No More Learning

at Riade (perhaps Rittburg on the Unstru be confined to the limits of
15 March 933. The seemingly impenetra his own hands he delegated
onslaught of the Saxon army, the camp vllung, a noble connected with
once feared and invincible army of the Mil house of Saxony. Another
land in panic and confusion. The Danesed, who is described as second
They had long pushed beyond the river Eiand on his death it passed to
the Great; they had encroached upon Holhe two men who, throughout
the coast of Frisia. In 934 Henry entereds not only kept the Wends in
venturing to risk a battle, sued for peacen a firm footing in the marches
of the old Eider boundary and the esved the king of a difficult task,
Schleswig.
ettention to his policy of cen-
Towards the end of his life Henry, lie royal influence, and later of
influence of his wife Matilda, became mororing the imperial title. But
in advancing the interests of the Christicony. Wichmann was jealous
serious churchman and there is evidence Herman, and by the selection
ecclesiastical power grew less intense in !
Erfurt in June 932 testifies to his intereto. . . Heinrico, omnis populus Fran-
favourite home of Quedlinburg he foundei a patre, filium eius Oddonem, elegit
· elected-at Fritzlar or Forchheim
1 The fact that he was, as far as we know,pelle for coronation; so Giesebrecht,
bishop count over his own city shows that he wa’erfassungsgeschichte, vi. 135, n. 3,
secular power of the ecclesiastical party. In 92{ake these words to refer to the
in his city.
to was designated as the successor,
a
CH. VIII.


## p. 186 (#232) ############################################

186
Death.
Henry the Fowler
contemplated, says the Sax historian Widukind, a visit to Rome, not
indeed to seek the imperial own, for he had declined the honour of
coronation even in Germanyut as a pilgrim. Acceptance of Chris-
tianity was often imposed by
n as a condition of peace on his conquered
foes. This was the case at
ne break-down of the Slav revolt in 928.
In 931 (? ) baptism was reced by the prince of the Obotrites and
perhaps by a Danish prince'a spite of the hostility of Gorm the Old,
who devoted his life to the Fsecution of the Christians and to stamping
out all remnants of Christia,y from his dominions.
"
.
In the autumn of 935
Bodfeld in the Harz Mountains, while
engaged in a hunting exped on, Henry was struck down with paralysis
.
Anxious to see the successic decided in his lifetime, he summoned an
,
assembly of nobles at Erfurin the beginning of 936. Thankmar the
eldest son was excluded on
le ground that his mother Hatheburg, a
Wend, was under a vow to ke the veil when Henry sought to marry
her; though Henry, the younįe and favourite son of Queen Matilda, had
claims on the ground that he
vas born after his father's accession to the
German throne, Otto, the elr son, seemed the most fit to carry on the
,
work his father had begun nd was accepted as the successor by the
assembled princes. At Mereben on 2 July, when nearly sixty years of
age, Henry the Fowler succt bed to a second stroke and was buried in
his own foundation, the Circh of St Peter at Quedlinburg. The
chroniclers of the period a unanimous in their praises of Henry's
character and achievements. He was a just and farsighted statesman, a
skilful and brave general : Wh foreigners and enemies he was stern and
uncompromising, but to his wn countrymen he was a lenient and bene-
volent ruler
. He was a ke sportsman, a genial companion.
In his
own day Henry was recognis, as the founder of a new realm. As Duke
of Saxony, he was in a goo position to inaugurate a new era, for the
Saxons were in blood and
touched by Frankish influence It was the work of Henry that prepared
customs the purest Germans, the least
the
way for the more brillian and the more permanent achievements of
his son and successor.
1
OTTO I.
Otto came to the throne in the full vigour and idealism of youth
(he was born in 912): he wa
possessed of a high sense of honour and
justice, was stern and passionate, inspiring fear and admiration rather
than love among his subject: he was ambitious in his aspirations and
anxious to make the royal p'wer felt as a reality throughout Germany.
The difference between father and son becomes immediately apparent in
the matter of coronation. Is had already been elected at an assembly
1 See note :
, p. 202, in this chapter,


## p. 187 (#233) ############################################

Coronation of Otto the Great
187
of Saxon and Franconian princes held at Erfurt? in his father's lifetime;
but not content with this, he laid great stress on the importance of a
solemn ceremony which took place early in August at Aix-la-Chapelle,
the old Carolingian seat of residence. There the Archbishop Hildebert
of Mayence presented the young duke to the assembled multitude of people
with the words, “Behold, I bring to you Otto, the elect of God, the chosen
of our lord Henry, and now made king by all the princes. If the election
is pleasing to you, declare it by show of hands. ” Immediately the whole
people lifted their hands and hailed the new king with clamorous shouts.
He was invested at the hands of the Archbishop with the insignia of
royalty, the sword with which to strike down the enemies of Christ, the
bracelets and cloak, the emblems of peace, the sceptre and the staff by
which tokens he is inspired to chasten his subjects and to stretch out the
hand of mercy to the servants of God, to widows and orphans. Finally
he was anointed and crowned by the Archbishop of Mayence assisted by
Archbishop Wikfried of Cologne and by them was led by a special stair
to a throne set up between marble pillars where he could see and be
observed by all. After the celebration of mass, the company adjourned
to the palace for a state banquet at which the dukes officiated, Gilbert
of Lorraine as Chamberlain, Everard of Franconia as Steward, Herman
of Swabia as Cupbearer, and Arnulf of Bavaria as Marshal. It was
a festival of the highest significance; it was a public recognition of the
union of the German tribes, the foundation of the German monarchy.
The royal influence was no longer to be confined to the limits of
Saxony; while he retained the duchy in his own hands he delegated
many of the ducal functions to Hernan Billung, a noble connected with
the royal house and founder of the later ducal house of Saxony. Another
important post was granted to Count Siegfried, who is described as second
only to the king among the Saxon chiefs; and on his death it passed to
Count Gero. Herman and Gero were the two men who, throughout
the reign of Otto, by their untiring efforts not only kept the Wends in
check, but established German authority on a firm footing in the marches
between the Elbe and the Oder ; they relieved the king of a difficult task,
enabling him thereby to turn his whole attention to his policy of cen-
tralising the government, of extending the royal influence, and later of
adding Italy to his dominions and of restoring the imperial title. But
these appointments were unpopular in Saxony. Wichmann was jealous
of the advancement of his younger brother Herman, and by the selection
а
а
1 The passage in Widukind, 11. 1: Defuncto. . . Heinrico, omnis populus Fran-
corum atque Saxonum iam olim designatum regem a patre, filium eius Oddonem, elegit
sibi in principem, suggests that Otto was formally elected-at Fritzlar or Forchheim
it is conjectured— before proceeding to Aix-la-Chapelle for coronation; so Giesebrecht,
1. 241, and Köpke-Dümmler, 26. But Waitz, Verfassungsgeschichte, vi. 135, n. 3,
and Maurenbrecher, Königswahlen, 64, n. 3, take these words to refer to the
assembly at Erfurt before Henry's death when Otto was designated as the successor,
CH. VIII.


