in this conception, the attitude of man is not
primarily
a receiving one with regard to nature as an independent whole.
Hegels Philosophy of the Historical Religions
xxii bart labuschagne and timo slootweg
something which is treated by Hegel only at the end the lectures, in his treatment of the christian cultus.
the treatment of the cultus constitutes the final section of the first part of the Lectures. according to the logic of the concept, it is now time to develop the concept in the dimension of its particularity, that is: to show how the concept is embodied in concrete, actual and historical religions. these concrete manifestations of religion in the determinate religions are considered to be not yet fully adequate in relation to its concept. in the second part of his Lectures, Hegel discusses extensively practically all known major world religions, whereby he distinguishes between the deter- minate religions (all non-christian religions) and the consummate, revealed religion (christianity, in both its catholic and Protestant varieties).
4. Purpose of the Book
the present volume brings together a collection of critical essays that discuss Hegel's relation to each of these determinate, historical forms of religion; including the consummate, revealed religion of christianity. a discussion of islam is also included, although it does not figure promi- nently among Hegel's determinate religions. all contributions aim to shed light on the intriguing development of Hegel's conception of the history of these actual religions. they not only offer a text-immanent analyti- cal approach, but they also take a (more or less) critical stance in which Hegel's perception is confronted with a critique developed from the (point of view of the) religion in question. Moreover, important to observe here, is that the determinate religions are considered by Hegel to be less perfect religions; religious forms that are less adequate to the concept of religion. only christianity turns out to be in this sense a true religion. However, seen from these religions themselves, truth is involved as well; of course, at least for the believers in question. this poses (undeniably) a deep ten- sion between the self-understanding of these non-christian believers and how they view their religion (namely: as true religion) and Hegel's under- standing of these religions as less true than christianity.
it has been our aim not only to develop a comprehensive view of Hegel's philosophy of the historical religions, but also of its broader, con- temporary importance. We did not want to bundle separate, stand-alone contributions, but to offer an integral outline of Hegel's philosophy of the religions in general. the construction and structure of the book follow (for
editorial introduction xxiii
the most part) the dialectics that Hegel himself employed in his Lectures, with the exception of islam that Hegel finds difficult to rubricate.
apart from text-immanent exegesis and the critical appraisal, the further aim of this book is as indicated, to contribute to the discussion between (on the one hand) Hegel's daring, far-reaching philosophical treatment of the great historical religions, and (on the other hand) the current approach, prevailing in religious studies, that seems to be con- strained (more and more) to the merely empirical appreciation of the religious material. We could say that, in some sense, Hegel himself has been responsible for this self-imposed restriction. after his death, Hegel's philosophy of religion was severely criticized. it was presumed to be too speculative and too little empirical in order to be able to do justice to the actual, historical religions. For many scholars 19th century Hegelianism constituted a reason to withdraw and distance themselves from philoso- phy, and to a retreat into a non-reflexive religiosity and a mere descrip- tive science thereof. neo-Kantianism succeeded more or less in regaining some of the long lost trustworthiness of the idealistic approach. But there still remained a great deal of suspicion towards philosophy.
on the other hand, one might ask the question whether empiricism does not condemn itself to intellectual blindness. Philosophers in gen- eral and Hegel in particular, have been reproached many times (and not always without reason) for their generalisations and idealisations. How- ever, positive empiricist science can be blamed for a lack of syntheses, for remaining steeped in details and for over-accentuating the many nuances of reality. While society nowadays is in deep search for these broader per- spectives and meanings, their analyses tenaciously refrain and 'abstract' completely from taking a critical, philosophical or normative stance.
in our view Hegel's philosophy of religion can serve as an example in (at least) two ways. Surely, 'Hegel' serves as a warning against the (some- times) presumptuous pretentions of philosophy to be able to understand in a nutshell, just about everything. However in addition to this, Hegel could serve as an example for those who do not want to restrict them- selves to the empirical approach of the contemporary 'religious studies', but who want seriously to engage, with all possible dangers, in thinking about God, and about the relation between God and man.
leiden, december 2011
Religion of natuRe Heinz Kimmerle
1. introduction
in his Lectures on the philosophy of religion (1821), Hegel departs from the idea of a 'religion of spirit', which has the same content as his philosophy, that is: a 'philosophy of spirit'. in this context, he cannot give an adequate explanation of the 'religion of nature'. especially he cannot do justice to the african form of a 'religion of nature'. in his writings of 1800-1802 he defends a 'religion of life', which corresponds to the central meaning of the concepts of life and nature in his 'system of philosophy' of that time. this forms a more adequate presupposition to explain the 'religion of nature'. although there is no direct relation possible between Hegel's 'religion of life' and the animist religious representations and practices in sub-Saharan african tradition, the outlines of a philosophical discussion is sketched in the following contribution, in which this relation becomes meaningful.
'Philosophy of Spirit' and 'Religion of Spirit'
'god is Spirit and those who worship Him must worship Him in Spirit and in truth'; 'this same Spirit testifies together with our spirit that we are god's children'. these two quotations from the new testament ( John 4; 24 and Romans 8; 16) are the key-texts upon which Hegel's 'philosophy of religion' is founded. this is especially true with regard to the claim that Christianity is the highest form of religion. Philosophy, as it is worked out as the last stage of Hegel's 'system of philosophy', has the same contents as this religion. His 'system of philosophy' is philosophy of spirit in all its parts: in the 'Science of logic', spirit is presented as idea, in the 'Philoso- phy of nature', spirit exists as its other and in the 'Philosophy of Spirit', we encounter spirit as spirit. according to Hegel--and he uses among other arguments the two above given quotations for that--the Christian religion is religion of spirit, which is testified both by god's Spirit and by our human spirit. therefore the dispute whether (Christian) religion is
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sublated and thus surpassed by philosophy or not, is of no use. 1 Both of them express the 'absolute spirit', and that means the absolute truth, in an adequate way: religion in the medium of representations and philoso- phy in the medium of concepts.
of course, philosophy is paramount to religion, but religion is broader than philosophy. Religion enables the absolute truth to become acces- sible to people who are not familiar with philosophical thought and the language of concepts. in addition, philosophy, if it is true philosophy-- that means: self-development of spirit (Hegel speaks in this connection of 'speculative' philosophy)--is in itself religious. the self-development of spirit covers the following stages: first of all, it knows itself, in a next step it observes itself in nature, then it puts its elements beside and oppo- site to each other by means of reflection, and finally it unites them in the wholeness of perceiving itself. Moreover, this happens also, in a way, which is accessible for everybody, in religion and its history. therefore is 'religion . . . the truth for all human beings'. 2
Systematic Explanation and History of Religion
these elements of true religion are present in the 'revealed religion' of Christianity as absolute religion. for this religion is a 'religion of spirit'. this can be summarized, with Hegel, also in a more religious language: (1) 'god is only god insofar as He knows Himself '; (2) 'His knowledge of Himself is also a self-consciousness in the human being' who is aware of the outside nature and perceives himself as spirit. thus self-consciousness is reached, in which knowledge is attained that the finite human being has of god, how imperfect that may be. (3) the human knowledge of god transforms itself finally into 'the self-knowledge of the human being within god'. 3 in the Encyclopaedia of the philosophical sciences these three ele- ments of true religion are explained systematically. these will be left aside
1 Karl lo? with, 'Hegels aufhebung der christlichen Religion? , in: Hans-georg gadamer (ed. ), Heidelberger Hegel-Tage 1962, Bonn: Bouvier 1964, pp. 193-236; albert Chapelle, Hegel et la religion, Paris: editions universitaires 1963; Heinz Kimmerle, ? Zur theologischen Hegelinterpretation', in: Hegel-Studien 3 1965, pp. 356-369.
2 georg Wilhelm friedrich Hegel, Enzyklopa? die der philosophischen Wissenschaften im Grundrisse (1830), ed. friedhelm nicolin & otto Po? ggeler, Hamburg: Meiner 1959, pp. 451-452 (? 573). i am quoting here and in the following text from this german edition and give my own translation. Reference to the paragraphs (? ? ) makes it possible to find the quotations in any other edition of this work.
