, the college students and the pro- fessionals, the amount of
schooling
was relatively constant for the entire.
Adorno-T-Authoritarian-Personality-Harper-Bros-1950
I'm under the GI Bill.
If I get assurance of four years in college, I might get married this spring.
We're well suited; I know she's interested in me, because I have so little to offer.
We're both at the proper age.
I intend to work part time.
I don't like her teaching; I like to support my wife.
I've always had that idea.
But maybe under the circumstances, that won't be fully possible.
She is a good cook and that is an asset, what with my stomach condition.
When I tell her that you approve of our marriage, she will be pleased, but, of course, I'm always a man to make my own decisions.
"
It seems that Mack does believe that "a woman's place is in the home," but
9 Throughout the book, the interviewer's report of the interview is given in small type. Quotation marks within this material indicate a verbatim record of the subject's state- ments.
? MEASUREMENT OF ANTIDEMOCRA TIC TRENDS
273
was prevented by the logic of his situation at the time from saying so in his questionnaire.
Sex, Anti-intraception, Conventionalism, and Projectivity, in the order named, are the other variables on which Mack is well above the group mean. Sex was not mentioned in the interview protocol given in Chapter II. The following quotation from the clinical part of Mack's interview may, how- ever, throw some light on his responses to the Sex items in the scale:
(Where did you get your sex instruction? ) "I never had any from my parents, though I did get some suggestions from my aunt; no real instruction. What I know I have picked up from reading. I've listened to men talk, but accepted little of it; I weighed it in the light of what I have read. "
(What was your first sex experience? ) "It was in 194o-'4r, the aftermath of a New Year's party in Washington. There was liquor. I was always a backward boy. "
According to well-supported theory, it is precisely the kind of sexual inhi- bition and "backwardness" described here, and further expressed in the extreme conventionalism of the passage about plans for marriage, that lies behind the moralistic and punitive attitude toward the supposed sexuality of other people which is the main theme of the Sex items in the scale. The inconsistency seen in Mack's disagreement with the statement that "men are interested in women for only one reason" might be explained in the same way as was his response to Item 6 (Women restricted): agreement would contradict too sharply the facts of his present situation. It is to be noted, how- ever, that the item (For one reason) has a very low group mean and a low D. P .
Mack's interview could serve well as a model of Anti-intraception. His emphasis upon practicality, efficiency, and diligence as ends in themselves, his tendency to ignore social and psychological determinants of human characteristics and human events, his failure to take into account possible inner sources of his opinions, the discrepancies between his expressed values and what appear to be his real motives, were outstanding features of his interview. The several Anti-intraception items of the F scale seem to have afforded him an excellent opportunity to express these same tendencies. An interesting discrepancy occurs in the case of Item 53 (Things too intimate), where his score of 3 is well below the group mean. This response is not very consistent with the pattern of values that he sets forth in his interview, but it seems quite consistent with what he does in the interview: as the above passage in which he discusses his approaching marriage well illustrates, he is able within the space of an hour to come to a rather free discussion of certain intimate matters with a stranger. True, his generally deferential behavior in the interview is probably an aspect of his Authoritarian Submission, but, more than this, there is a strong indication that however much Mack may assert his independence he is really a rather lonesome and troubled young man who would like to talk with someone who understood him.
? 274
THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
One familiar with Mack's interview might have expected him to go higher on Conventionalism. One of his major reasons for rejecting so many groups is that they violate conventional values, and his positive evaluations of in- groups are in the same terms-honesty, charity, thrift, diligence, etc. His ideas about work and about love and marriage seem to be utterly conven- tional. True, his mean score for Conventionalism is as high as it is for any other variable save Anti-intraception, and one reason why he does not stand out more sharply from the group is that the group mean itself is high-higher than for any of the other variables. Furthermore, the Conventionalism items, as a group, were not very discriminating, the mean D. P. , r. 26, being the lowest of those obtained for the several variables. Item r9 (One should avoid), on which Mack's score is below the group mean, does not discrim- inate between the high and low quartiles; that he should not agree with it seems consistent with his expressed value for independence. It is interesting that despite his rejection of religion in the interview, he refuses to criticize the modern church when invited to do so by Item r2. His conventionalism will not allow him to attack so well-established an institution.