## p. 188 (#234) ############################################

188
Bavarian revolt. Risings in Franconia and Saxony
of Gero, Otto lost the support of his half-brother Thankmar, who in spite
of being barred from the throne had hitherto shown himself a loyal
subject. Being akin to Siegfried he had counted on succeeding to his
position and estates ; disappointed in this, he joined with Everard in
the rebellion of 938.
At the coronation festival at Aix-la-Chapelle the dukes had fully
recognised Otto as king and, no doubt with the idea that he would con-
tinue his father's policy, had done homage for their dukedoms. But no
sooner had Otto revealed his intentions than they were up in arms. The
trouble began in Bavaria. Arnulf died in July 937 and his sons refused
their homage. Two campaigns in 938 were necessary to restore the royal
authority. Berthold, Arnulf's brother, formerly Duke of Carinthia, was
set over the duchy, but with limited powers. Otto took to himself the
right of nominating to bishoprics and also, now or shortly after, set up
Arnulf, son of the late duke, as Count palatinel to safeguard the royal
interests in the duchy.
Between the two Bavarian campaigns Otto had been called away to
deal with a more serious rising in Franconia. Small raids had been
frequent on the borders of Saxony, raids in which Duke Everard had
been involved. In one of these Everard burnt the city of Hellmern and
slaughtered the inhabitants; the duke was fined and the abettors of the
crime were condemned to the indignity of carrying dogs through the
streets of Magdeburg. But the disturbance was not at an end: the delin-
quents were emboldened rather than deterred by the lenient treatment
they received from Otto at a diet held at Steele on the Ruhr in May,
and the petty warfare rose to the dimensions of civil war. Thankmar,
who, as we have seen, had his own reasons to be displeased with Otto's
rule, joined forces with Everard : together they captured Belecke on the
Möhne and with it the king's younger brother Henry. But a reaction
followed: the discontented Wichmann returned to loyalty and the in-
surrection in Saxony completely broke down : the fortress of Eresburg,
which Thankmar had taken, opened its gates at Otto’s approach.
Thankmar himself fled to the Church of St Peter where he was slain
at the altar, an act of sacrilege of which Otto was entirely innocent.
Everard was restored to favour after undergoing a short term of honour-
able imprisonment at Hildesheim ; but before making his peace he
1 His duties were to act as the king's representative in judicial matters, to take
charge of the royal fortresses and lands, and to be responsible for the revenues due
from Bavaria. The object was plainly to set up a counter authority against that of
the tribal duke. Arnulf was the leader of the opposition in Bavaria in 937–8, and
was banished as a punishment; his recall and appointment as Count Palatine is
characteristic of Otto's generous and lenient treatment of opponents. The Cont.
Reginonis, anno 938, the only authority for the Bavarian revolt, speaks of an Everard
as the leader of the rebellion, but Erben in Neues Archiv, xvi. conjectures on very
convincing grounds that the passage Everhardum Arnolfi filium should read Arnolfum
Arnolfi filium.


## p. 189 (#235) ############################################

The Rebellion of the Dukes in 939
189
entered into a secret compact with Henry by which they should, when the
opportunity offered, combine against Otto. The crown was to be Henry's
reward. Early in the year 939 everything was in readiness. The arrange-
ments were made at a gathering of malcontents at Saalfeld. Gilbert of
Lorraine had been drawn into the ranks of the disaffected dukes. All
the three leaders, Henry, Everard, and Gilbert, according to Liudprand,
Bishop of Cremona, had designs on the throne, trusting perhaps to the
fortunes of war to bring one or the other of them to the uppermost.
Hostilities broke out in Lorraine. Otto hastened to the scene of action,
while the enemy were advancing towards the Rhine near Xanten. The
paucity of boats enabled but a small portion of the royalist troops to
cross the river before their adversaries came in sight. While the king,
with the main body of his army, watched from the opposite bank, this
small detachment, perhaps no more than a hundred men, by strategy,
by cunning, and by a vigorous attack in front and rear, won a victory
on the field of Birthen. It was little short of a miracle, a miracle attri-
buted by the legend to the Holy Lance which Otto held in his hand.
This success relieved Otto from all immediate danger. The opposition
broke down in Saxony and Thuringia. Dortmund, one of Henry's for-
tresses, had submitted to the king as he marched towards the Rhine;
after the fight at Birthen, in which it was rumoured that Henry had
fallen, Merseburg and Scheidungen on the Unstrut alone held out. To
the former of these Henry fled after his defeat with but nine followers.
After a siege of two months the garrison capitulated and Henry was
granted a truce of thirty days to quit Saxony. By the beginning of
June the first campaign was over and, says the Saxon historian, “ there
was rest from civil war for a few days. "
The second campaign of the year 939 had a different and more
alarming aspect. It received the support of Louis IV (d'Outremer),
son of Charles the Simple, who on the death of Raoul of Burgundy
had been summoned from his place of refuge at the court of his uncle
King Aethelstan and set on the throne of France by Hugh the Great,
the powerful Count of Paris. The latter had expected to have things
his own way under a king of his own choosing, but soon found he was
mistaken. Louis had no intention of being a puppet in the hands of
the great duke and at once asserted his independence of action. Within
a year of his accession he had alienated from himself all the powerful
nobility of France. When, therefore, Louis, in the hope of attaching
Lorraine once more to the West Frankish dominions, joined forces with
Duke Gilbert, Otto found abundant assistance ready at hand among the
discontented feudatories of France. In September he actually entered
into some sort of compact with Louis' chief antagonists Hugh the Great,
Herbert, Count of Vermandois, William, Duke of Normandy, and Arnulf,
Count of Flanders. Henry, the king's brother, liberated from Merseburg,
hastened to join Gilbert in Lorraine. Otto, following in hot pursuit,
a
CH. VIII.