3 Hegel, Enzyklopda? die, p. 447 (? 564).
? religion of nature 3
in this contribution. However, the systematic steps can also be traced in the history of religion, which Hegel has worked out in his Lectures on the philosophy of religion. in this history the finite human knowledge of god presents itself in different forms of 'determinate religion'. the 'religion of nature' is the first of these historical forms.
the 'religion of nature' originates when natural things are observed in a spiritual way in the self-consciousness of the human being. insofar as this is a spiritual observation of natural things, nature is conceived as god. Hegel gives several examples of this religion, namely the religion of the eskimos, the Mongolians, but first of all, the africans. the Chinese 'religion of the state' is also part of the 'religion of nature' in certain years when Hegel has given these Lectures, but not in all of them.
'Religion of Nature'
for the reading of the main passages of the 'religion of nature', which will follow here, the edition of Jaeschke provides us with the most reliable and most detailed texts. 4 However, i will not just reproduce the contents of these passages or retell them. a deconstructive reading is carried out, which will lead to somehow unexpected and also unaccustomed results. the general introduction is especially taken into consideration, as well as the explanation of the first form of the 'immediate religion or religion of nature', which is called by Hegel 'religion of sorcery'. in the general intro- duction and in the first chapter of the first form of the 'religion of nature': 'a) the metaphysical concept' of god, we find the conceptual basis of this form of religion. these passages will be read with precision and some formulations will be examined critically, which deal with the concept of nature and the concept of life. this way of reading will make clear that there are some cracks and clean breaks in Hegel's conception of a 'reli- gion of spirit'. the description of the african form of a 'religion of nature' turns out to be especially inadequate. earlier conceptions of nature, life and the human world in Hegel's thought would have enabled a different explanation of the 'religion of nature' as a 'religion of life'. in support of this allegation i will--after a short glimpse at the chapter on 'the reli- gion' in the Phenomenology of Spirit from 1807 and some passages of the
4 VPhR 2, 1-29, 139-219, 411-445, 611-614. Quotations from this edition are my transla- tion (HK).
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Systematic Drafts (Systementwu? rfe) from 1802/03 until 1806--refer to the systematic conception of the years 1800 to 1802.
therefore, the later conception of religion as 'religion of spirit' is con- fronted with a philosophy of religion that departs from the concept of life that is essential for Hegel's 'system of philosophy' as a whole in the years of his transition from frankfurt to Jena. in this connection one could speak of a 'religion of life' or even of an animistic conception of religion. However, the notion of 'animism', to be used to denote a religion based on the concept of life, is not yet in use in Hegel's time. according to the lemma 'animism' in the Encyclopaedia of Ghosts and Spirits, edited by R. e. guiley, this notion is introduced by the anthropologist edward B. tylor in his book Religion in Primitive Cultures, that was published in 1871. 5
'Religion of Spirit' and 'Religion of Life' in Hegel and Animist Representations in Traditional African Religion
in his Lectures from 1821 on, in the context of a 'religion of spirit' Hegel calls the first form of the 'religion of nature', as we have said before: 'reli- gion of sorcery'. on several occasions, he remarks that we cannot speak of religion in a proper sense of the word on this level. a closer examina- tion of the way in which Hegel is using his sources here, especially about traditional african religion and of the whole presentation of this form of religion, leads us to the conclusion that he is hampered by his universal concept of spirit to give an adequate explanation of the 'religion of nature'. earlier conceptions of his 'system of philosophy', which depart from the concept of life, are quite different in this respect. they are akin to ani- mism as we find it in traditional african religion, if we look at it from the knowledge we have of it today. this religion can be called a 'religion of spirits', because the belief that a soul can be found in all things--also in natural things--means that spirits can dwell in them. in this connection, a new appreciation of animism is necessary in order to correct the devalu- ation of this religion, which has occurred in the period of enlightenment and of colonialism. the later Hegel has contributed considerably to the devaluation of this religion. the correction can take place in the context of a philosophical discussion, which takes seriously the 'absent-present' or 'present-absent'--dimension of reality, as it becomes possible since Derrida's suggestion of a new 'spectrology'.
5 edward B. tylor, Religion in Primitive Cultures, new York/oxford: facts on file 1992, pp. 11-13.
? religion of nature 5 2. 'Religion of nature' in Hegel's 'System of Philosophy' Since 1817
Logical Foundations of the 'Religion of Nature'
the explanation of the history of religion in Hegel's Lectures on the phi- losophy of religion from 1821 on, as it is founded in his Encyclopaedia of philosophical sciences (1st edition in 1817), relies more in particular on the first part of this philosophical system: the 'Science of logic'. that means: the 'Religion of nature', corresponding to the first chapter of the 'logic', consists in the religion of 'Being'. We have to take into consideration that the correspondences between systematic and historical elements with Hegel are generally, and also in this particular context, not very strict. the coincidences that occur in history make this impossible.
in the General introduction to the 'immediate religion or Religion of nature', in the first paragraph 'a) the Metaphysical Concept' of god, and in the first passages of the second paragraph 'b) the Concrete Represen- tation' of god, Hegel works with the concept of 'Being' of his 'Science of logic'. 'Being' is presented in the 'logic' as 'immediateness'. the first form of religion therefore is described as 'immediate religion'. this form of religion is characterised by the 'sensual awareness of god in all things without distinction'. this characterisation seems to amount to panthe- ism, as it has been worked out in modern philosophy since Descartes by Spinoza. Hegel, however, denies this similarity explicitly. according to his explanation, 'immediate religion' or 'Religion of nature' is on the 'lowest and most imperfect level' of religion, as can be found with 'wild peoples'. the pantheism of Spinoza is, in opposition to that, the first form of the 'true' philosophy of religion, and is as such the foundation of 'absolute' or 'Revealed religion'.
at the beginning of the 'logic' the notion of 'Being' as the first one, also has a double meaning like the first form of the 'true' philosophy of religion in Spinoza. in connection with 'nothingness' and 'becoming', the notion of 'Being' is the foundation of all the following notions of 'pure thought', as they are developed in the 'logic'. the specific value, which is thus attrib- uted to the 'first' notion, is given also to pantheism as the first form of the 'true' philosophy of religion, but not to the 'Religion of nature' as the first form of all religions.
notwithstanding this negative appreciation of the 'immediate religion' or 'Religion of nature', Hegel tries to do justice to it. although 'Being' is the foundation of the 'religion of nature' only in its restricted meaning, it is nevertheless a spiritual determination, which shows that god is in all natural things. therefore, Hegel can say: 'god is the being in . . . all finite
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things'. When god or the infinite is related in this way to the being of all finite things, this means a first proof of the existence of god. Hegel formu- lates this proof as a syllogism:
the finite (of all things) presupposes the infinite However, the finite is.
then is also the infinite.
like the way in which the notion of 'Being' is used in the determination of the 'Religion of nature', this proof of the existence of god is also defi- cient; it is abstract and restricted in its validity. What happens here, is not that god is given 'being', but that 'being' is given god. individual, finite things are made general by giving them a spiritual meaning. But the idea of god, which is expressed in this statement, is not 'adequate' to a 'more profound' explanation. the 'Religion of nature' as a whole cannot really be regarded as a religion at all, at the most as a 'heathen religion' or--Hegel is using a term of goethe here--an 'ethnic religion'.
Because Hegel is uncertain about the 'Religion of nature' as a real reli- gion, the german theologian R. leuze, in his study on 'the non-Christian religions in Hegel's philosophy of religion'--a study which is called a standard work on this subject matter by Jaeschke6--, completely leaves out this form of religion. in contrast to what Hegel himself does, leuze decides, on account of its uncertain status as a religion, not to deal with the 'Religion of nature'. He starts with the religion of the Chinese empire, which comes under the 'Religions of nature' in some years of Hegel's Lec- tures, in others not. 7
The Concept of Nature in the 'Religion of Spirit'
We have seen, that the sentence: 'there is a sensual awareness of nature . . . as god' may not be understood as an expression of pantheism in the sense of Spinoza. Moreover, 'being' as it is used in the explanation of the 'Religion of nature' is not 'being' in the full, concrete meaning of this notion. Both of these critical statements by Hegel about the 'Religion of nature' can be traced back to the concept of nature in the 'Religion of spirit'. for
6 Cf. Walter Jaeschke in: Hegel, Vorlesungen. Ausgewa? hlte Nachschriften und Manu- skripte. vol. 4b, Hamburg: Meiner 1985, p. 653.
7 R. leuze, Die ausserchristlichen Religionen bei Hegel, go? ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Rupprecht 1975, pp. 9-10.
