, Henri Testelin, Sentiments des plus Habiles Peintres sur le Pratique de la Peinture et la
Sculpture
(Paris, 1696), lectures, 16706?
Niklas Luhmann - Art of the Social System
172).
70. "Suelefaltarledeeminenciaalaimitacion,loquealcanzadefacilidad":so Gracidn describes this reserved attitude, this shift of emphasis from adequacy to artistic skill (Gracidn, Discorso LXIII, Agudezay arte de ingenio, vol. 2, p. 257).
71. "Facilesadelantarlocommenzado;arduoelinventar,ydespuesdetanto, cerca de insuperable"--this is how Gracidn begins his treatise {Agudezay arte de
one
ingenio, vol. 1, p. 47). In Zuccaro, L'idea dei Pittori, pp. 225ft". ,
finds a simi- lar view in the form of the distinction between disegno naturaleand disegno arti-
ficiale. The former operates intuitively; only the latter reaches perfection.
72. See Paolo Pino, quoted above, n. 33. As an example of the highly devel- oped literature on artistic technique, which in itself offers occasions for reflec-
tion, see, e. g. , Giovanni Paolo Lomazzo, Trattato dell'arte, della Pittura, Scultura et architettura, 3 vols. (Milan, 1584; Rome, 1844).
73. See Roger de Piles, Cours de peinture par principes (Paris, 1708), pp. iff. The "sociological" observation (pp. i2f. ) that the artist's reputation (Raphael in the Vatican museum) suffices to attract spectators, who then walk by other beau- ties, is remarkable. See also Chapter 1, n. 42, above.
74. See, e. g. , Giovanni Paolo Lomazzo, Idea del Tempio della Pittura (Milan, 1590), p. 146: "Arte non dee esser mostrata nell'arte. "
75. On painting, see de Piles, Cours depeintureparprincipes, p. 3; or Antoine Coypel, Discoursprononcez dans les conferences de I'Academie Royale de Peinture et Sculpture (Paris, 1721), pp. 35, 96, i6iff. ; on poetry, see Lodovico Antonio Mura-
tori, Delia perfetta Poesia Italiana (Modena, 1706), pp. 7if. ; on the fine arts in general, see Batteux, Les beaux arts rtduits a un memeprincipe.
76. Onthisopposition,whichwasintroducedintheseventeenthcenturyand dominated the eighteenth century, see esp. Chap. 3 ("The Creative Imagination: Imitation and Originality") in Joan Pittock, TheAscendancy of Taste: TheAchieve- ment of Joseph and Thomas Warton (London, 1973), pp. j$ff.
77. See Michelangelo Biondo, Von der hochedlen Malerei (1547; German trans. Vienna, 1873; rpt. Osnabriick, 1970), pp. iff.
78. Evenofnature,onesays:"Lanaturaimitasestessa,"Pino,DialogodiPit- tura, p. 113.
79. Jacques Derrida still detects imitation here. See his "Economimesis," in Sylviane Agacinski et al. , Mimesis des articulations (Paris, 1975), pp. 55~93-
Notes to Pages 263-6$ 389
80. See, e. g. , without transcendental-theoretical foundations but with refer- ence to sensibility, Karl Heinrich Heydenreich, System der Asthetik (Leipzig, 1790). The rejection of imitation still must be mentioned and justified (pp. i87ff, against Batteux and Moritz). The problem still presents itselfwithin a the- ory oriented toward subjective experience.
81. This might even be true for Jean Paul, whose insistence on imitation is motivated by his polemic against transcendental philosophy and insists on the respect due to the real world but not on the validity of its phenomenal appear-
ance. See Jean Paul, Vorschule der Asthetik, quoted from Werke, vol. 5 (Munich, 1963), pp. 7-456; and Clavis Fichtiana seu Leibgeberiana, Werke, vol. 3 (Munich, 1961), pp. 1011-56.
82. Jean Paul's example, Vorschule der Asthetik, p. 43, is to represent pain as pleasure.
83. In the form, e. g. , of a narration within the narration, which is subse- quently discussed in the primary narration and which is justified despite its ob- vious deviation from the story. See Ludwig Tieck's novella Das Festzu Kenelworth (which is about the young Shakespeare and therefore is beyond doubt), quoted from Ludwig Tieck, Shakespeare-Novellen (Berlin, 1981), pp. 7-45 (pp. 2iff. ).
84. See esp. Zuccaro, L'idea dei Pittori, pp. ij2f.
85. Leonardo da Vinci, Notebooks (New York, n. d. ), pp. 61, 73f.
86. "In the presence of nature nothingness is not found," states da Vinci
(ibid. ).
87. See Zuccaro, L'idea dei Pittori, p. 151: "Disegno in quanto che si trova in
tutte le cose, increate, & create, invisibili, & visibili; spirituali, & corporali. . . . " On an alleged pronouncement by Michelangelo, see Francisco de Hollanda, Vier Gesprdche iiber die Malerei, gefuhrtzu Rom 1538 (Vienna, 1899), p. 117.
88. Zuccaro, L'idea dei Pittori, pp. 27iff.
89. Ibid. , p. 151.
90. See Erich Kohler, "'Je ne sais quoi': Ein Kapitel aus der Begriffsgeschichte
des Unbegreiflichen," in Kohler, Esprit und arkadische Freiheit: Aufiatze aus der Welt der Romania (Frankfurt, 1966), pp. 230-86.