## p. 190 (#236) ############################################

190
The collapse of the Rebellion
found them garrisoned in the castle of Chèvremont near Liège; he laid
siege to the fortress, but was compelled to relinquish it, for Louis was
making headway in the neighbourhood of Verdun, where several bishops
(perhaps those of Metz, Verdun, and Toul) had submitted themselves
to his authority. Otto set out against him, and drove him back to his
capital at Laon.
At this point in the campaign the scheming Duke of Franconia
openly joined in the revolt. Otto besieged him in the strong fortress
of Breisach on the Rhine. An attempt was made to come to terms:
Frederick, Archbishop of Mayence, was employed to negotiate with
Everard, but he went beyond his powers, conceding more than the king
was prepared to yield and Otto refused to ratify the treaty. The effect
was to throw the Archbishop into the ranks of the insurgents. He fled
privily by night to Metz where he expected to fall in with Henry and
Gilbert; but the latter had already started to join forces with Everard :
whether Henry accompanied the dukes on the fatal expedition to the
Rhine is uncertain ; more probably, making Metz his headquarters, he
remained behind to organise resistance in Lorraine. Everard and Gilbert
made a plundering raid and returned westward, intending to recross the
Rhine at Andernach. Part of their army had already crossed the river
and the dukes were quietly eating their dinner before crossing themselves,
when a body of Franconian troops led by Udo and Conrad Kurzpold,
Franconian counts, whose lands had especially suffered from the raid,
came up with them. Both the dukes fell in the fight that ensued.
Everard was slain by the sword, Gilbert was drowned : according to
one account he got into a boat already overloaded with fugitives and
the boat capsized; according to another he leapt with his horse into the
river and so met his end. By a mere stroke of luck the two leaders of
the rebellion were disposed of in a skirmish hardly worthy of the name
of battle at a moment when Otto's cause seemed desperate, and when,
says Widukind, “there seemed no hope of his retaining rule over the
Saxons, so widespread was the rebellion. ”
The effect was instantaneous. Breisach capitulated: Lorraine was
.
restored to order. Of the remaining leaders, Frederick, after being
refused admittance into his own town of Mayence, was captured and
punished by a short term of imprisonment; Henry, on hearing the news
which deprived him of all hopes of the crown, fled to his old stronghold
of Chèvremont but found the gates closed against him; he made his
way to France, but finding his cause to be hopelessly lost, yielded him-
self up to his brother's mercy. Otto with his habitual generosity and
magnanimity forgave him everything and took him again into his favour.
The royal authority was now firmly established. Henry made one more
attempt to overthrow his brother, but it was too late and the con-
spiracy of 941 collapsed without recourse to arms. The intention had
been to assassinate the king at the Easter festival at Quedlinburg: it


## p. 191 (#237) ############################################

Changes in the administration of the Duchies
191
reached the ears of Otto who proceeded as usual to the feast but with
a strong guard, and there seized and executed the whole gang of con-
spirators. Henry fled, was captured and imprisoned at Ingelheim, but
before the end of the year received the king's pardon. The un-
scrupulous Archbishop of Mayence was also implicated but cleared
himself of guilt by receiving the sacrament in public.
The civil wars involved extensive changes in the government of the
duchies. During the years which followed the restoration of order, Otto
inaugurated and gradually established the policy of attaching the duke-
doms more closely to himself by granting them to members of his own
family. The administration of Lorraine was in 931 entrusted to a
certain Otto, son of Ricwin, and on his death in 944 the duchy was
conferred upon Conrad the Red, a nephew of King Conrad I, who in
947 was married to Otto's daughter Liutgard. Franconia', after the
death of Everard at the fight of Andernach, the king retained in his
own hands. When Duke Berthold died in 947 his duchy of Bavaria
passed to the king's own brother Henry, who, after the failure of his
last attempt to win the throne in 941, had become one of the loyalest
of Otto's subjects and who was already akin to the Bavarian ducal
house through his marriage in 938(? ) with Judith, the daughter of
the old duke Arnulf. Lastly, on the death of Duke Herman in 949,
Swabia was given to Otto's son Liudolf, who married Ida, the daughter
of the late duke. By these arrangements the ancient supremacy of the
Franconian tribe was for ever crushed; but in the southern duchies the
order of things remained unchanged, for while granting the dukedoms
to his own kinsmen, he maintained the traditions and customs of the
tribal duchies by giving the new dukes in marriage to the daughters
of the old ducal houses.
In the meanwhile the eastern neighbours of Germany had taken full
advantage of the intestine troubles which filled the opening years of the
new reign. In the midst of the ducal rebellion of 939 Widukind
deplores the numerous enemies that beset his native Saxony, “Slavs
from the east, Franks from the south, Lorrainers from the west, and
from the north Danes and more Slavs"; he might have added Hun-
garians from the south-east, for their barbaric hordes swept into
Thuringia and Saxony in 937 and 938. They were beaten back and
never again ventured into Saxon territory. On the Wendish border
there had been ceaseless activity. Fortunately for Otto, the frontier
1 According to von Winterfeld, Neues Archiv, xxvIII. pp. 510 f. , on the authority of
a passage in Hrotsvit, Gesta Oddonis, 450 ff. , Otto did not retain the administration of
Franconia in his hands but granted it at this time to his son Liudolf-a boy of eleven
years old—who, if this conjecture is correct, would in 949 be Duke of Franconia and
Swabia. The evidence however is insufficient to justify this conclusion. For the
theory that certain parts of Franconia round the Upper Main and Bamberg were
granted to Berthold of Bavaria, see Giesebrecht, Kaiserzeit, 1. 816 f.
CH. VIII.