From Mack's interview (Chapter II) we inferred that one reason he accuses various groups and agencies of wishing to establish a closely cohesive and selfishly exploitive ingroup was that he wished to do the same thing himself; unable to justify such antisocial wishes, he sees them as existing not in himself but in the world around him. This is projectivity in a rather extreme form, and if Mack had not gone above the group mean on this vari- able, in his scale responses, we should have had to conclude that something was radically wrong with the scale. His score of 7 on Item 70 (Plot) seems perfectly in keeping with what he had to say about politics in his interview. His responses to Items 46 (Sex orgies) and 73 (Infection and disease) are consistent with the picture of sexual inhibition given above. That he is well below the group mean on Item 65 (World catastrophe) seems attributable to the value for hard-headed scientificness which he expressed both in his interview and in his response to items under the heading of Superstition. It is notable that his scientific "realism" does not insure that he keeps his feet on the ground when it comes to interpreting social events. (Indeed, it seems to have the opposite effect, and one might inquire if this is not generally true. )
Mack stands only slightly above the group mean on Destructiveness and Cynicism. This is a reminder of the fact that his interview leaves the impres- sion of a relatively "mild case"; he makes no rabid statements, nor does he show any taste for violence. Attention to the individual items of the Destruc- tiveness and Cynicism group shows that it is those pertaining to open or all- out aggression on which he scores at or below the mean, while he goes well above the mean on items that have to do primarily with cynicism. It is interesting to recall, in this connection, his outstandingly high score on
? MEASUREMENT OF ANTIDEMOCRA TIC TRENDS 2 75
Authoritarian Aggression. One might say that Mack cannot express aggres- sion directly unless it is done in the name of some moral authority or unless it is against some group that has been rejected on moral grounds.
It might be suggested that another way in which Mack handles aggression is by means of cynicism. There was certainly no want of cynicism in his interview-the bureaus grab power, the civil servants think only of them- selves, Roosevelt selfishly seeks a fourth term, etc. -and he obtains top scores on the items most expressive of this trend: 30 (Reports of atrocities), 59
(Always war), 67 (Eye to profit). This is, of course, hypothesizing that Mack has unconscious aggressive tendencies which are projected onto human nature and the world. Something like a high-water mark in cynicism is reached by Mack when he agrees, rather emphatically, with both Item 30 (Reports of atrocities are exaggerated) and Item 48 (Germans and Japs should be wiped out) of theE scale: in agreeing with the former he is saying that the Germans were not as bad as they were pictured; in agreeing with the latter he is saying that nevertheless we ought to wipe out as many of them as possible.
On the strength of Mack's interview, we should expect him to obtain one of his highest mean scores on Authoritarian Submission. Glorification of such ingroup authorities as General Marshall, the vVar Department, the big capitalists, and God as "strictly a man," was one of the interview's outstand- ing features. Yet his scale score on this variable (4. 0) is at the group mean. Consideration of the items which pertain to this variable can effect some reconciliation of scale and interview, but it also reveals certain weaknesses in the Form 78 scale. The items on which Mack scores well above the mean -23 (Undying love), 32 (Essential for learning), 50 (Obedience and re- spect), and 77 (No sane, normal person)-are those which express Authori- tarian Submission in its purest form: three of them have to do with family loyalty and the third with . authoritarian education. When it comes to the items which have to do with religion, however-39 (Supernatural force) and 43 (Sciences like chemistry)-and in which ideas and feelings first ex- perienced, presumably, in relationships with parents are now represented on a cosmic plane, his value for the objective-scientific comes to the fore and his scores are as low as they could be. One might say that Mack's submissive tendencies are insufficiently sublimated to permit their expression in abstract
religious terms; the forces which are important for him are more tangible; they have concrete existence either in men or in physical objects. In this light, it is surprising that he does not agree with Item 74 (Tireless leaders). This item, be it noted, has a very high group mean and a relatively low Discriminatory Power. It seems likely that for some of the truly submissive subjects, like Mack, the item is too open, comes too close home, so that in responding they go contrary to their strongest feeling, while the great ma- jority of the subjects, for whom the item was not emotionally involving,
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
responded in accordance with the element of objective truth in the statement. Rephrasing of this item in later forms seems to have improved it by minimiz- ing the rational aspect and by putting the emphasis more squarely on leader- ship. Another poor item, it seems, is 20 (Progressive education). Liberals and potential fascists alike, very probably, are attracted by the word "pro- gressive. " That Mack is no real supporter of progressive education is attested to by his enthusiastic endorsement of Item 32 (Essential for learning) which is about as clear a statement of educational reactionism as could be found.
Mack is below the group mean on the rather unsatisfactory Power and "Toughness" cluster. All the items of this cluster have been discussed above. The? correspondence between interview and scale lies in the fact that in neither place does he show any strong inclination to be a tough and aggres- sive fellow. It is in his admiration for power and in his willingness to submit to it, rather than in any wish to be an aggressive leader, that his potentiality for fascism lies.