91. See Marvin T. Herrick, "Some Neglected Sources of Admiratio," Modern Language Notes 62 (1947): 222-26.
92. Rene Descartes, Les passions de I'&me, Art. 53, quoted from CEuvres etLet- tres, Pleiade ed. (Paris, 1952), pp. 723f. Descartes emphasizes that admiration oc- curs before one knows what it is about and that it is therefore experienced without distinction ("point de contraire"), that is, prior to an observation that can be fixed.
93. The word gusto was, of course, known much earlier--see, e. g. , in Lodo- vico Dolce, Dialogo delta Pittura, p. 165. But here gusto as natural taste ("senza lettere") is opposed to learned judgment without a specification of rank. The se- mantic success of the concept will require a social revalorization.
94. For more details, see Rosalie L. Colie, Paradoxia Epidemica: The Renais-
39?
Notes to Pages 265-70
sance Tradition ofParadox (Princeton, N. J. , 1966). On the continuation of this tradition into the twentieth century, see Hugh Kenner, Paradox in Chesterton (London, 1948).
95. Not just as an "exercise of wit," as Mundy writes in The Defence ofCon- traries, A 3. See also n. 56, above.
96. According to Schroder, "die prarationale BetrofFenheit und Faszination des anderen wird von Comeille als Mktel eingesetzt und zugleich als (theatralis- ches) Mittel aufgedeckt," Logos und List, p. 281.
97. Concerning Kafka and Derrida, see David Roberts, "The Law of the Text of the Law: Derrida before the Law," ms. 1992, p. 18.
98. See J. H. Hexter, The Vision ofPolitics on the Eve ofthe Reformation: More, Machiavelli, and Seyssel (London, 1973); Christopher Hill, "Protestantismus, Pamphlete, Patriotismus und offentliche Meinung im England des 16. und 17. Jahrhunderts," in Bernhard Giesen, ed. , Nationale und kulturelle Identit'dt: Stu- dien zur Entwicklung des kollektiven Bewuftseins in der Neuzeit (Frankfurt, 1991), pp. 100-20.
99. See Hans Ulrich Gumbrecht for an alternative view of the problems that arise in the attempt to make sense of the medieval practice of performance on
the basis of innovations introduced in the sixteenth century. Gumbrecht, "Fur eine Erfindung des mittelalterlichen Theaters aus der Perspektive der friihen Neuzeit," Festschriftfur Walter Haug und Burghart Wachinger (Tubingen, 1992), pp. 827-48.
100. See, e. g. , Varchi, Lezzione, pp. 2jf.
101. The significance of the senses for communicating the motives of obedi- ence is emphasized explicitly. See, e. g. , Johann Christian Liinig, Theatrum Cer- emoniale Historico-Politicum, 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1719-1720), vol. 1, p. 5. It is tempt- ing to speak of latent functions diat resist transformation into motives.
102. On the clash between ceremony and a media-dependent public sphere, see Jorg Jochen Berns, "Der nackte Monarch und die nackte Wahrheit: Auskiin- fte der deutschen Zeitungs- und Zeremonialschriften des spaten 17. und friihen 18. Jahrhunderts zum Verhaltnis von Hof und Offentlichkeit," Daphnisn (1982): 315-49 (34off. ).
103. See, e. g. , Julius Bernhard von Rohr, Einleitung zur Ceremoniel-Wissen- schaft der Privat-Personen (Berlin, 1728), pp. 2f.
104. We have mentioned Liinig and von Rohr. See also Friedrich Wilhelm von Winterfeld, Teutsche und Ceremonial-Politica (Frankfurt-Leipzig, 1700), pp. 257ff. (part 2 of a general treatise on civil society); Julius Bernhard von Rohr, Einleitung zur Ceremoniel-Wissenschaft der grofien Herren (Berlin, 1729).
105. Kant, Kritik der Urteilskraft, ? 49.
106. See Chapter 5, section II, above.
107. For an elaboration of this point, see Chapter 4, section IV, above.
Notes to Pages 270-74
391
108. See some of the shorter treatises by Richardson, reprinted in The Works (London, 1773; rpt. Hildesheim, 1969).
109. Concerning the context of the Acad6mie Royale de Peinture et de Sculp- ture, see, e. g.
, Henri Testelin, Sentiments des plus Habiles Peintres sur le Pratique de la Peinture et la Sculpture (Paris, 1696), lectures, 16706? . ; or Coypel, Discours prononcez. Studies of this sort create the impression of fulfilling a dutiful ritual.
no. Coypel, Discoursprononcez, p. 6.
in. SeeThomasE. Crow,PaintersandPublicLifeinEighteenth-CenturyParis (New Haven, Conn. , 1985).
112. This kind of complexity--a sign of age--and exaggeration of distinctions in the theory of taste is exemplified in Archibald Alison, Essays on the Nature and Principles of Taste (Edinburgh-London, 1790; rpt. Hildesheim, 1968).
113. Derrida demonstrates a hierarchization of already hierarchical distinctions within this text in "Economimesis. " Perhaps this covert hierarchization failed to satisfy the striving of romantic reflection toward indeterminacy.