## p. 192 (#238) ############################################

192
War on the Eastern Frontier
!
1
11
3
11
command was in capable hands; Herman Billung and Gero repressed
the risings with a firm hand and even extended German influence further
eastward. The death of Henry the Fowler had been the first signal for
insurrection, in which the Redari seem to have taken the leading part.
Henry they had learnt to fear, but Otto was untried and had yet to
prove his strength. He hastened back from his coronation at Aix-la-
Chapelle and suppressed the rising. The Wends were held in check till
the year 939 when Germany was in the throes of civil war, when the
total subversion of the royal authority seemed inevitable, and an un-
rivalled opportunity of throwing off the German yoke presented itself.
They made repeated inroads which were beaten off by Gero, and even
the king himself, it appears, found time on more than one occasion to
enter into the border conflict. In Bohemia, Boleslav, who had in 936
gained the throne by murdering his brother Wenceslas at the gates of
the church of Alt-Bunzlau, asserted his independence; and though
temporarily checked by a force of Saxons and Thuringians sent against
him in 938, he continued to be a source of danger and disturbance till
Otto in 950 made an expedition in person to Bohemia and was recog-
nised as overlord. The results, however, of the frontier fighting were
on the whole satisfactory. Partly by his own efforts, partly by his keen
insight into character which enabled him to select the right men for
the work, Otto made progress, extended the German sway as far as the
Oder, and prepared the way for the next stage in his Eastern policy,
the consolidation of his conquests and the conversion of the conquered
peoples to the Christian religion. The newly acquired territory was
divided into two marches under the control of Herman and Gero.
The tribute and rents accruing from these sources were appropriated to
the maintenance of the frontier garrisons, to the establishinent of colonies,
and to the endowment of churches. In 948, probably on the occasion
of the visit of the papal legate Marinus, Bishop of Bomarzo, to Germany,
bishoprics were founded at Brandenburg and Havelberg in the province
of Mayence, and at Ripen, Aarhus and Schleswig in the metropolitan
diocese of Bremen for the organisation of further missionary work.
On the western frontier, also, the state of affairs was troublesome.
The possession of Lorraine was by no means entirely a source of strength
to the German monarchy. Owing to its position between the East and
West Frankish dominions it involved the German king in the everlasting
turmoil which characterised the history of France in the tenth century.
Moreover Lorraine was always firmly attached to the Carolingian tra-
dition, and there was always a party ready to support the Caroling kings
in their attempts to win back the province for the Western Kingdom.
There Louis IV was engaged in an incessant struggle to hold his own
against a strong coalition of feudal nobles under the leadership of the
all-powerful Count of Paris. During the decade 940-950 Otto was
busily engaged beyond the Rhine. He lent his aid first to one side,


## p. 193 (#239) ############################################

Otto's intervention in French affairs
193
then to the other', mediated between them and compelled both parties
to realise the weight of his power, the wide scope of his authority, the
value of his mediation. In the summer of 940 he entered France to
punish Louis for his interference in Lorraine and drove him into Bur-
gundy: but the expedition had daunted neither the spirit nor the
enterprise of Louis, who, as soon as Otto was back in Germany, again
set out for Lorraine. Otto once more turned westward, but as it was late
in the year the kings effected a truce and parted without fighting. For
two years Louis was pursued by his relentless adversaries; at last,
however, in 942, possibly as a result of the visit of the legate of Pope
Stephen VIII who commanded the princes to recognise Louis as their
king on pain of excommunication, a solemn assembly took place and a
general peace was concluded at a place uncertain but conjectured to be
Visé? on the Meuse, a few miles north of Liège. A similar obscurity
exists with regard to the terms, but it is clear that Louis on his side
engaged to desist from interfering in the affairs of Lorraine, while Otto
for his part agreed to refrain from assisting the French lords against
their king.
This settlement was but transitory, and two years later Otto was
again drawn into the affairs of the Western Kingdom. But the position
was altered : two of Louis' dangerous opponents, William of Normandy
and Herbert of Vermandois, were now dead; for a moment the king and
the Count of Paris were on terms of friendship. Then a trivial difference
and an accident brought about another change, and Louis was a prisoner
in the hands of his powerful feudatory. This was in 944. Hugh, with
his valuable prisoner in safe keeping at Laon, sought an interview with
Otto. The latter, however, perhaps anxious to abide by the compact of
942, perhaps from a genuine feeling of pity for the luckless king, declined
to accept Hugh's overtures and espoused the royal cause. ' The menace
of Otto's displeasure saved Louis: after nearly a year's confinement, he
was liberated, but only at the heavy price of losing his one sure strong-
hold, the fortress of Laon. Louis was free, but without shelter, almost
without friends. Gerberga, his queen, made a pressing appeal to her
brother. Otto's French campaign in the late summer of 946 met with
very limited success. Laon, Rheims, and Senlis were all in turn besieged,
but Rheims alone was captured. The two kings then made a plundering
raid into Normandy; they even, according to one account, laid siege to
Rouen.
But in this enterprise they were alike unsuccessful, and Otto
made his way back to Germany.
a
1 Both the antagonists had equal claims, on the ground of kinship, to Otto's
friendship; each had married a sister of Otto, Hugh the Great married Hedwig and
Louis IV Gerberga, widow of Gilbert of Lorraine.
? See Lauer, Les Annales de Flodoard, p. 85, n. 5, and Louis d'Outremer, p. 83,
n. 3. Vouziers on the Aisne has also been conjectured. Cf. Giesebrecht, Kaiserzeit,
C. MED. H. VOL. III. CH. VIII.
13
P. 274.