? religion of nature 7
in this concept, nature is restricted to 'fixed', finite things. in the 'religion of nature' as part of the 'religion of spirit', to worship the 'sun . . . stars, river, sea', the 'sky in general' has to do with an 'undetermined conscious- ness of a mighty being, something mighty, a benevolent spirit'. Such rep- resentations miss clear determinations, which in modern pantheism are applied e. g. to the sun. it is thought of as a ball of a certain kind and mat- ter, surrounded by planets, circling around it according to firm rules. in modern pantheism, in contrast to the 'Religion of nature', finite things are therefore made into something general in a determined way.
in a more developed form of the 'Religion of nature', the power of nature is present in subjective natural beings in a more intensive way than in things. in this connection, animals are mentioned; and on an even higher level human beings. But no firm ontological status is given to those ani- mals or human beings that can make use of the power of nature. they are 'purely immediate, natural' beings, and as such thought of in an 'inadequate' way. their generality is only one of representation or will, not of thinking.
Spirit cannot recognise itself adequately in this concept of nature. Because of the undetermined 'dark' character of the power of nature in the 'religion of nature', the mind is filled with fear, with unclear desires and feelings of scare. 'Coincidental and arbitrary connections' are made. nature is somehow independent, on its own, and ducks out of the uni- versal functions of spirit, which give structure to everything. 'the unity of man and nature', a saying that is often used, is wrong according to Hegel. it should be: the unity of man and 'his nature'. and the nature of man is 'freedom, being spirit'. Due to the presupposed universal determina- tion of all that is by spirit, Hegel cannot understand nature as a meaning- ful whole in itself in which specific natural things have their determined place.
in this conception, the attitude of man is not primarily a receiving one with regard to nature as an independent whole.
3. 'Religion of nature' in an earlier Period of Hegel's Writings
The Concepts of Life and Nature in Hegel's Conception of Religion in 1800-1802
it is amazing that in an earlier phase of his thought Hegel defends a con- cept of nature, which is clearly understood as an independent whole that is on the same level as the human world or even can claim priority with regard to the latter. When he started to build up a 'system of philosophy'
8 heinz kimmerle
of his own in the years 1800-1802, philosophy of nature methodologically formed the main part of it. the concept of life was the basic concept of this system. the contents and the structure of this system of philosophy is examined in my earlier research and published in my book: Das Prob- lem der Abgeschlossenheit des Denkens. Hegels 'System der Philosophie' in den Jahren 1800 bis 1804. 8 in the meantime, it is generally recognised that Hegel's systematic drafts of his early Jena period (including some texts of his last year in frankfurt) have a specific meaning, which is different from his later systematic conceptions. 9 this is also documented in the Hegel- Lexikon, which has recently become available. 10
Traces of Earlier Concepts of Life and of Nature in the Explanation of Religion in the Phenomenology of Spirit of 1807 and in the Systematic Drafts from 1802/03 until 1806
Before going into details about the concepts of life and nature and their meaning for the explanation of religion in the systematic conception of the years 1800-1802, i will show which traces of these conceptions still can be found in the Phenomenology of Spirit of 1807 and in the Systematic Drafts from 1802/03 until 1806. in a certain sense traces like these can also be identified in the later work of Hegel.
the path, which is followed in the Phenomenology of Spirit from cer- tainty on the basis of sense data through all forms of knowledge to the 'certainty of the spirit of itself' finally results in the 'consciousness of the absolute being', which means: the phenomenon of religion. But this way through the forms of knowledge is different from the development of spirit in general. 'With reference to religion' this development cannot 'be represented in time'. Consequently, we find in the Phenomenology of Spirit a sequence of religions, which precede the 'revealed religion', that differs from the sequence in the Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion. the sequence in the latter starts also with the 'natural religion'. But this form of religion is obviously related to the structure of the 'philosophy of nature' and not to that of the 'science of logic'. the first form of 'natural
8 Bonn: Bouvier 19822 (Hegel-Studien. Beiheft 8), see pp. 135-146.
9 H. Kimmerle (ed. ), Die Eigenbedeutung von Hegels Jenaer Systemkonzeptionen, Berlin: akademie Verlag 2004.
10 P. Cobben (ed. ), Hegel-Lexikon, Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft 2006, pp. 44-50.
? religion of nature 9
religion' is the 'religion of light'. Pure light is characterised by differentia- tions within itself. it contains the same structure as the 'system of the sun' in the philosophies of nature from 1801 to 1804. then follow, similar to the historical sequence in the Lectures, the religions of plants and animals. in contrast to the historical explanations, the indian 'religion of flowers' gets a specifically positive place here. in 'conscious animal life' we encounter in the text of 1807, like in the Lectures, the first subjective form of religion. in addition to that, moral qualifications are connected already with this stage of 'natural religion'. in the Phenomenology, 'natural religion' is fol- lowed by the 'religion of art'. in the centre of this form of religion stands the 'living piece of art' in the feasts of certain gods in ancient greece. Here we find a clear accent on the concept of life. the 'revealed religion' of Christianity is the highest form of religion, which is identical to 'abso- lute knowledge' as the highest form of knowledge, as far as the content is concerned. 11 this is in accordance, of course, with the identity of 'absolute religion' and 'absolute philosophy' in the Encyclopaedia from 1817 on and in the Lectures on the philosophy of religion from 1821 on.
in the Systematic Drafts from 1802/03 until 1806, the 'philosophy of spirit' has a dominant position with regard to the 'philosophy of nature'. this is, however, only the case since the article on 'natural law', which is published in two parts in 1802 and 1803 in the Kritisches Journal der Philosophie, commonly edited by Hegel and Schelling. in this article, we can find the blunt formulation that 'spirit is higher than nature'. 12 in the Jena Systematic Drafts after that date, the 'philosophy of nature' neverthe- less still forms the main part of the system as far as size is concerned. in the Systematic Drafts of 1803/04 the text of the 'philosophy of nature' is unequally longer than that of the 'philosophy of spirit'. this prepon- derance of the 'philosophy of nature' only gradually becomes less in the Drafts of the following years: 1804/05 and 1805/06. in all these Drafts, the concept of life clearly plays an important role also in the 'philosophy of spirit' as the 'life of the spirit'. in the texts of 1803/04, we read in the 'phi- losophy of spirit' that the spirit as 'spirit of a people' returns to its 'absolutely
11 Hegel, Pha? nomenologie des Geistes, ed. W. Bonsiepen & R. Heede, in: Hegel, Gesam- melte Werke, Hamburg: Meiner, vol. 9, 1980, pp. 363-421. the writings of the Jena-period are quoted from the critical edition. Quotations here are also my translation, (HK).
12 Hegel, Jenaer Kritische Schriften, ed. H. Buchner/o. Po? ggeler, in: Hegel, Gesammelte Werke, Hamburg: Meiner, vol. 4, p. 484.
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general element', the 'ether', and consequently to the beginning of the 'philosophy of nature'. 13
The Concepts of Life and Nature in the Systematic Conception of 1800-1802 and Their Meaning for the Explanation of Religion
in the years 1800-1802, Hegel's 'system of philosophy' contains, different to the later conceptions, not three, but four parts. Part 1, the 'Science of the idea', is divided into a 'logic' as an introduction to metaphysics and a 'Metaphysics' as the explanation of the idea itself. the parts 2 and 3, as a 'Philosophy of nature' and a 'Philosophy of Spirit' respectively, show the reality of the idea. the 'Philosophy of nature' presents in the 'system of the sun' the principle of a unity, which is differentiated within itself. the development of nature on earth (the 'earthly system') starts from the multiplicity of phenomena in 'mechanism' and returns via 'chemism' to the mentioned type of unity in the 'organic'. in the 'Philosophy of Spirit' the idea presents itself as the unity of consciousness, which divides into different elements. then the idea "will summarise its . . . elements, repre- sentation and desire, which correspond to mechanism and chemism of nature, in itself. " as a following step the idea will, in correspondence with the organic in nature, organise 'the realm of needs and of law' and be real as the 'free people'. from here on, the 'system of philosophy' will" finally in the 4th part in the philosophy of religion and of art return to the pure idea and organise the perception of god. "14
this summary of the contents of the 'system of philosophy' of these years is taken over literally for most parts from the manuscript for his lectures in the winter-term 1801/02. Part 4, the 'Philosophy of religion and art', which stands for the 'philosophy of the absolute', is also labelled by Hegel with a Schellingian term 'philosophy of the absolute indifference'. this part returns, however (different from Schelling's conception, as we know it from his writings), to the 'pure idea', as it has been presented in part 1, the 'logic and Metaphysics'. in Schelling's conception of the 'system of philosophy' of that time, 'nature' and 'intelligence', the uncon- scious and the conscious way of producing, are united in the 'philosophy of art'. Hegel refers always, different from Schelling's conception, to both
13 Hegel, Jenaer Systementwu? rfe i (1803/04), ed. K. Du? sing/H. Kimmerle, in: Hegel, Gesammelte Werke, Hamburg: Meiner, vol. 6, 1976, pp. 316 and 265-266.