114. See the references in Chapter 4, n. 144, above.
115. See, e. g. , the "Proemio" in Varchi, Lezzione.
116. See a broad, historically oriented dissertation by Anke Wiegand, Die
Schonheit und das Bose (Munich, 1967); further Niels Werber, Literatur als Sys- tem: Zur Ausdifferenzierung literarischer Kommunikation (Opladen, 1992).
117. See Alexander Gotdieb Baumgarten, Aesthetica, vol. 1 (Frankfurt/Oder, 1750; rpt. Hildesheim, 1970). The links to the tradition are well marked in Baumgarten s introduction of the concept of aesthetics: "Aesthetica (theoria lib- eralium artium, gnoseologia inferior, ars pulchre cogitandi, ars analogia rationis) est scientia cognitionis sensitivae" (? 1). But precisely this grounding in tradition makes it difficult for contemporaries such as Kant to trust the name.
118. For the quality of such testimony, it might have been significant that in Greek cities, regionally far-reaching diplomatic contacts or sports contacts were concentrated in the hands of the nobility, even in places (such as Athens) where the nobility no longer applied for city offices.
119. See Plumpe, Asthetische Kommunikation der Moderne, further Gemot Bohme s critical review of this development, which refers aesthetics back to the original meaning of aisthesis, in Fiir eine bkologische Naturasthetik (Frankfurt, 1989); Bohme, "Atmosphere as a Fundamental Concept of a New Aesthetics,"
Thesis Eleven 36 (1993): 113-26.
120. Explicidy in Heydenreich, System derAsthetik (1790).
121. See Gotz Muller, "Jean Pauls Asthetik im Kontext der Fruhromantik und
des Deutschen Idealismus," in Walter Jaeschke and Helmut Holzhey, eds. ,
Fruher Idealismus und Fruhromantik: Der Streit um die Grundlagen derAsthetik (i79S~i8o$) (Hamburg, 1990), pp. 150-73.
122. For an exemplary study, see John Bender, Imagining the Penitentiary:
392
Notes to Pages 274-j6
Fiction and the Architecture ofMind in Eighteenth-Century England (Chicago, 1987).
123. See Hegel's Vorlesungen iiber die Asthetik I, in Werke, vol. 13 (Frankfort, 1970), p. 13-
124. See Bender, Imagining the Penitentiary, pp. 3jff.
125. See, e. g. , Johann Christoph Gottsched, Versuch einer Critischen Dicht- kunst vor die Deutschen (Leipzig, 1730).
126. In Lomazzo, Trattato dell'arte, and Idea del Tempio, one still finds intel- letto rather than gusto, and the same holds for Zuccaro, L'idea dei Pittori. There is no doubt that the words gusto and gustoso are used occasionally. In the eigh- teenth century, one will explicidy distinguish between taste and the intellect and assign these faculties to different systems: "Le Gout est dans les Arts ce que l'ln-
1
telligence est dans les Sciences," writes the Abbe Batteux (Les beaux arts riduits a
un mbneprincipe, p. 58). He continues in the vein of the inside/outside schema by stating that taste refers to ourselves, whereas intelligence refers to the object. 127. We find formulations of this sort in Lamindo Pritanio (= Lodovico An-
tonio Muratori), Riflessioni sopra il buon gusto Intorno le Scienze e le Arti (Venice, 1708). See further Muratori, Delia perfetta Poesia Italiana, pp. 57ff.
128. "Noi per buon gusto intendiamo il cognoscere ed il giudicare ci6 che sia difettoso, o imperfetto, o mediocre nelle Scienze o neU'Arti per guardarsen; e ci6 che sia il meglio, e il perfetto" (Muratori, Riflessioni sopra il buon gusto, p. 13).
129. See, explicidy, Jean Baptiste Morvan, Abbe" de Bellegarde, Reflexions sur le ridicule etsur les moyens de I'eviter, 4th ed. (Paris, 1699), pp. i6off.
130. See, e. g. , John Gilbert Cooper, Letters concerning Taste andEssays on Sim- ilar and Other Subjects, 3d ed. (London, 1757), pp. 6f. ; Jean Le Rond d'Alembert, Reflexions sur I'usage etsur I'abus de la philosophic dans les matieres de gout, quoted from CEuvres completes, vol. 4 (rpt. Geneva, 1967), pp. 326-33 (332), accepts this proposition only in ordinary cases ("pour l'ordinaire"), because many pleasant il-
lusions become transparent in retrospective analyses. But he nonetheless believes
that "les vraies beautis gagnent toujours a l'examen" (332), only that it is unclear
what those "vraies beautes" are and how one distinguishes retrospectively be-
tween a short-lived illusion and genuine beauty.
131. On the basis of an older tradition, d'Alembert, Reflexions, p. 327, distin- guishes between grandTor everybody and j? << for sensitive people. Similarly, De- nis Diderot, Traiti du beau, quoted from CEuvres, Pl&ade ed. (Paris, 1951), pp. 1105-42 (1134), distinguishes between homme sauvageznd homme police on the basis of distinct concepts of beauty. Apart from that, one finds that the compe- tent judgment of a selected public is again differentiated into the judgment of experts (who have interests and are able to deceive the public for a while, if not permanently) and public judgment. See Jean-Baptiste Dubos, Reflexions critiques sur lapoesie etsur lapeinture (rpt. Paris, 1733), vol. 2, pp. 32off. These distinctions
Notes to Pages 276-78
393
indicate the emphasis on an ultimately irrational expertise in artistic matters that is uncorrupted by interests.