## p. 194 (#240) ############################################

194
Situation in Italy in 950
The year 947 was occupied by a series of fruitless assemblies called
together to decide a dispute over the archbishopric of Rheims. The
two parties in France had each its candidate for the see, and the party
uppermost unscrupulously imposed the man of its choice upon the
diocese. These transactions, vain as they were, are not without their
importance, for they led up to the solemn synod held at Ingelheim on
7 June 948. The legate of Pope Agapetus II, Bishop Marinus of
Bomarzo, presided over it. It was an assembly of the highest significance:
it was the first occasion since the accession of the Saxon dynasty, since
the synod of Hohen Altheim in 916, that a papal legate had appeared
in Germany. It was attended by more than thirty bishops, and the two
kings Louis and Otto were present in person. The business was not
restricted to the Rheims dispute. The discussion on the political question
at issue resulted in a canon being passed against attacks on the royal
power and a declaration that Hugh should make his submission under
pain of excommunication. The dispute over the see of Rheims was
decided in favour of Artaud, the candidate of the royal party; his rival
Hugh, son of Herbert of Vermandois, was excommunicated. Hugh the
Great held the decrees of the synod at defiance; he was excommunicated
at the Synod of Trèves (September 948); he continued in his obduracy
and carried on hostilities against Louis and his allies Otto and Conrad
of Lorraine till 950, when, at a meeting held on the banks of the Marne,
he made his submission, restored Laon, and, by his homage, recognised
Louis as his lord.
The affairs of France were no sooner settled on a satisfactory basis
than a turn of events in Italy provided the occasion for Otto's first
expedition across the Alps. The occasion was the death of King Lothar,
leaving his widow Adelaide with a title to the Italian throne in her own
right, defenceless and soon to be a prisoner in the hands of Berengar,
Marquess of Ivrea, who was himself crowned King of Italy at Pavia
on 15 December 950. The old connexion between Germany and Italy
founded on the Empire of Charles the Great, though it had ceased to
be a reality since the death of the Emperor Arnulf in 899, is recalled to
memory by many minor incidents in the dark years of the first half of
the tenth century. The dukes of Swabia and Bavaria were frequently
drawn into the Italian struggles ; Berengar of Ivrea, fleeing from the
murderous designs of his rival Hugh of Arles, had crossed the Alps,
taken refuge in Swabia, and even commended himself to Otto (941), an
act which perhaps gave Otto the right to expect an acknowledgment of
overlordship from Berengar when the latter ascended the Italian throne
in 950. With the opposite faction Otto was also brought into close
connexion through Conrad of Burgundy, who had spent his youth at
the German court and whose sister Adelaide had married Hugh's son
Lothar.
The arrangements for the Italian expedition were settled at the


## p. 195 (#241) ############################################

Liudolf's disaffection
195
Easter festival held at Aix-la-Chapelle 30 March 951. Otto formed his
plans in close consultation with his brother Henry, now his most trusted
adviser, whose brilliant campaigns against the Hungarians, resulting in
the acquisition of the march of Aquileia, gave additional weight to his
councils. Liudolf, on the other hand, was apparently not taken into the
king's confidence: indignant at his exclusion, jealous of his uncle,
impetuous and anxious to make a name for himself on his own account,
he determined to anticipate his father. He rapidly crossed the Alps
with a small army of Swabians ; but his expedition was a complete
failure and before long he returned to sow the seeds of rebellion, the
news of which recalled Otto, who had assumed the title of King of the
Lombards at Pavia and taken Adelaide as his wife, in haste to Germany.
It was not only disappointment at his failure in Italy that led Liudolf
to rebel against his father. Otto's second marriage was not likely to be
to his son's advantage; it would lead to a new circle at the court in
which he would take but a secondary place; he might even look to being
a
ousted from the succession by the offspring of this new alliance-an
event which in fact occurred, for it was Adelaide's son, Otto, who was
designated as the successor to the total disregard of the claims of his
nephew and namesake, the son of Liudolf. The plans for the rebellion
were formed at a Christmas gathering held at Saalfeld; the place is
significant, for it was there that Henry had divulged to his friends his
designs against Otto in 939. Among the conspirators was Frederick,
Archbishop of Mayence, whose implication in the previous rebellions of
939 and 941 was more than suspected. He had been employed as Otto's
envoy to the court of Pope Agapetus and the failure of his mission may
have led to a rupture with Otto.
The news of this ominous assembly was the immediate cause of Otto's
return to Germany. He crossed the Alps in February 952 and by
Easter was again in Saxony. Conrad, Duke of Lorraine, was left behind
in Italy to complete the overthrow of Berengar. But instead of pursuing
the advantage which Otto had already gained, he made terms with
Berengar and returned with him to Germany to obtain the king's rati-
fication of his arrangements. They found the court at Magdeburg.
Otto was, however, far from satisfied: he had counted on the complete
subversion of Berengar. For three days the latter was not permitted to
approach the royal presence and even then, through the counsel of Duke
Henry, he was “barely granted his life and a safe return to his country. ”
The final settlement with regard to Italy was postponed to a meeting to
be held at Augsburg. On 7 August the diet met in the spacious
Lechfeld which extended to the south of the city. Franks, Saxons,
Swabians, Bavarians, Lombards, and even ambassadors from the Byzantine
court attended the gathering, to which a contemporary annalist assigns
the imposing Frankish title of Conventus publicus. There Berengar and
his son Adalbert took the oath of homage and fealty and, by the solemn
CH. VIII.
13_2