14 Hegel, Schriften und Entwu? rfe (1799-1808), ed. M. Baum/K. R. Meist, in: Hegel, Gesam- melte Werke, Hamburg: Meiner, vol. 5, 1998, pp. 257-265, 263-264.
? religion of nature 11
religion and art, which have to bring together what had been divided, 'nature and intelligence' or 'nature and spirit'. from 1801 on, it is clear for Hegel that, together with religion and art, also 'speculative philosophy' must lead to the return to the 'pure idea' of 'logic and metaphysics' and by that to the restoration of unity. in his book Differenz des Fichte'schen und Schelling'schen Systems der Philosophie, of which the preface is signed in 'July 1801', Hegel formulates as Schelling's conception, with which he agrees, but which is not documented in Schelling's texts, that 'religion,' as the middle-term between 'art' and 'speculative philosophy,' is 'the living perception of absolute life'. 15
these words refer directly to certain formulations in the System- fragment of 1800. in this text, Hegel does not yet speak of 'speculative philosophy' and the 'power to unite', which is inherent in it. 16 in this text-- actually, these are two texts or two text-fragments--philosophy remains bound to finite thinking. it produces series of oppositions, which tend to a higher unity, but do not reach their aim. only religion can lead to the highest unity and as a consequence to the experience of the infinite. therefore, 'philosophy must end up with religion'. in and with religion human beings are elevating themselves 'from finite life to infinite life'. the 'infinite whole [is] an infinite universe of life'. When man 'elevates himself to the living [universe], unites himself with it most ardently, then he worships god'. 17
the concept of life is obviously of fundamental importance, when reli- gion is taken into consideration. the same holds true for the 'system of philosophy' as a whole. the 'philosophy of nature' is dealing with natu- ral life, which is explained in the first instance as the 'system of the sky' that is called by Hegel--in his Habilitationsdissertation, which is written mainly in 1800--an 'animal'. 18 the 'system of the earth', from 'mechanism' via 'chemism' to 'the organic', is presented as the path towards life in the full sense of the word. the inner dynamics of spirit, by which it is pushed forward from one shape of the human world to the other, is thought of as the 'life of the spirit'. and the 'philosophy of the absolute indifference' is understood, as we have seen already, as a presentation of 'absolute life'.
15 Hegel, Jenaer Kritische Schriften, p. 76.
16 idem, p. 14.
17 Hegel, Fru? he Schriften, ed. e. Moldenhauer/K. M. Michel, Theorie-Werkausgabe, vol. 1,
frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp 1971, pp. 421-422. this edition is relatively reliable and for everybody at hand. i quote from it in my translation (HK).
18 Hegel, Schriften und Entwu? rfe (1799-1808), p. 237.
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the different parts of this 'system of philosophy' are not documented in the remaining passages of the Systemfragment of 1800. they can be recon- structed by using the information on the 'Philosophy of nature' and the 'Philosophy of Spirit', which we have from texts of the years 1801 and 1802. thus it becomes clear that not only the religious dimension of this system is strongly determined by the concepts of life and of nature, but all parts of that system. if this is the case, i dare say that Hegel's thought during this period can be characterised as 'animistic'. everything is understood as 'living', which means also that everything has a soul. the affinity of Hegel's thought in these years with Spinoza's philosophy, especially with the deus sive natura, underpins this interpretation. He contributes to the Spinoza- edition of H. e. g. Paulus, which appears in 1803. 19 Moreover, this affinity is also expressed by the fact that his metaphysics until 1803/04 is based on the Spinozian concept of 'substance'. only in the Systematic Drafts of 1804/05 fichte becomes more important for Hegel again and when the conception of the Phenomenology of 1807 is prepared, which says that there is a unity of 'substance and subjectivity'. 20
up to this point my considerations can be defended easily in the realm of recent Hegel-research. However, the following step, which i will take, is new and therefore risky. this step is to a certain extent prepared by my contribution to the Rotterdam Hegel-symposium of 2003 on the specific meaning of the Jena systematic conceptions. in the already mentioned Differenzschrift of 1801, Hegel states, also in this respect clearly different from his later convictions, that philosophy 'has no history', but that its task is 'the same at all times', namely to grasp in concepts the conditions of its own time. 21 from an intercultural philosophical perspective, i have added to this statement, that philosophy then also will have this same task 'in all places' and 'in all cultures'. Correspondingly, i want to say here that the animistic conception of religion as it is worked out in Hegel's writings from 1800-1802, can be related to conceptions of the 'religion of nature' and their animistic way of thought as we find them in other cultures.
19 Hegel, Schriften und Entwu? rfe (1799-1808), pp. 513-516.
20 K. Du? sing, ? Von der Substanzmetapysik zur Philosophie der Subjektivita? t. Zum Para- digmenwechsel Hegels in Jena? , in: Kimmerle (ed. ), Die Eigenbedeutung von Hegels Jenaer Systemkonzeptionen, pp. 185-199.
21 H. Kimmerle, ? Das Verha? ltnis von Philosophie und geschichte am anfang der Jenaer Periode des Hegelschen Denkens und dessen aktuelle Bedeutung? , in: Die Eigenbedeutung von Hegels Jenaer Systemkonzeptionen, pp. 11-24.
? religion of nature 13
4. the 'Religion of Sorcery' as the first Concrete form of the 'Religion of nature' in Hegel's lectures Since 1821
General Description of the 'Religion of Sorcery' and Its Occurrence with the Eskimos
in paragraph 'b. the Concrete Representation' of the first chapter of Hegel's manuscript of 1821 for his Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion (in the lecture-notes of students from 1824 this paragraph is called 'b. Rep- resentation of god'), Hegel describes concrete forms of the 'religion of nature' in different cultures. He starts with the 'religion of sorcery'. in my critical reading, i will follow the text of the lecture-notes of 1824. as a general characteristic of this first concrete form of the 'religion of nature', it can be said that it expresses the 'power over nature', which the 'single self-consciousness' possesses or thinks to possess. Human beings can heal sick persons by magic practices or make rain, when it is needed. this power is something 'spiritual'. With the presence of something spiritual the presence of god in the world of man is given. in correspondence with the conceptual determination of the 'religion of nature' (see ii. 1) this is to be understood as the first concrete form of religion, which is not at the same time the foundation for the ensuing forms. the 'religion of sorcery' is described as the 'oldest' and the 'most wild and rude' form of religion.
for a more detailed description Hegel uses rather recent reports of trav- ellers (from 1819), which deal with the religion of the eskimos. the eski- mos call their sorcerers 'angekoks'. about them is reported that they have the power to make storm come up or calm it down, or to bring whales close to men. they do this by using words, making gestures and dancing until they lose consciousness. the eskimos do not have any 'figure, human being, animal, or anything like that to worship'. according to the notes of Jaeschke, related to this passage, Hegel has not read well or not taken over carefully the reports about dancing. the reports on dancing refer to general cultural habits and not specifically to religious forms of conjura- tion. (l2 24, 272-275/176-179) Hegel finds the 'religion of sorcery' also in Mongolia, in africa and in China.