132. See William Hogarth, The Analysis of Beauty, written with a view of fixing thefluctuating Ideas of Taste (London, 1773; Oxford, 1955).
133. According to Herder's formulation in his Ersten Kritischen Wdldchen, in Herders Samtliche Werke, ed. Bernhard Suphan, vol. 3 (Berlin, 1878), p. 7.
134. See, e. g. , Gonthier-Louis Fink, "Das Bild des Nachbarvolkes im Spiegel der deutschen und franzosischen Hochaufklarung (1750-1789)," in Giesen, ed. , Nationale und kulturelle Identitat, pp. 453-92; see further Bernhard Giesen and Kay Junge, "Vom Patriotismus zum Nationalismus: Zur Evolution der 'Deutschen Kulturnation,'" in ibid. , pp. 255-303. Apart from that, let us recall our remarks on the emergence of a new concept of "culture" (Chapter 3, section VII, and Chapter 6, section I, above).
135. Hogarth, The Analysis of Beauty, pp. 41". , 24.
136. Ibid. , esp. pp. 23ff. We find a similar critique from the perspective of an- other painter in Coypel, Discoursprononcez, pp. 3off.
137. According to Kant, the judgment of taste is "ein Urteil in Beziehung auf die Geselligkeit, sofern sie auf empirischen Regeln beruht" (Kritik der Urteils- kraft, ? 7). See also Kant's "Reflexionen zur Anthropologic" no. 743, from his posthumous writings {Akademie-Ausgabe, vol. 15. 1 [Berlin, 1923], p. 327), where Kant clearly distinguishes between sociability and objectivity.
138. See Peter Leberecht, Pt. 2, Chap. 4, quoted from Ludwig Tieck, Fruhe Erzdhlungen und Romane (Munich, n. d. ).
139. See Karl Wilhelm Solger, Vorlesungen iiber Asthetik, ed. Karl Wilhelm Ludwig Heyse (Leipzig, 1829; rpt. Darmstadt, 1973).
140. See Alfred Baeumler's classic monograph Das Irrationalitatsproblem in der Asthetik und Logik des 18. fahrhunderts bis zur Kritik der Urteilskraft (Darm- stadt, 1967).
141. See Baumgarten, Aesthetica. It has frequently been pointed out that the name "aesthetics," while it makes sense in view of this transitional period, is in truth inappropriate for a theory of art; however, once the terminology was in- troduced, it remained. See, e. g. , Friedrich Schlegel, Kritische Fragmente, no. 40, quoted from Werke, vol. 1, p. 170, or the beginning of Hegel, Vorlesungen iiber die Asthetik, quoted from Werke, vol. 13 (Frankfurt, 1970), p. 13.
142. In his introductory remarks to the Aesthetica, Baumgarten repeatedly in- sists on cognition--"Aesthetica (theoria liberalium artium, gnoseologia inferior, ars pulchre cogitandi, ars analogia rationis) est scientia cognitionis sensitivae" (? 1)--which creates the impression of an exclusion. What is to be excluded is the inquiry into the unity of the distinction that underlies all "aesthetic" obser- vations. What must be excluded is paradox.
143. Hans Freier, "Asthetik und Autonomic: Ein Beitrag zur idealistischen
394
Notes to Pages 2/8-80
Entfremdungskritik," in Bernd Lutz, ed. , Deutsches Biirgertwn und literarische Intelligenz ijp-1800 (Stuttgart, 1974), pp. 32. 9-83 (339).
144. Karl Philipp Moritz, "Uber die bildende Nachahmung des Schonen,"
in Schriften zur Asthetik und Poetik, in Kritische Ausgabe (Tubingen, 1962), pp. 63-93 (78).
145. We take the precaution of pointing out that in this theoretical context, "Idea" no longer corresponds to the Platonic idea. The function of the concept within the current theoretical design is a different one. One seeks to recapture the old eidetic of nature in the medium of subjectivity.
146. See esp. letters no. 15, 26, and 27 in Friedrich Schiller, Uber die dsthetis- che Erziehung des Menscben in einer Reihe von Briefen, quoted from Friedrich Schiller, Sdmtliche Werke, vol. 5, 4th ed. (Munich, 1967), pp. 614XF. , 65jfF.
147. Jacques Derrida, The Truth in Painting trans. Geoff Bennington and Ian McLeod (Chicago, 1987), p. 116.
148. Freier, "Asthetik und Autonomic" p. 330, distinguishes between the au- tonomy of art, of the artwork, and of the aesthetic, which roughly corresponds to the distinction between the art system, operative programs, and system reflec- tion that we employed above.
149. See Jean Paul, Vorschule der Asthetik, p. 464.
150. On the shift from "imitation" to "autonomy" in Kant, see also Werber, Literatur aIs System, pp. 391? . Before Kant, the word autonomy had an exclusively political, or, starting in the Middle Ages, a juridical meaning. Kant displaces the concept onto the subject. This is why Schelling and Schiller can apply the con- cept of autonomy to art, not systematically at first, but with reference to the ge- nius who generates his autonomy and his creativity out of his own nature. Our own use of "autonomy" is not in accordance with the semantics of that time.