## p. 196 (#242) ############################################

196
Liudolf's rebellion
>
handing over of the golden sceptre, received back the kingdom of Lombardy
as a fief of the German crown. But Duke Henry had his reward for his
consistent loyalty at Berengar's expense: the marches of Aquileia and
Verona were added to the Bavarian dukedom.
Up to this point there had been no overt act of rebellion on the part
of the conspirators. Liudolf and the Archbishop of Mayence had been
present at the Augsburg diet; indeed the latter had taken a leading
part in the ecclesiastical business transacted there. But as the rebellion
matured, the causes of discontent increased. The marked displeasure of
Otto at Conrad's management of the affairs of Italy had driven the
Duke of Lorraine into the ranks of the malcontents. The appointment
of the king's brother Bruno to the post of archchancellor of Italy was an
additional grievance to Archbishop Frederick, who had counted upon
that dignified sinecure for himself. Whereas Henry had gained by the
settlement at Augsburg, Liudolf had received no share in the spoils.
Possibly the birth of a child to Adelaide, a boy named Henry who died
in infancy, at the end of the year 952, was the decisive event, which
determined the outbreak of hostilities.
Otto appears to have been blind to the dangers which surrounded
him. It was only while journeying to Ingelheim on his return from Alsace,
whither he had gone to visit his wife's relations, that he realised the
critical state of affairs. Judging it imprudent to keep the Easter festival,
as he had purposed, at so isolated a place as Ingelheim, he turned aside
to Mayence; but Mayence proved no less dangerous. He found the gates
of the city closed against him and in an unseemly manner he was kept
waiting until the Archbishop, who was absent from the city performing
his Lenten devotions in retreat, returned to grant him admittance.
Liudolf and Conrad also appeared on the scene, and the king was caught
in a trap. The conspirators made haste to clear themselves of having
any designs against their sovereign ; but they acknowledged that it had
been their intention to waylay Henry in the event of his coming to
Ingelheim for the Easter festival. Even towards the king their attitude
was not so peaceable as they had affirmed; by duress they extorted from
him some sort of treaty, of which the terms are unrecorded, but the nature
may be fairly conjectured. It was no doubt as advantageous to Liudolf
as it was detrimental to the interests of Duke Henry. Liudolf was
assured of the succession and possibly was even to have an immediate
share in the government. Otto was glad to escape at any price.
Nevertheless, once safe in Saxony he did not scruple to revoke the treaty.
He summoned Liudolf and Conrad to appear before him and ordered
them either to hand over their confederates or else to receive the
punishment due for their offence. A diet for the discussion of their
case was to meet at Fritzlar. The dukes did not present themselves at
the diet; they were deprived of their dukedoms, and hostilities began in
earnest.


## p. 197 (#243) ############################################

Widespread disaffection
197
In this rebellion, it is remarkable that the duchies invariably sided
against their dukes. The Lorrainers, under the leadership of Adalbero;
Bishop of Metz, and Reginar, Count of Hainault, weře, almost to a
man, loyal to the king and therefore in opposition to their duke, Conrad ;
whereas in Bavaria the king and his brother Henry met with their bitterest
and most dangerous opponents. At first Conrad sought to recover
his position in Lorraine ; but on the banks of the Meuse, in a desperate
battle lasting from noon to sunset, he was defeated, quitted his duchy,
and betook himself to Mayence, which henceforth became the headquarters
of the insurgents. With an army of Saxons reinforced on the march by
troops from Lorraine and Franconia, Otto invested the city. He was
soon joined by Henry with his Bavarians. For nearly two months the
royal army tried in vain to capture the stronghold of the rebels ; every
device of siege warfare was employed but all to no account; engines were
no sooner brought up to the walls than they were destroyed or burnt;
assaults were made upon the gates only to be beaten off with loss by the
defenders. At last, wearied by lack of success, Otto made overtures for
an armistice and sent his cousin Ekbert as an hostage. But the nego-
tiations came to nothing, and the king's ambassador was won over to the
side of the enemy. For Otto the situation was desperate. The defection
had spread to Saxony and to Bavaria ; in the latter duchy Arnulf, the
Count palatine, put himself at the head of a tribal revolt against the
rule of Duke Henry. This was perhaps the most serious phase in the
rebellion. The Bavarians, led by their duke to assist in the siege of
Mayence, went over in a body to the enemy. Leaving the defence of the
city in the charge of Conrad, Liudolf hastened with the Bavarian deserters
to Ratisbon, seized and plundered the city, and drove Henry's family and
adherents from the country. In September Otto abandoned the siege of
Mayence with the object of attempting to secure Ratisbon, but in this
enterprise he was also doomed to failure. Shortly before Christmas,
almost at the end of his resources, he withdrew to Saxony.
Owing to the firm rule of Herman, the insurrection in Saxony had
broken down, and Lorraine also remained loyal ; but the greater part of
Franconia and practically the whole of Swabia and Bavaria had taken up
arms against him. So widespread was the disaffection that it has been
sometimes regarded as an expression of a national resistance against
Otto's imperial policy, as though the interests of Germany were prejudiced
by his acquisition of the Italian thronel. It is, however, more in ac-
cordance with the facts to attribute the civil war rather to tribal than
national causes : the separate tribes were rebelling against the authority
.
1 So von Sybel, Die neueren Darstellungen der deutschen Kaiserzeit, pp. 18 f. , Die
deutsche Nation und das Kaiserreich, pp. 32 f. , and Maurenbrecher, Die Kaiser politik
Ottos 1, Historische Zeitschrift, v. 141, and Der Ludolfinische Aufstand von 953,
Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte, iv. 597, but see Giesebrecht, Kaiserzeit, i.
828, and Dümmler, Otto der Grosse, 212 f. , for the opposite view.
CH. VIII.