The African Form of the 'Religion of Sorcery'
for his extensive descriptions of the 'religion of sorcery' in africa, Hegel quotes from the reports of missionaries, especially of the Capuchin
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J. a. Cavacci from 1694 (original italian edition 1687). 22 Hegel is aware of the fact that these reports are old and little trustworthy, because the mis- sionaries are partial when they talk about non-Christian religious habits and representations. However, he does not take pains to get more recent and more trustworthy sources, which were certainly available for him. He takes over the stories of Cavacci almost literally. these stories contain conjuration of bad spirits by strange and exotic means, healing of sick people with most cruel practices and a lot of killing and cannibalism at different occasions. no critical remark is made by Hegel when he quotes from these one-sided stories. He describes in a somewhat more adequate way the knowledge and practices of the rainmakers.
something which is treated by Hegel only at the end the lectures, in his treatment of the christian cultus.
the treatment of the cultus constitutes the final section of the first part of the Lectures. according to the logic of the concept, it is now time to develop the concept in the dimension of its particularity, that is: to show how the concept is embodied in concrete, actual and historical religions. these concrete manifestations of religion in the determinate religions are considered to be not yet fully adequate in relation to its concept. in the second part of his Lectures, Hegel discusses extensively practically all known major world religions, whereby he distinguishes between the deter- minate religions (all non-christian religions) and the consummate, revealed religion (christianity, in both its catholic and Protestant varieties).
4. Purpose of the Book
the present volume brings together a collection of critical essays that discuss Hegel's relation to each of these determinate, historical forms of religion; including the consummate, revealed religion of christianity. a discussion of islam is also included, although it does not figure promi- nently among Hegel's determinate religions. all contributions aim to shed light on the intriguing development of Hegel's conception of the history of these actual religions. they not only offer a text-immanent analyti- cal approach, but they also take a (more or less) critical stance in which Hegel's perception is confronted with a critique developed from the (point of view of the) religion in question. Moreover, important to observe here, is that the determinate religions are considered by Hegel to be less perfect religions; religious forms that are less adequate to the concept of religion. only christianity turns out to be in this sense a true religion. However, seen from these religions themselves, truth is involved as well; of course, at least for the believers in question. this poses (undeniably) a deep ten- sion between the self-understanding of these non-christian believers and how they view their religion (namely: as true religion) and Hegel's under- standing of these religions as less true than christianity.
it has been our aim not only to develop a comprehensive view of Hegel's philosophy of the historical religions, but also of its broader, con- temporary importance. We did not want to bundle separate, stand-alone contributions, but to offer an integral outline of Hegel's philosophy of the religions in general. the construction and structure of the book follow (for
editorial introduction xxiii
the most part) the dialectics that Hegel himself employed in his Lectures, with the exception of islam that Hegel finds difficult to rubricate.
apart from text-immanent exegesis and the critical appraisal, the further aim of this book is as indicated, to contribute to the discussion between (on the one hand) Hegel's daring, far-reaching philosophical treatment of the great historical religions, and (on the other hand) the current approach, prevailing in religious studies, that seems to be con- strained (more and more) to the merely empirical appreciation of the religious material. We could say that, in some sense, Hegel himself has been responsible for this self-imposed restriction. after his death, Hegel's philosophy of religion was severely criticized. it was presumed to be too speculative and too little empirical in order to be able to do justice to the actual, historical religions. For many scholars 19th century Hegelianism constituted a reason to withdraw and distance themselves from philoso- phy, and to a retreat into a non-reflexive religiosity and a mere descrip- tive science thereof. neo-Kantianism succeeded more or less in regaining some of the long lost trustworthiness of the idealistic approach. But there still remained a great deal of suspicion towards philosophy.
on the other hand, one might ask the question whether empiricism does not condemn itself to intellectual blindness. Philosophers in gen- eral and Hegel in particular, have been reproached many times (and not always without reason) for their generalisations and idealisations. How- ever, positive empiricist science can be blamed for a lack of syntheses, for remaining steeped in details and for over-accentuating the many nuances of reality. While society nowadays is in deep search for these broader per- spectives and meanings, their analyses tenaciously refrain and 'abstract' completely from taking a critical, philosophical or normative stance.
in our view Hegel's philosophy of religion can serve as an example in (at least) two ways. Surely, 'Hegel' serves as a warning against the (some- times) presumptuous pretentions of philosophy to be able to understand in a nutshell, just about everything. However in addition to this, Hegel could serve as an example for those who do not want to restrict them- selves to the empirical approach of the contemporary 'religious studies', but who want seriously to engage, with all possible dangers, in thinking about God, and about the relation between God and man.
leiden, december 2011
Religion of natuRe Heinz Kimmerle
1. introduction
in his Lectures on the philosophy of religion (1821), Hegel departs from the idea of a 'religion of spirit', which has the same content as his philosophy, that is: a 'philosophy of spirit'. in this context, he cannot give an adequate explanation of the 'religion of nature'. especially he cannot do justice to the african form of a 'religion of nature'. in his writings of 1800-1802 he defends a 'religion of life', which corresponds to the central meaning of the concepts of life and nature in his 'system of philosophy' of that time. this forms a more adequate presupposition to explain the 'religion of nature'. although there is no direct relation possible between Hegel's 'religion of life' and the animist religious representations and practices in sub-Saharan african tradition, the outlines of a philosophical discussion is sketched in the following contribution, in which this relation becomes meaningful.
'Philosophy of Spirit' and 'Religion of Spirit'
'god is Spirit and those who worship Him must worship Him in Spirit and in truth'; 'this same Spirit testifies together with our spirit that we are god's children'. these two quotations from the new testament ( John 4; 24 and Romans 8; 16) are the key-texts upon which Hegel's 'philosophy of religion' is founded. this is especially true with regard to the claim that Christianity is the highest form of religion. Philosophy, as it is worked out as the last stage of Hegel's 'system of philosophy', has the same contents as this religion. His 'system of philosophy' is philosophy of spirit in all its parts: in the 'Science of logic', spirit is presented as idea, in the 'Philoso- phy of nature', spirit exists as its other and in the 'Philosophy of Spirit', we encounter spirit as spirit. according to Hegel--and he uses among other arguments the two above given quotations for that--the Christian religion is religion of spirit, which is testified both by god's Spirit and by our human spirit. therefore the dispute whether (Christian) religion is
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sublated and thus surpassed by philosophy or not, is of no use. 1 Both of them express the 'absolute spirit', and that means the absolute truth, in an adequate way: religion in the medium of representations and philoso- phy in the medium of concepts.
of course, philosophy is paramount to religion, but religion is broader than philosophy. Religion enables the absolute truth to become acces- sible to people who are not familiar with philosophical thought and the language of concepts. in addition, philosophy, if it is true philosophy-- that means: self-development of spirit (Hegel speaks in this connection of 'speculative' philosophy)--is in itself religious. the self-development of spirit covers the following stages: first of all, it knows itself, in a next step it observes itself in nature, then it puts its elements beside and oppo- site to each other by means of reflection, and finally it unites them in the wholeness of perceiving itself. Moreover, this happens also, in a way, which is accessible for everybody, in religion and its history. therefore is 'religion . . . the truth for all human beings'. 2
Systematic Explanation and History of Religion
these elements of true religion are present in the 'revealed religion' of Christianity as absolute religion. for this religion is a 'religion of spirit'. this can be summarized, with Hegel, also in a more religious language: (1) 'god is only god insofar as He knows Himself '; (2) 'His knowledge of Himself is also a self-consciousness in the human being' who is aware of the outside nature and perceives himself as spirit. thus self-consciousness is reached, in which knowledge is attained that the finite human being has of god, how imperfect that may be. (3) the human knowledge of god transforms itself finally into 'the self-knowledge of the human being within god'. 3 in the Encyclopaedia of the philosophical sciences these three ele- ments of true religion are explained systematically. these will be left aside
1 Karl lo? with, 'Hegels aufhebung der christlichen Religion? , in: Hans-georg gadamer (ed. ), Heidelberger Hegel-Tage 1962, Bonn: Bouvier 1964, pp. 193-236; albert Chapelle, Hegel et la religion, Paris: editions universitaires 1963; Heinz Kimmerle, ? Zur theologischen Hegelinterpretation', in: Hegel-Studien 3 1965, pp. 356-369.
2 georg Wilhelm friedrich Hegel, Enzyklopa? die der philosophischen Wissenschaften im Grundrisse (1830), ed. friedhelm nicolin & otto Po? ggeler, Hamburg: Meiner 1959, pp. 451-452 (? 573). i am quoting here and in the following text from this german edition and give my own translation. Reference to the paragraphs (? ? ) makes it possible to find the quotations in any other edition of this work.