151. Jean Paul takes every measure to resist philosophy: for example, parody, or even a return to the principle of imitation (see, e. g.
70. "Suelefaltarledeeminenciaalaimitacion,loquealcanzadefacilidad":so Gracidn describes this reserved attitude, this shift of emphasis from adequacy to artistic skill (Gracidn, Discorso LXIII, Agudezay arte de ingenio, vol. 2, p. 257).
71. "Facilesadelantarlocommenzado;arduoelinventar,ydespuesdetanto, cerca de insuperable"--this is how Gracidn begins his treatise {Agudezay arte de
one
ingenio, vol. 1, p. 47). In Zuccaro, L'idea dei Pittori, pp. 225ft". ,
finds a simi- lar view in the form of the distinction between disegno naturaleand disegno arti-
ficiale. The former operates intuitively; only the latter reaches perfection.
72. See Paolo Pino, quoted above, n. 33. As an example of the highly devel- oped literature on artistic technique, which in itself offers occasions for reflec-
tion, see, e. g. , Giovanni Paolo Lomazzo, Trattato dell'arte, della Pittura, Scultura et architettura, 3 vols. (Milan, 1584; Rome, 1844).
73. See Roger de Piles, Cours de peinture par principes (Paris, 1708), pp. iff. The "sociological" observation (pp. i2f. ) that the artist's reputation (Raphael in the Vatican museum) suffices to attract spectators, who then walk by other beau- ties, is remarkable. See also Chapter 1, n. 42, above.
74. See, e. g. , Giovanni Paolo Lomazzo, Idea del Tempio della Pittura (Milan, 1590), p. 146: "Arte non dee esser mostrata nell'arte. "
75. On painting, see de Piles, Cours depeintureparprincipes, p. 3; or Antoine Coypel, Discoursprononcez dans les conferences de I'Academie Royale de Peinture et Sculpture (Paris, 1721), pp. 35, 96, i6iff. ; on poetry, see Lodovico Antonio Mura-
tori, Delia perfetta Poesia Italiana (Modena, 1706), pp. 7if. ; on the fine arts in general, see Batteux, Les beaux arts rtduits a un memeprincipe.
76. Onthisopposition,whichwasintroducedintheseventeenthcenturyand dominated the eighteenth century, see esp. Chap. 3 ("The Creative Imagination: Imitation and Originality") in Joan Pittock, TheAscendancy of Taste: TheAchieve- ment of Joseph and Thomas Warton (London, 1973), pp. j$ff.
77. See Michelangelo Biondo, Von der hochedlen Malerei (1547; German trans. Vienna, 1873; rpt. Osnabriick, 1970), pp. iff.
78. Evenofnature,onesays:"Lanaturaimitasestessa,"Pino,DialogodiPit- tura, p. 113.
79. Jacques Derrida still detects imitation here. See his "Economimesis," in Sylviane Agacinski et al. , Mimesis des articulations (Paris, 1975), pp. 55~93-
Notes to Pages 263-6$ 389
80. See, e. g. , without transcendental-theoretical foundations but with refer- ence to sensibility, Karl Heinrich Heydenreich, System der Asthetik (Leipzig, 1790). The rejection of imitation still must be mentioned and justified (pp. i87ff, against Batteux and Moritz). The problem still presents itselfwithin a the- ory oriented toward subjective experience.
81. This might even be true for Jean Paul, whose insistence on imitation is motivated by his polemic against transcendental philosophy and insists on the respect due to the real world but not on the validity of its phenomenal appear-
ance. See Jean Paul, Vorschule der Asthetik, quoted from Werke, vol. 5 (Munich, 1963), pp. 7-456; and Clavis Fichtiana seu Leibgeberiana, Werke, vol. 3 (Munich, 1961), pp. 1011-56.
82. Jean Paul's example, Vorschule der Asthetik, p. 43, is to represent pain as pleasure.
83. In the form, e. g. , of a narration within the narration, which is subse- quently discussed in the primary narration and which is justified despite its ob- vious deviation from the story. See Ludwig Tieck's novella Das Festzu Kenelworth (which is about the young Shakespeare and therefore is beyond doubt), quoted from Ludwig Tieck, Shakespeare-Novellen (Berlin, 1981), pp. 7-45 (pp. 2iff. ).
84. See esp. Zuccaro, L'idea dei Pittori, pp. ij2f.
85. Leonardo da Vinci, Notebooks (New York, n. d. ), pp. 61, 73f.
86. "In the presence of nature nothingness is not found," states da Vinci
(ibid. ).
87. See Zuccaro, L'idea dei Pittori, p. 151: "Disegno in quanto che si trova in
tutte le cose, increate, & create, invisibili, & visibili; spirituali, & corporali. . . . " On an alleged pronouncement by Michelangelo, see Francisco de Hollanda, Vier Gesprdche iiber die Malerei, gefuhrtzu Rom 1538 (Vienna, 1899), p. 117.
88. Zuccaro, L'idea dei Pittori, pp. 27iff.
89. Ibid. , p. 151.
90. See Erich Kohler, "'Je ne sais quoi': Ein Kapitel aus der Begriffsgeschichte
des Unbegreiflichen," in Kohler, Esprit und arkadische Freiheit: Aufiatze aus der Welt der Romania (Frankfurt, 1966), pp. 230-86.