## p. 198 (#244) ############################################

198
Hungarian invasion
of their dukes. It was the duke who was attacked in Bavaria, in Lorraine,
and in Saxony. Only in Swabia was Liudolf's personal popularity
sufficiently strong to secure the loyalty of the tribe ; though even there
an anti-ducal party was formed under the leadership of Burchard, a
kinsman of the former duke. The inception of the war may be traced
to personal causes, to the personal jealousy of the leaders : its support to
the tribal opposition to the centralising system of the dukedoms. The
issue was decided not by any military exploit, successful campaign, or
victory in the field, but by the diversion created by an Hungarian inroad,
and by the violent reaction which followed against the party which
sought to gain advantage from alliance with the invaders.
The Hungarians had at the outset of Otto's reign, in 937 and in 938,
made two abortive attempts to invade Saxony. In 948 and in 949 they
had made incursions into Bavaria, but had been beaten off by Duke
Henry, who in two campaigns in the following year had successfully
carried the war into their own country. Nevertheless, early in the year
954 the Hungarians, who were always ready to turn the intestine troubles
of their neighbours to their own advantage, once more poured into
Germany. Contemporary historians have laid the charge of inviting the
barbarians upon both parties concerned in the struggle, but the occasion
was too obvious to require any solicitation. Certain it is, however, that
the invaders were eagerly welcomed by Liudolf and Conrad, who supplied
them with guides. They swept through Bavaria and Franconia, plunder-
ing as they went; they were publicly entertained at Worms on Palm
Sunday and loaded with presents of silver and gold. Conrad himself led
them on across the Rhine in the hope of regaining his own duchy through
their aid. But the raid of the barbarians did nothing to improve the
duke's position in Lorraine; they penetrated as far as Utrecht merely
laying waste the land as they passed; thence they moved southward
through Vermandois, Laon, and Rheims into Burgundy, and the remnant
of their band, much reduced in numbers by fighting and disease, returned
to their own country by way of Italy.
The invasion was Otto's deliverance. The royal army pressed hard
upon the Bavarians, who were forced to crave a truce, which was granted
till 16 June when a diet was to be held at Langenzenn, near the present
town of Nuremberg, where the case was to be decided. At the diet of
Langenzenn, all the leaders of the revolt, realising that their cause was
lost, made their appearance. During the proceedings each party accused
the other of introducing the Hungarians. The Archbishop of Mayence
and Conrad made their submission, but Liudolf remained obdurate; he
rode off in the night with his attendants to Ratisbon. The king followed
in pursuit, fighting on his way an indecisive engagement at Rosstall.
Ratisbon withstood the assault of the royal army. A long siege followed,
during which many skirmishes were fought before the walls, and the
burghers were reduced to the point of starvation. Finally, after the


## p. 199 (#245) ############################################

Defeat of the Hungarians in the Lechfeld
199
city had been invested for some six weeks, Liudolf and the citizens ob-
tained a truce, pending a settlement to be arranged at a diet to be held
at Fritzlar. Liudolf made a last attempt to rally his cause in Swabia ;
failing in this, he sought and gained his father's forgiveness. But neither
he nor Conrad recovered their dukedoms. As a result of the civil war
there were many new appointments to be made. For this purpose a
diet was held at Arnstadt on 7 December. The dukedom of Swabia
was given to Burchard, probably the son of the old Duke of Swabia of
that name and so a first cousin to Queen Adelaide. Lorraine had already
been granted to the king's brother Bruno, who in the previous year had
succeeded Archbishop Wikfried in the metropolitan see of Cologne.
The see of Mayence was also vacant, since the turbulent Archbishop Frede-
rick had died a few weeks before the meeting of the diet. His place
was filled by William, Otto's natural son. Bavaria held out until the
spring; but Henry was victorious over Herold, the rebellious Archbishop
of Salzburg, and the burghers of Ratisbon, again reduced to the ex-
tremities of famine, submitted themselves to Otto. So by the end of
the spring of 955 Otto was able to return in peace to his native Saxony.
The Hungarians, encouraged by their successful raid of the previous
year, made another inroad early in the year 955. It was checked, and
Otto received in Saxony what purported to be an Hungarian embassy ;
in fact its intention was nothing more nor less than to spy out the land,
and immediately afterwards Duke Henry sent word that the barbarians
had crossed the frontier. Their main body was encamped on the banks of
the Lech near Augsburg. The city was defended by its Bishop St Ulric,
whose contemporary biographer speaks of the desperate straits to which
he was reduced ; the city walls were dilapidated and unprovided with
towers; it seemed impossible to withstand an assault from an enemy
whose numbers are said to have amounted to one hundred thousand
horsemen. Yet one day the bishop, arrayed in his pontifical robes, sallied
forth, himself unarmed, into the ranks of the enemy and threw them into
confusion. On the following day, the feast of St Lawrence (10 August),
as the bishop quietly awaited the inevitable counter-attack, he heard the
welcome news of Otto's approach. When the news of the invasion reached
him Otto had hurried southward with a small band of Saxons. On
his march, other troops collected and he reached the neighbourhood of
Augsburg with a vast army drawn from all parts of Germany. The host
was formed up in eight divisions: three from Bavaria, two from Swabia,
and one each from Saxony, Lorraine and Bohemia. The battle was fought
in the Lechfeld to the south of the city on the left bank of the river? ,
1 The exact site on which the battle was fought is much disputed. Schäfer in the
Sitzungsberichte der Akademie der Wissenschaften (Berlin), xxvii. 1905, opposed the old
view asserted by Bresslau in Historische Zeitschrift, 1897, Der Ort der Ungarnschlacht,
that the battle was fought in the Lechfeld south of the city on the left bank of
the river, and supposes the place to have been on the left bank but north-west of
CH. VIII.