3 Hegel, Enzyklopda? die, p. 447 (? 564).
? religion of nature 3
in this contribution. However, the systematic steps can also be traced in the history of religion, which Hegel has worked out in his Lectures on the philosophy of religion. in this history the finite human knowledge of god presents itself in different forms of 'determinate religion'. the 'religion of nature' is the first of these historical forms.
the 'religion of nature' originates when natural things are observed in a spiritual way in the self-consciousness of the human being. insofar as this is a spiritual observation of natural things, nature is conceived as god. Hegel gives several examples of this religion, namely the religion of the eskimos, the Mongolians, but first of all, the africans. the Chinese 'religion of the state' is also part of the 'religion of nature' in certain years when Hegel has given these Lectures, but not in all of them.
'Religion of Nature'
for the reading of the main passages of the 'religion of nature', which will follow here, the edition of Jaeschke provides us with the most reliable and most detailed texts. 4 However, i will not just reproduce the contents of these passages or retell them. a deconstructive reading is carried out, which will lead to somehow unexpected and also unaccustomed results. the general introduction is especially taken into consideration, as well as the explanation of the first form of the 'immediate religion or religion of nature', which is called by Hegel 'religion of sorcery'. in the general intro- duction and in the first chapter of the first form of the 'religion of nature': 'a) the metaphysical concept' of god, we find the conceptual basis of this form of religion. these passages will be read with precision and some formulations will be examined critically, which deal with the concept of nature and the concept of life. this way of reading will make clear that there are some cracks and clean breaks in Hegel's conception of a 'reli- gion of spirit'. the description of the african form of a 'religion of nature' turns out to be especially inadequate. earlier conceptions of nature, life and the human world in Hegel's thought would have enabled a different explanation of the 'religion of nature' as a 'religion of life'. in support of this allegation i will--after a short glimpse at the chapter on 'the reli- gion' in the Phenomenology of Spirit from 1807 and some passages of the
4 VPhR 2, 1-29, 139-219, 411-445, 611-614. Quotations from this edition are my transla- tion (HK).
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Systematic Drafts (Systementwu? rfe) from 1802/03 until 1806--refer to the systematic conception of the years 1800 to 1802.
therefore, the later conception of religion as 'religion of spirit' is con- fronted with a philosophy of religion that departs from the concept of life that is essential for Hegel's 'system of philosophy' as a whole in the years of his transition from frankfurt to Jena. in this connection one could speak of a 'religion of life' or even of an animistic conception of religion. However, the notion of 'animism', to be used to denote a religion based on the concept of life, is not yet in use in Hegel's time. according to the lemma 'animism' in the Encyclopaedia of Ghosts and Spirits, edited by R. e. guiley, this notion is introduced by the anthropologist edward B. tylor in his book Religion in Primitive Cultures, that was published in 1871. 5
'Religion of Spirit' and 'Religion of Life' in Hegel and Animist Representations in Traditional African Religion
in his Lectures from 1821 on, in the context of a 'religion of spirit' Hegel calls the first form of the 'religion of nature', as we have said before: 'reli- gion of sorcery'. on several occasions, he remarks that we cannot speak of religion in a proper sense of the word on this level. a closer examina- tion of the way in which Hegel is using his sources here, especially about traditional african religion and of the whole presentation of this form of religion, leads us to the conclusion that he is hampered by his universal concept of spirit to give an adequate explanation of the 'religion of nature'. earlier conceptions of his 'system of philosophy', which depart from the concept of life, are quite different in this respect. they are akin to ani- mism as we find it in traditional african religion, if we look at it from the knowledge we have of it today. this religion can be called a 'religion of spirits', because the belief that a soul can be found in all things--also in natural things--means that spirits can dwell in them. in this connection, a new appreciation of animism is necessary in order to correct the devalu- ation of this religion, which has occurred in the period of enlightenment and of colonialism. the later Hegel has contributed considerably to the devaluation of this religion. the correction can take place in the context of a philosophical discussion, which takes seriously the 'absent-present' or 'present-absent'--dimension of reality, as it becomes possible since Derrida's suggestion of a new 'spectrology'.
5 edward B. tylor, Religion in Primitive Cultures, new York/oxford: facts on file 1992, pp. 11-13.
? religion of nature 5 2. 'Religion of nature' in Hegel's 'System of Philosophy' Since 1817
Logical Foundations of the 'Religion of Nature'
the explanation of the history of religion in Hegel's Lectures on the phi- losophy of religion from 1821 on, as it is founded in his Encyclopaedia of philosophical sciences (1st edition in 1817), relies more in particular on the first part of this philosophical system: the 'Science of logic'. that means: the 'Religion of nature', corresponding to the first chapter of the 'logic', consists in the religion of 'Being'. We have to take into consideration that the correspondences between systematic and historical elements with Hegel are generally, and also in this particular context, not very strict. the coincidences that occur in history make this impossible.
in the General introduction to the 'immediate religion or Religion of nature', in the first paragraph 'a) the Metaphysical Concept' of god, and in the first passages of the second paragraph 'b) the Concrete Represen- tation' of god, Hegel works with the concept of 'Being' of his 'Science of logic'. 'Being' is presented in the 'logic' as 'immediateness'. the first form of religion therefore is described as 'immediate religion'. this form of religion is characterised by the 'sensual awareness of god in all things without distinction'. this characterisation seems to amount to panthe- ism, as it has been worked out in modern philosophy since Descartes by Spinoza. Hegel, however, denies this similarity explicitly. according to his explanation, 'immediate religion' or 'Religion of nature' is on the 'lowest and most imperfect level' of religion, as can be found with 'wild peoples'. the pantheism of Spinoza is, in opposition to that, the first form of the 'true' philosophy of religion, and is as such the foundation of 'absolute' or 'Revealed religion'.
at the beginning of the 'logic' the notion of 'Being' as the first one, also has a double meaning like the first form of the 'true' philosophy of religion in Spinoza. in connection with 'nothingness' and 'becoming', the notion of 'Being' is the foundation of all the following notions of 'pure thought', as they are developed in the 'logic'. the specific value, which is thus attrib- uted to the 'first' notion, is given also to pantheism as the first form of the 'true' philosophy of religion, but not to the 'Religion of nature' as the first form of all religions.
notwithstanding this negative appreciation of the 'immediate religion' or 'Religion of nature', Hegel tries to do justice to it. although 'Being' is the foundation of the 'religion of nature' only in its restricted meaning, it is nevertheless a spiritual determination, which shows that god is in all natural things. therefore, Hegel can say: 'god is the being in . . . all finite
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things'. When god or the infinite is related in this way to the being of all finite things, this means a first proof of the existence of god. Hegel formu- lates this proof as a syllogism:
the finite (of all things) presupposes the infinite However, the finite is.
then is also the infinite.
like the way in which the notion of 'Being' is used in the determination of the 'Religion of nature', this proof of the existence of god is also defi- cient; it is abstract and restricted in its validity. What happens here, is not that god is given 'being', but that 'being' is given god. individual, finite things are made general by giving them a spiritual meaning. But the idea of god, which is expressed in this statement, is not 'adequate' to a 'more profound' explanation. the 'Religion of nature' as a whole cannot really be regarded as a religion at all, at the most as a 'heathen religion' or--Hegel is using a term of goethe here--an 'ethnic religion'.
Because Hegel is uncertain about the 'Religion of nature' as a real reli- gion, the german theologian R. leuze, in his study on 'the non-Christian religions in Hegel's philosophy of religion'--a study which is called a standard work on this subject matter by Jaeschke6--, completely leaves out this form of religion. in contrast to what Hegel himself does, leuze decides, on account of its uncertain status as a religion, not to deal with the 'Religion of nature'. He starts with the religion of the Chinese empire, which comes under the 'Religions of nature' in some years of Hegel's Lec- tures, in others not. 7
The Concept of Nature in the 'Religion of Spirit'
We have seen, that the sentence: 'there is a sensual awareness of nature . . . as god' may not be understood as an expression of pantheism in the sense of Spinoza. Moreover, 'being' as it is used in the explanation of the 'Religion of nature' is not 'being' in the full, concrete meaning of this notion. Both of these critical statements by Hegel about the 'Religion of nature' can be traced back to the concept of nature in the 'Religion of spirit'. for
6 Cf. Walter Jaeschke in: Hegel, Vorlesungen. Ausgewa? hlte Nachschriften und Manu- skripte. vol. 4b, Hamburg: Meiner 1985, p. 653.