91. See Marvin T. Herrick, "Some Neglected Sources of Admiratio," Modern Language Notes 62 (1947): 222-26.
92. Rene Descartes, Les passions de I'&me, Art. 53, quoted from CEuvres etLet- tres, Pleiade ed. (Paris, 1952), pp. 723f. Descartes emphasizes that admiration oc- curs before one knows what it is about and that it is therefore experienced without distinction ("point de contraire"), that is, prior to an observation that can be fixed.
93. The word gusto was, of course, known much earlier--see, e. g. , in Lodo- vico Dolce, Dialogo delta Pittura, p. 165. But here gusto as natural taste ("senza lettere") is opposed to learned judgment without a specification of rank. The se- mantic success of the concept will require a social revalorization.
94. For more details, see Rosalie L. Colie, Paradoxia Epidemica: The Renais-
39?
Notes to Pages 265-70
sance Tradition ofParadox (Princeton, N. J. , 1966). On the continuation of this tradition into the twentieth century, see Hugh Kenner, Paradox in Chesterton (London, 1948).
95. Not just as an "exercise of wit," as Mundy writes in The Defence ofCon- traries, A 3. See also n. 56, above.
96. According to Schroder, "die prarationale BetrofFenheit und Faszination des anderen wird von Comeille als Mktel eingesetzt und zugleich als (theatralis- ches) Mittel aufgedeckt," Logos und List, p. 281.
97. Concerning Kafka and Derrida, see David Roberts, "The Law of the Text of the Law: Derrida before the Law," ms. 1992, p. 18.
98. See J. H. Hexter, The Vision ofPolitics on the Eve ofthe Reformation: More, Machiavelli, and Seyssel (London, 1973); Christopher Hill, "Protestantismus, Pamphlete, Patriotismus und offentliche Meinung im England des 16. und 17. Jahrhunderts," in Bernhard Giesen, ed. , Nationale und kulturelle Identit'dt: Stu- dien zur Entwicklung des kollektiven Bewuftseins in der Neuzeit (Frankfurt, 1991), pp. 100-20.
99. See Hans Ulrich Gumbrecht for an alternative view of the problems that arise in the attempt to make sense of the medieval practice of performance on
the basis of innovations introduced in the sixteenth century. Gumbrecht, "Fur eine Erfindung des mittelalterlichen Theaters aus der Perspektive der friihen Neuzeit," Festschriftfur Walter Haug und Burghart Wachinger (Tubingen, 1992), pp. 827-48.
100. See, e. g. , Varchi, Lezzione, pp. 2jf.
101. The significance of the senses for communicating the motives of obedi- ence is emphasized explicitly. See, e. g. , Johann Christian Liinig, Theatrum Cer- emoniale Historico-Politicum, 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1719-1720), vol. 1, p. 5. It is tempt- ing to speak of latent functions diat resist transformation into motives.
102. On the clash between ceremony and a media-dependent public sphere, see Jorg Jochen Berns, "Der nackte Monarch und die nackte Wahrheit: Auskiin- fte der deutschen Zeitungs- und Zeremonialschriften des spaten 17. und friihen 18. Jahrhunderts zum Verhaltnis von Hof und Offentlichkeit," Daphnisn (1982): 315-49 (34off. ).
103. See, e. g. , Julius Bernhard von Rohr, Einleitung zur Ceremoniel-Wissen- schaft der Privat-Personen (Berlin, 1728), pp. 2f.
104. We have mentioned Liinig and von Rohr. See also Friedrich Wilhelm von Winterfeld, Teutsche und Ceremonial-Politica (Frankfurt-Leipzig, 1700), pp. 257ff. (part 2 of a general treatise on civil society); Julius Bernhard von Rohr, Einleitung zur Ceremoniel-Wissenschaft der grofien Herren (Berlin, 1729).
105. Kant, Kritik der Urteilskraft, ? 49.
106. See Chapter 5, section II, above.
107. For an elaboration of this point, see Chapter 4, section IV, above.
Notes to Pages 270-74
391
108. See some of the shorter treatises by Richardson, reprinted in The Works (London, 1773; rpt. Hildesheim, 1969).
109. Concerning the context of the Acad6mie Royale de Peinture et de Sculp- ture, see, e. g.
, Henri Testelin, Sentiments des plus Habiles Peintres sur le Pratique de la Peinture et la Sculpture (Paris, 1696), lectures, 16706? . ; or Coypel, Discours prononcez. Studies of this sort create the impression of fulfilling a dutiful ritual.
no. Coypel, Discoursprononcez, p. 6.
in. SeeThomasE. Crow,PaintersandPublicLifeinEighteenth-CenturyParis (New Haven, Conn. , 1985).
112. This kind of complexity--a sign of age--and exaggeration of distinctions in the theory of taste is exemplified in Archibald Alison, Essays on the Nature and Principles of Taste (Edinburgh-London, 1790; rpt. Hildesheim, 1968).
113. Derrida demonstrates a hierarchization of already hierarchical distinctions within this text in "Economimesis. " Perhaps this covert hierarchization failed to satisfy the striving of romantic reflection toward indeterminacy.
114. See the references in Chapter 4, n. 144, above.
115. See, e. g. , the "Proemio" in Varchi, Lezzione.
116. See a broad, historically oriented dissertation by Anke Wiegand, Die
Schonheit und das Bose (Munich, 1967); further Niels Werber, Literatur als Sys- tem: Zur Ausdifferenzierung literarischer Kommunikation (Opladen, 1992).
