph. 34, de Alst i. 26 ; the model of a pure Dorian aristocracy (Müller,
Iambl. 98). But temperance of all kinds seems to Dorians, iii. 9. § 16), is a mere fancy (comp. Grote,
have been strictly enjoined. It is also stated that yol. iv. p. 545, note). It is true that the club
they had common meals, resembling the Spartan was in practice at once “a philosophical school, a
Byssitia, at which they met in companies of ten religious brotherhood, and a political association"
(Iambl. 98 ; Strabo, vi. p. 263). Considerable im- (Thirlwall, Hist. of Greece, vol. ii. p. 148), but
portance seems to have been attached to music and there is nothing to show that “ all these characters
gymnastics in the daily exercises of the disciples. appear to have been inseparably united in the
Their whole discipline is represented as tending to founder's mind. " Mr. Grote, more in accordance
produce a lofty serenity and self-possession, regard- with the earliest and best authority on the subject
ing the exhibition of which various anecdotes were (Plato, de Rep. . p. 600, comp. de Leg. vi. p.
current in antiquity (Athen. xiv. p. 623 ; Aelian, | 782, who contrasts Pythagoras, as the institutor
V. H. xiv. 18 ; Iambl. 197 ; comp. Krische, loc. of a peculiar mode of private life, with those who
p. 42).
Iamblichus (96–101, apparently on the exercised a direct influence upon public life), re
authority of Aristoxenus) gives a long description marks, “We cannot construe the scheme of Pytha-
of the daily routine of the members, which suggests goras as going farther than the formation of a
many points of comparison with the ordinary life private, select order of brethren, embracing his
of Spartan citizens. It is not unlikely that religious fancies, ethical tone, and germs of scien-
many of the regulations of Pythagoras were sug- tific idea, and manifesting adhesion by those ob-
gested by what he saw in Crete and Sparta. Among servances which Herodotus and Plato call the
the best ascertained features of the brotherhood are Pythagorean orgies and mode of life. And his
the devoted attachment of the members to each privato order became politically powerful because
other, and their sovereign contempt for those who he was skilful or fortunate enough to enlist a suffi-
did not belong to their ranks (Ariston, ap. Iambl. cient number of wealthy Crotoniates, possessing
94, 101, &c. , 229, &c. ; comp. the story of Damon individual influence, which they strengthened iin-
and Phintias ; Porph. 60 ; Iambl 233, &c. ). It mensely by thus regimenting themselves in intimate
appears that they had some secret conventional union” (Hist. of Greece, vol. iv. p. 544). The
ymbols, by which members of the fraternity could notion of Müller and Niebuhr, that the 300 Py-
recognise each other, even if they had never metthagoreans constituted a kind of smaller senate at
before (Schol. ad Arist. Nub. 611 ; lambl 237, Crotona, is totally without foundation. On the
238 ; Krische, pp. 43, 44). Clubs similar to that other hand, it seems quite as unfounded to infer
at Crotona were established at Sybaris, Metapon- from the account that Pythagoras was the first to
tum, Tarentum, and other cities of Magna Graecia apply to himself the epithet Dindoopos (Cic. Tusc.
The institutions . of Pythagoras were certainly v. 3 ; Diog. Laërt.