7 R. leuze, Die ausserchristlichen Religionen bei Hegel, go? ttingen: Vandenhoeck & Rupprecht 1975, pp. 9-10.
? religion of nature 7
in this concept, nature is restricted to 'fixed', finite things. in the 'religion of nature' as part of the 'religion of spirit', to worship the 'sun . . . stars, river, sea', the 'sky in general' has to do with an 'undetermined conscious- ness of a mighty being, something mighty, a benevolent spirit'. Such rep- resentations miss clear determinations, which in modern pantheism are applied e. g. to the sun. it is thought of as a ball of a certain kind and mat- ter, surrounded by planets, circling around it according to firm rules. in modern pantheism, in contrast to the 'Religion of nature', finite things are therefore made into something general in a determined way.
in a more developed form of the 'Religion of nature', the power of nature is present in subjective natural beings in a more intensive way than in things. in this connection, animals are mentioned; and on an even higher level human beings. But no firm ontological status is given to those ani- mals or human beings that can make use of the power of nature. they are 'purely immediate, natural' beings, and as such thought of in an 'inadequate' way. their generality is only one of representation or will, not of thinking.
Spirit cannot recognise itself adequately in this concept of nature. Because of the undetermined 'dark' character of the power of nature in the 'religion of nature', the mind is filled with fear, with unclear desires and feelings of scare. 'Coincidental and arbitrary connections' are made. nature is somehow independent, on its own, and ducks out of the uni- versal functions of spirit, which give structure to everything. 'the unity of man and nature', a saying that is often used, is wrong according to Hegel. it should be: the unity of man and 'his nature'. and the nature of man is 'freedom, being spirit'. Due to the presupposed universal determina- tion of all that is by spirit, Hegel cannot understand nature as a meaning- ful whole in itself in which specific natural things have their determined place.
in this conception, the attitude of man is not primarily a receiving one with regard to nature as an independent whole.
3. 'Religion of nature' in an earlier Period of Hegel's Writings
The Concepts of Life and Nature in Hegel's Conception of Religion in 1800-1802
it is amazing that in an earlier phase of his thought Hegel defends a con- cept of nature, which is clearly understood as an independent whole that is on the same level as the human world or even can claim priority with regard to the latter. When he started to build up a 'system of philosophy'
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of his own in the years 1800-1802, philosophy of nature methodologically formed the main part of it. the concept of life was the basic concept of this system. the contents and the structure of this system of philosophy is examined in my earlier research and published in my book: Das Prob- lem der Abgeschlossenheit des Denkens. Hegels 'System der Philosophie' in den Jahren 1800 bis 1804. 8 in the meantime, it is generally recognised that Hegel's systematic drafts of his early Jena period (including some texts of his last year in frankfurt) have a specific meaning, which is different from his later systematic conceptions. 9 this is also documented in the Hegel- Lexikon, which has recently become available. 10
Traces of Earlier Concepts of Life and of Nature in the Explanation of Religion in the Phenomenology of Spirit of 1807 and in the Systematic Drafts from 1802/03 until 1806
Before going into details about the concepts of life and nature and their meaning for the explanation of religion in the systematic conception of the years 1800-1802, i will show which traces of these conceptions still can be found in the Phenomenology of Spirit of 1807 and in the Systematic Drafts from 1802/03 until 1806. in a certain sense traces like these can also be identified in the later work of Hegel.
the path, which is followed in the Phenomenology of Spirit from cer- tainty on the basis of sense data through all forms of knowledge to the 'certainty of the spirit of itself' finally results in the 'consciousness of the absolute being', which means: the phenomenon of religion. But this way through the forms of knowledge is different from the development of spirit in general. 'With reference to religion' this development cannot 'be represented in time'. Consequently, we find in the Phenomenology of Spirit a sequence of religions, which precede the 'revealed religion', that differs from the sequence in the Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion. the sequence in the latter starts also with the 'natural religion'. But this form of religion is obviously related to the structure of the 'philosophy of nature' and not to that of the 'science of logic'. the first form of 'natural
8 Bonn: Bouvier 19822 (Hegel-Studien. Beiheft 8), see pp. 135-146.
9 H. Kimmerle (ed. ), Die Eigenbedeutung von Hegels Jenaer Systemkonzeptionen, Berlin: akademie Verlag 2004.
10 P. Cobben (ed. ), Hegel-Lexikon, Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft 2006, pp. 44-50.
? religion of nature 9
religion' is the 'religion of light'. Pure light is characterised by differentia- tions within itself. it contains the same structure as the 'system of the sun' in the philosophies of nature from 1801 to 1804. then follow, similar to the historical sequence in the Lectures, the religions of plants and animals. in contrast to the historical explanations, the indian 'religion of flowers' gets a specifically positive place here. in 'conscious animal life' we encounter in the text of 1807, like in the Lectures, the first subjective form of religion. in addition to that, moral qualifications are connected already with this stage of 'natural religion'. in the Phenomenology, 'natural religion' is fol- lowed by the 'religion of art'. in the centre of this form of religion stands the 'living piece of art' in the feasts of certain gods in ancient greece. Here we find a clear accent on the concept of life. the 'revealed religion' of Christianity is the highest form of religion, which is identical to 'abso- lute knowledge' as the highest form of knowledge, as far as the content is concerned. 11 this is in accordance, of course, with the identity of 'absolute religion' and 'absolute philosophy' in the Encyclopaedia from 1817 on and in the Lectures on the philosophy of religion from 1821 on.
in the Systematic Drafts from 1802/03 until 1806, the 'philosophy of spirit' has a dominant position with regard to the 'philosophy of nature'. this is, however, only the case since the article on 'natural law', which is published in two parts in 1802 and 1803 in the Kritisches Journal der Philosophie, commonly edited by Hegel and Schelling. in this article, we can find the blunt formulation that 'spirit is higher than nature'. 12 in the Jena Systematic Drafts after that date, the 'philosophy of nature' neverthe- less still forms the main part of the system as far as size is concerned. in the Systematic Drafts of 1803/04 the text of the 'philosophy of nature' is unequally longer than that of the 'philosophy of spirit'. this prepon- derance of the 'philosophy of nature' only gradually becomes less in the Drafts of the following years: 1804/05 and 1805/06. in all these Drafts, the concept of life clearly plays an important role also in the 'philosophy of spirit' as the 'life of the spirit'. in the texts of 1803/04, we read in the 'phi- losophy of spirit' that the spirit as 'spirit of a people' returns to its 'absolutely
11 Hegel, Pha? nomenologie des Geistes, ed. W. Bonsiepen & R. Heede, in: Hegel, Gesam- melte Werke, Hamburg: Meiner, vol. 9, 1980, pp. 363-421. the writings of the Jena-period are quoted from the critical edition. Quotations here are also my translation, (HK).
12 Hegel, Jenaer Kritische Schriften, ed. H. Buchner/o. Po? ggeler, in: Hegel, Gesammelte Werke, Hamburg: Meiner, vol. 4, p. 484.
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general element', the 'ether', and consequently to the beginning of the 'philosophy of nature'. 13
The Concepts of Life and Nature in the Systematic Conception of 1800-1802 and Their Meaning for the Explanation of Religion
in the years 1800-1802, Hegel's 'system of philosophy' contains, different to the later conceptions, not three, but four parts. Part 1, the 'Science of the idea', is divided into a 'logic' as an introduction to metaphysics and a 'Metaphysics' as the explanation of the idea itself. the parts 2 and 3, as a 'Philosophy of nature' and a 'Philosophy of Spirit' respectively, show the reality of the idea. the 'Philosophy of nature' presents in the 'system of the sun' the principle of a unity, which is differentiated within itself. the development of nature on earth (the 'earthly system') starts from the multiplicity of phenomena in 'mechanism' and returns via 'chemism' to the mentioned type of unity in the 'organic'. in the 'Philosophy of Spirit' the idea presents itself as the unity of consciousness, which divides into different elements. then the idea "will summarise its . . . elements, repre- sentation and desire, which correspond to mechanism and chemism of nature, in itself. " as a following step the idea will, in correspondence with the organic in nature, organise 'the realm of needs and of law' and be real as the 'free people'. from here on, the 'system of philosophy' will" finally in the 4th part in the philosophy of religion and of art return to the pure idea and organise the perception of god. "14
this summary of the contents of the 'system of philosophy' of these years is taken over literally for most parts from the manuscript for his lectures in the winter-term 1801/02. Part 4, the 'Philosophy of religion and art', which stands for the 'philosophy of the absolute', is also labelled by Hegel with a Schellingian term 'philosophy of the absolute indifference'. this part returns, however (different from Schelling's conception, as we know it from his writings), to the 'pure idea', as it has been presented in part 1, the 'logic and Metaphysics'. in Schelling's conception of the 'system of philosophy' of that time, 'nature' and 'intelligence', the uncon- scious and the conscious way of producing, are united in the 'philosophy of art'. Hegel refers always, different from Schelling's conception, to both
13 Hegel, Jenaer Systementwu? rfe i (1803/04), ed. K. Du? sing/H. Kimmerle, in: Hegel, Gesammelte Werke, Hamburg: Meiner, vol. 6, 1976, pp. 316 and 265-266.