117. See Alexander Gotdieb Baumgarten, Aesthetica, vol. 1 (Frankfurt/Oder, 1750; rpt. Hildesheim, 1970). The links to the tradition are well marked in Baumgarten s introduction of the concept of aesthetics: "Aesthetica (theoria lib- eralium artium, gnoseologia inferior, ars pulchre cogitandi, ars analogia rationis) est scientia cognitionis sensitivae" (? 1). But precisely this grounding in tradition makes it difficult for contemporaries such as Kant to trust the name.
118. For the quality of such testimony, it might have been significant that in Greek cities, regionally far-reaching diplomatic contacts or sports contacts were concentrated in the hands of the nobility, even in places (such as Athens) where the nobility no longer applied for city offices.
119. See Plumpe, Asthetische Kommunikation der Moderne, further Gemot Bohme s critical review of this development, which refers aesthetics back to the original meaning of aisthesis, in Fiir eine bkologische Naturasthetik (Frankfurt, 1989); Bohme, "Atmosphere as a Fundamental Concept of a New Aesthetics,"
Thesis Eleven 36 (1993): 113-26.
120. Explicidy in Heydenreich, System derAsthetik (1790).
121. See Gotz Muller, "Jean Pauls Asthetik im Kontext der Fruhromantik und
des Deutschen Idealismus," in Walter Jaeschke and Helmut Holzhey, eds. ,
Fruher Idealismus und Fruhromantik: Der Streit um die Grundlagen derAsthetik (i79S~i8o$) (Hamburg, 1990), pp. 150-73.
122. For an exemplary study, see John Bender, Imagining the Penitentiary:
392
Notes to Pages 274-j6
Fiction and the Architecture ofMind in Eighteenth-Century England (Chicago, 1987).
123. See Hegel's Vorlesungen iiber die Asthetik I, in Werke, vol. 13 (Frankfort, 1970), p. 13-
124. See Bender, Imagining the Penitentiary, pp. 3jff.
125. See, e. g. , Johann Christoph Gottsched, Versuch einer Critischen Dicht- kunst vor die Deutschen (Leipzig, 1730).
126. In Lomazzo, Trattato dell'arte, and Idea del Tempio, one still finds intel- letto rather than gusto, and the same holds for Zuccaro, L'idea dei Pittori. There is no doubt that the words gusto and gustoso are used occasionally. In the eigh- teenth century, one will explicidy distinguish between taste and the intellect and assign these faculties to different systems: "Le Gout est dans les Arts ce que l'ln-
1
telligence est dans les Sciences," writes the Abbe Batteux (Les beaux arts riduits a
un mbneprincipe, p. 58). He continues in the vein of the inside/outside schema by stating that taste refers to ourselves, whereas intelligence refers to the object. 127. We find formulations of this sort in Lamindo Pritanio (= Lodovico An-
tonio Muratori), Riflessioni sopra il buon gusto Intorno le Scienze e le Arti (Venice, 1708). See further Muratori, Delia perfetta Poesia Italiana, pp. 57ff.
128. "Noi per buon gusto intendiamo il cognoscere ed il giudicare ci6 che sia difettoso, o imperfetto, o mediocre nelle Scienze o neU'Arti per guardarsen; e ci6 che sia il meglio, e il perfetto" (Muratori, Riflessioni sopra il buon gusto, p. 13).
129. See, explicidy, Jean Baptiste Morvan, Abbe" de Bellegarde, Reflexions sur le ridicule etsur les moyens de I'eviter, 4th ed. (Paris, 1699), pp. i6off.
130. See, e. g. , John Gilbert Cooper, Letters concerning Taste andEssays on Sim- ilar and Other Subjects, 3d ed. (London, 1757), pp. 6f. ; Jean Le Rond d'Alembert, Reflexions sur I'usage etsur I'abus de la philosophic dans les matieres de gout, quoted from CEuvres completes, vol. 4 (rpt. Geneva, 1967), pp. 326-33 (332), accepts this proposition only in ordinary cases ("pour l'ordinaire"), because many pleasant il-
lusions become transparent in retrospective analyses. But he nonetheless believes
that "les vraies beautis gagnent toujours a l'examen" (332), only that it is unclear
what those "vraies beautes" are and how one distinguishes retrospectively be-
tween a short-lived illusion and genuine beauty.
131. On the basis of an older tradition, d'Alembert, Reflexions, p. 327, distin- guishes between grandTor everybody and j? << for sensitive people. Similarly, De- nis Diderot, Traiti du beau, quoted from CEuvres, Pl&ade ed. (Paris, 1951), pp. 1105-42 (1134), distinguishes between homme sauvageznd homme police on the basis of distinct concepts of beauty. Apart from that, one finds that the compe- tent judgment of a selected public is again differentiated into the judgment of experts (who have interests and are able to deceive the public for a while, if not permanently) and public judgment. See Jean-Baptiste Dubos, Reflexions critiques sur lapoesie etsur lapeinture (rpt. Paris, 1733), vol. 2, pp. 32off. These distinctions
Notes to Pages 276-78
393
indicate the emphasis on an ultimately irrational expertise in artistic matters that is uncorrupted by interests.