## p. 200 (#246) ############################################

200
Peace restored in Germany
As on other occasions, legend gives the credit of the victory to the Holy
Lance with which Otto was armed. At first the enemy made headway
.
against the Swabian and Bohemian divisions ; but the courage and re-
source of Conrad, the deposed Duke of Lorraine, who fell in the battle,
restored the fortunes of the royal army. The victory was complete ;
and for three days the scattered remnants of the Hungarian hordes
were pursued and killed or taken captive. The victory had far-reaching
effects both for the conqueror and the conquered. Germany was for ever
relieved of the menace of invasion and the Hungarians gave up their
restless mode of life and took to a settled and peaceful existence.
The Hungarians were not the only neighbours of Germany who
had sought to take advantage of the civil war. The Wends rose in
revolt against German rule. In 954 Margrave Gero and Conrad (it is
characteristic of Otto to entrust his recent antagonist with a command)
won a victory over the Ukrani. Further north, in the district under
the authority of Duke Herman, the trouble was more serious; the
duke's nephews Wichmann and Ekbert, who had already attempted
without success to raise Saxony in revolt against their uncle, now joined
with the Wends. No decisive victory determined the fighting, which
continued intermittently and with varying success for a period of two
years. It was the news of the defeat of the Hungarians on the banks of
the Lech which struck the Wends with awe, and compelled them to make
an abject submission. They sent messages offering their accustomed
tribute: but Otto was not disposed to let them off so lightly. Accom-
panied by Liudolf and Boleslav of Bohemia, he ravaged their land as far
as Recknitz to the west of the Isle of Rügen. . Their leader Stoinef was
slain : Wichmann and Ekbert fled the country and took refuge at the
court of Duke Hugh in France. In 957 Wichmann again appeared in
alliance with the Wends, but he was finally defeated in 958 and received
à pardon on taking “a terrible oath never to conspire again against
Otto or his kingdom. ”
In Lorraine also there were signs of trouble, but the wise and states-
manlike rule of Bruno restored and maintained peace. Count Reginar
of Hainault was at the root of the disturbance; it was his hostility
to Conrad that secured the loyalty of Lorraine during the civil war.
Apparently he expected reward for his services, and, failing to get it, he
stirred up revolts against the authority of Bruno. The archbishop
suppressed two risings in 957 and 959 and, as a precaution against dis-
order in the future, deemed it advisable to divide the duchy into two
units of administration: a certain noble of the country named Godfrey
had already been placed over the lower, and Frederick, brother of the
Augsburg. Others have suggested yet other possibilities, e. g. Wallmenich, Die
Ungarnschlacht auf dem Lechfeld, chooses the right bank of the river to the south-east
of the city and Hadank, Einige Bemerkungen über die Ungarnschlacht, 1908, the
right bank to the north-east of the city as the spot.


## p. 201 (#247) ############################################

Otto the Great as Emperor
201
powerful Bishop Adalbero of Metz, was now set over the upper province.
To the prudent and judicious policy of the Archbishop of Cologne, it
may be added, was due the maintenance of friendly relations with France,
and it is no exaggeration to assert that to his support Lothair, on the
death of Louis IV in 954, owed his peace'ul and uncontested succession
in that kingdom.
By the year 960 Otto's rule in Germany was firmly established. The
Hungarians were defeated once and for all: the Wends between the Elbe
and the Oder were quelled; Lorraine and the Western Kingdom, thanks
to Bruno, were at peace. The presence of envoys from foreign courts at his
solemn assemblies testifies to the strength of his rule and to the extent of
his fame. Romans and Greeks, Saracens and Russians visited his court,
bringing him gifts of gold, silver and ivory, balm and precious ointments,
and lions, camels, monkeys, and ostriches, animals hitherto unknown in
Saxony. All nations of the Christian world, concludes Widukind, looked
to the great king in their troubles. So in 959 ambassadors from the
Russian Queen Olga, who was baptised in 957, came to Germany to beg
Otto to send missionaries to their heathen country. A certain Libertius
was ordained bishop for the purpose but died before he could embark on
his difficult enterprise ; Adalbert from the monastery of St Maximin at
T'rèves was chosen in his place, but after a year's fruitless endeavour
returned to his own country.
So again, John XII, Pope and patrician of Rome, sought Otto's
assistance against the oppression of Berengar and his son Adalbert.
The project suited Otto's own policy. The conduct of the vassal king
of Italy had already earned his displeasure; but unable to go in person
he had sent Liudolf, who, since he had lost his dukedom, was in need of
employment. A brilliant and successful campaign (956–7) was, however,
cut short by the death of its leader. Liudolf died of fever at Pombia
and the work was left unfinished. At the appeal of the Pope in 959,
Otto prepared to cross the Alps himself. Anxious to secure the throne
in his own line in the event of his death during the campaign, he caused
his infant son Otto to be elected king at Worms and to be solemnly
crowned and anointed in the royal chapel of Charles the Great at Aix-
la-Chapelle.