14 Hegel, Schriften und Entwu? rfe (1799-1808), ed. M. Baum/K. R. Meist, in: Hegel, Gesam- melte Werke, Hamburg: Meiner, vol. 5, 1998, pp. 257-265, 263-264.
? religion of nature 11
religion and art, which have to bring together what had been divided, 'nature and intelligence' or 'nature and spirit'. from 1801 on, it is clear for Hegel that, together with religion and art, also 'speculative philosophy' must lead to the return to the 'pure idea' of 'logic and metaphysics' and by that to the restoration of unity. in his book Differenz des Fichte'schen und Schelling'schen Systems der Philosophie, of which the preface is signed in 'July 1801', Hegel formulates as Schelling's conception, with which he agrees, but which is not documented in Schelling's texts, that 'religion,' as the middle-term between 'art' and 'speculative philosophy,' is 'the living perception of absolute life'. 15
these words refer directly to certain formulations in the System- fragment of 1800. in this text, Hegel does not yet speak of 'speculative philosophy' and the 'power to unite', which is inherent in it. 16 in this text-- actually, these are two texts or two text-fragments--philosophy remains bound to finite thinking. it produces series of oppositions, which tend to a higher unity, but do not reach their aim. only religion can lead to the highest unity and as a consequence to the experience of the infinite. therefore, 'philosophy must end up with religion'. in and with religion human beings are elevating themselves 'from finite life to infinite life'. the 'infinite whole [is] an infinite universe of life'. When man 'elevates himself to the living [universe], unites himself with it most ardently, then he worships god'. 17
the concept of life is obviously of fundamental importance, when reli- gion is taken into consideration. the same holds true for the 'system of philosophy' as a whole. the 'philosophy of nature' is dealing with natu- ral life, which is explained in the first instance as the 'system of the sky' that is called by Hegel--in his Habilitationsdissertation, which is written mainly in 1800--an 'animal'. 18 the 'system of the earth', from 'mechanism' via 'chemism' to 'the organic', is presented as the path towards life in the full sense of the word. the inner dynamics of spirit, by which it is pushed forward from one shape of the human world to the other, is thought of as the 'life of the spirit'. and the 'philosophy of the absolute indifference' is understood, as we have seen already, as a presentation of 'absolute life'.
15 Hegel, Jenaer Kritische Schriften, p. 76.
16 idem, p. 14.
17 Hegel, Fru? he Schriften, ed. e. Moldenhauer/K. M. Michel, Theorie-Werkausgabe, vol. 1,
frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp 1971, pp. 421-422. this edition is relatively reliable and for everybody at hand. i quote from it in my translation (HK).
18 Hegel, Schriften und Entwu? rfe (1799-1808), p. 237.
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the different parts of this 'system of philosophy' are not documented in the remaining passages of the Systemfragment of 1800. they can be recon- structed by using the information on the 'Philosophy of nature' and the 'Philosophy of Spirit', which we have from texts of the years 1801 and 1802. thus it becomes clear that not only the religious dimension of this system is strongly determined by the concepts of life and of nature, but all parts of that system. if this is the case, i dare say that Hegel's thought during this period can be characterised as 'animistic'. everything is understood as 'living', which means also that everything has a soul. the affinity of Hegel's thought in these years with Spinoza's philosophy, especially with the deus sive natura, underpins this interpretation. He contributes to the Spinoza- edition of H. e. g. Paulus, which appears in 1803. 19 Moreover, this affinity is also expressed by the fact that his metaphysics until 1803/04 is based on the Spinozian concept of 'substance'. only in the Systematic Drafts of 1804/05 fichte becomes more important for Hegel again and when the conception of the Phenomenology of 1807 is prepared, which says that there is a unity of 'substance and subjectivity'. 20
up to this point my considerations can be defended easily in the realm of recent Hegel-research. However, the following step, which i will take, is new and therefore risky. this step is to a certain extent prepared by my contribution to the Rotterdam Hegel-symposium of 2003 on the specific meaning of the Jena systematic conceptions. in the already mentioned Differenzschrift of 1801, Hegel states, also in this respect clearly different from his later convictions, that philosophy 'has no history', but that its task is 'the same at all times', namely to grasp in concepts the conditions of its own time. 21 from an intercultural philosophical perspective, i have added to this statement, that philosophy then also will have this same task 'in all places' and 'in all cultures'. Correspondingly, i want to say here that the animistic conception of religion as it is worked out in Hegel's writings from 1800-1802, can be related to conceptions of the 'religion of nature' and their animistic way of thought as we find them in other cultures.
19 Hegel, Schriften und Entwu? rfe (1799-1808), pp. 513-516.
20 K. Du? sing, ? Von der Substanzmetapysik zur Philosophie der Subjektivita? t. Zum Para- digmenwechsel Hegels in Jena? , in: Kimmerle (ed. ), Die Eigenbedeutung von Hegels Jenaer Systemkonzeptionen, pp. 185-199.
21 H. Kimmerle, ? Das Verha? ltnis von Philosophie und geschichte am anfang der Jenaer Periode des Hegelschen Denkens und dessen aktuelle Bedeutung? , in: Die Eigenbedeutung von Hegels Jenaer Systemkonzeptionen, pp. 11-24.
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4. the 'Religion of Sorcery' as the first Concrete form of the 'Religion of nature' in Hegel's lectures Since 1821
General Description of the 'Religion of Sorcery' and Its Occurrence with the Eskimos
in paragraph 'b. the Concrete Representation' of the first chapter of Hegel's manuscript of 1821 for his Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion (in the lecture-notes of students from 1824 this paragraph is called 'b. Rep- resentation of god'), Hegel describes concrete forms of the 'religion of nature' in different cultures. He starts with the 'religion of sorcery'. in my critical reading, i will follow the text of the lecture-notes of 1824. as a general characteristic of this first concrete form of the 'religion of nature', it can be said that it expresses the 'power over nature', which the 'single self-consciousness' possesses or thinks to possess. Human beings can heal sick persons by magic practices or make rain, when it is needed. this power is something 'spiritual'. With the presence of something spiritual the presence of god in the world of man is given. in correspondence with the conceptual determination of the 'religion of nature' (see ii. 1) this is to be understood as the first concrete form of religion, which is not at the same time the foundation for the ensuing forms. the 'religion of sorcery' is described as the 'oldest' and the 'most wild and rude' form of religion.
for a more detailed description Hegel uses rather recent reports of trav- ellers (from 1819), which deal with the religion of the eskimos. the eski- mos call their sorcerers 'angekoks'. about them is reported that they have the power to make storm come up or calm it down, or to bring whales close to men. they do this by using words, making gestures and dancing until they lose consciousness. the eskimos do not have any 'figure, human being, animal, or anything like that to worship'. according to the notes of Jaeschke, related to this passage, Hegel has not read well or not taken over carefully the reports about dancing. the reports on dancing refer to general cultural habits and not specifically to religious forms of conjura- tion. (l2 24, 272-275/176-179) Hegel finds the 'religion of sorcery' also in Mongolia, in africa and in China.
The African Form of the 'Religion of Sorcery'
for his extensive descriptions of the 'religion of sorcery' in africa, Hegel quotes from the reports of missionaries, especially of the Capuchin
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J. a. Cavacci from 1694 (original italian edition 1687). 22 Hegel is aware of the fact that these reports are old and little trustworthy, because the mis- sionaries are partial when they talk about non-Christian religious habits and representations. However, he does not take pains to get more recent and more trustworthy sources, which were certainly available for him. He takes over the stories of Cavacci almost literally. these stories contain conjuration of bad spirits by strange and exotic means, healing of sick people with most cruel practices and a lot of killing and cannibalism at different occasions. no critical remark is made by Hegel when he quotes from these one-sided stories. He describes in a somewhat more adequate way the knowledge and practices of the rainmakers.