132. See William Hogarth, The Analysis of Beauty, written with a view of fixing thefluctuating Ideas of Taste (London, 1773; Oxford, 1955).
133. According to Herder's formulation in his Ersten Kritischen Wdldchen, in Herders Samtliche Werke, ed. Bernhard Suphan, vol. 3 (Berlin, 1878), p. 7.
134. See, e. g. , Gonthier-Louis Fink, "Das Bild des Nachbarvolkes im Spiegel der deutschen und franzosischen Hochaufklarung (1750-1789)," in Giesen, ed. , Nationale und kulturelle Identitat, pp. 453-92; see further Bernhard Giesen and Kay Junge, "Vom Patriotismus zum Nationalismus: Zur Evolution der 'Deutschen Kulturnation,'" in ibid. , pp. 255-303. Apart from that, let us recall our remarks on the emergence of a new concept of "culture" (Chapter 3, section VII, and Chapter 6, section I, above).
135. Hogarth, The Analysis of Beauty, pp. 41". , 24.
136. Ibid. , esp. pp. 23ff. We find a similar critique from the perspective of an- other painter in Coypel, Discoursprononcez, pp. 3off.
137. According to Kant, the judgment of taste is "ein Urteil in Beziehung auf die Geselligkeit, sofern sie auf empirischen Regeln beruht" (Kritik der Urteils- kraft, ? 7). See also Kant's "Reflexionen zur Anthropologic" no. 743, from his posthumous writings {Akademie-Ausgabe, vol. 15. 1 [Berlin, 1923], p. 327), where Kant clearly distinguishes between sociability and objectivity.
138. See Peter Leberecht, Pt. 2, Chap. 4, quoted from Ludwig Tieck, Fruhe Erzdhlungen und Romane (Munich, n. d. ).
139. See Karl Wilhelm Solger, Vorlesungen iiber Asthetik, ed. Karl Wilhelm Ludwig Heyse (Leipzig, 1829; rpt. Darmstadt, 1973).
140. See Alfred Baeumler's classic monograph Das Irrationalitatsproblem in der Asthetik und Logik des 18. fahrhunderts bis zur Kritik der Urteilskraft (Darm- stadt, 1967).
141. See Baumgarten, Aesthetica. It has frequently been pointed out that the name "aesthetics," while it makes sense in view of this transitional period, is in truth inappropriate for a theory of art; however, once the terminology was in- troduced, it remained. See, e. g. , Friedrich Schlegel, Kritische Fragmente, no. 40, quoted from Werke, vol. 1, p. 170, or the beginning of Hegel, Vorlesungen iiber die Asthetik, quoted from Werke, vol. 13 (Frankfurt, 1970), p. 13.
142. In his introductory remarks to the Aesthetica, Baumgarten repeatedly in- sists on cognition--"Aesthetica (theoria liberalium artium, gnoseologia inferior, ars pulchre cogitandi, ars analogia rationis) est scientia cognitionis sensitivae" (? 1)--which creates the impression of an exclusion. What is to be excluded is the inquiry into the unity of the distinction that underlies all "aesthetic" obser- vations. What must be excluded is paradox.
143. Hans Freier, "Asthetik und Autonomic: Ein Beitrag zur idealistischen
394
Notes to Pages 2/8-80
Entfremdungskritik," in Bernd Lutz, ed. , Deutsches Biirgertwn und literarische Intelligenz ijp-1800 (Stuttgart, 1974), pp. 32. 9-83 (339).
144. Karl Philipp Moritz, "Uber die bildende Nachahmung des Schonen,"
in Schriften zur Asthetik und Poetik, in Kritische Ausgabe (Tubingen, 1962), pp. 63-93 (78).
145. We take the precaution of pointing out that in this theoretical context, "Idea" no longer corresponds to the Platonic idea. The function of the concept within the current theoretical design is a different one. One seeks to recapture the old eidetic of nature in the medium of subjectivity.
146. See esp. letters no. 15, 26, and 27 in Friedrich Schiller, Uber die dsthetis- che Erziehung des Menscben in einer Reihe von Briefen, quoted from Friedrich Schiller, Sdmtliche Werke, vol. 5, 4th ed. (Munich, 1967), pp. 614XF. , 65jfF.
147. Jacques Derrida, The Truth in Painting trans. Geoff Bennington and Ian McLeod (Chicago, 1987), p. 116.
148. Freier, "Asthetik und Autonomic" p. 330, distinguishes between the au- tonomy of art, of the artwork, and of the aesthetic, which roughly corresponds to the distinction between the art system, operative programs, and system reflec- tion that we employed above.
149. See Jean Paul, Vorschule der Asthetik, p. 464.
150. On the shift from "imitation" to "autonomy" in Kant, see also Werber, Literatur aIs System, pp. 391? . Before Kant, the word autonomy had an exclusively political, or, starting in the Middle Ages, a juridical meaning. Kant displaces the concept onto the subject. This is why Schelling and Schiller can apply the con- cept of autonomy to art, not systematically at first, but with reference to the ge- nius who generates his autonomy and his creativity out of his own nature. Our own use of "autonomy" is not in accordance with the semantics of that time.
151. Jean Paul takes every measure to resist philosophy: for example, parody, or even a return to the principle of imitation (see, e. g.