Enough has been said about Mack's extraceptive outlook, as seen both in his interview and in the scale responses discussed above, so that his very low score on Superstition is no more than is to be expected. The surprising thing, perhaps, is that he should agree with Item 2 (Astrology), when the great majority of the subjects do not. His agreement here suggests that his relative lack of superstition is not based upon a genuine identification with science as a way of life, but rather upon his general need to appear hard-headed and realistic and unlikely to be "taken in. "
In general, there is rather close correspondence between Mack's interview and his scale responses. Discrepancies appear chiefly when the scale, which concentrates upon things thought to be generally significant, fails to catch something which is relatively specific and unique, and, more commonly, when the particular scale item is deficient and fails to discriminate between high and low scorers. There is reason to believe that the latter difficulty has been largely overcome in the revisions of the scale.
Turning to a consideration of Larry's case, it may be noted first, that he scores below the group mean on all the F scale variables save one, Authori- tarian Aggression. He deviates most widely from the mean, in the low direc- tion, on Power and "Toughness," Projectivity, and Anti-intraception; then come Superstition and Authoritarian Submission; and he comes close to the mean on Destructiveness and Cynicism, Sex, and Conventionalism.
Less can be said about the relative lack of these tendencies in Larry than about their operation in Mack. Larry agrees with none of the statements in the Power and "Toughness" cluster, and this accords with the interview's picture of him as a rather soft and agreeable young man. He agrees with only one of the Projectivity statements, Item 56 (Crime wave), and even here his score is barely above the group mean on a statistically poor item. His lack of this tendency was commented upon in the discussion of his interview,
? MEASUREMENT OF ANTIDEMOCRA TIC TRENDS 277
where his willingness to admit his-not too lofty-motives and his inclina- tion to find the origins of his own views were noteworthy. A low score on Anti-intraception is certainly to be expected from a man who gives consid- erable attention to his own feelings, makes a positive value of pleasure, says he likes to "philosophize," and discusses psychological determinants of prej- udice-as Larry did in his interview. Inconsistencies appear in the case of Items 55 (Leisure) and 53 (Things too intimate), where he goes somewhat above the mean; the former may be taken as an expression of his conven- tionality, while the latter would appear to be connected with his special problem-"that disease" (tuberculosis) that he had.
There was nothing in Larry's interview to suggest that he was super- stitious and, hence, it is to be expected that he should obtain a low score on the Superstition variable. Why he should agree with the astrology item is a question. Perhaps it should not be surprising to find an element of mysticism in this weak and rather passive character. Authoritarian Submission was rather prominent in Larry's interview. He made it clear that he has a great deal of respect for his family and that he has had little occasion to rebel against them either in deed or in thought. That he is still below the mean makes it clear that in order to be high on this variable something more than ordinary respect for proper authority is required: the submission must be exaggerated or overdone, and it must be generalized to include other objects besides family members. Two of the three items on which Larry goes above the mean-23 (Undying love) and 77 (No sane, normal person)-refer spe- cifically to ingroup feelings in regard to the family; the third, 32 (Essen- tial for learning), gives him an opportunity to express his conventionality.
Larry is below the group mean on Destructiveness and Cynicism, but the naive optimism and friendliness toward the world which he showed in his interview is enough to raise the question of why he is not still lower. One thing to note is that the items on which he goes up have, in general, high group means and low D. P. 's. It seems that these items approach close enough to being cliches so that most people agree with them, and Larry is enough of a conformist to go along.
In connection with Larry's score on Sex, which is . 55 below the group mean, the following quotation from the clinical section of his interview is enlightening.
(Sex? ) "No great problem. I thought about girls all the time, as boys will, and I looked at them. I started out with them at about I 5. I liked them a lot and associated with them at school and in the neighborhood. You know, you have the usual sexual desires, but you don't let them bother you. "
(Sex morals? ) "I feel a girl should remain a virgin until 2 I or 2 2 anyway. If she expects to marry soon after that, she should wait until after marriage, but if she is a career girl or doesn't want to get married, then an affair with an unmarried man is OK if they keep it quiet and secluded so the moral standards of others are not
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
lowered. She should pick out one fellow to have a sex relation with, not carry on with several. "
(You? ) "Not until after I came out of the hospital, when I \Vas 2 3 or 24. Since then I've had several affairs, lasting a few weeks or a month. I won't marry until I have more security. She almost has to be a virgin, though not necessarily. I lost respect for the women I slept with. I know that's selfish, but I guess that's the way most fellows are. "
Although this is conventional enough-"the way most fellows are," as Larry says-it does not bespeak the kind of inhibition which we conceive to lie behind high scores on the Sex items. Actually, Larry's score on this variable would have been very low were it not for his score of 6 on Item 3I (Homo- sexuality). It is possible that he is not free of worry in this area-but this is a matter that had best be left until it is time to discuss the clinical material itself.
Enough has been said about Larry's conventionalism to make it appear reasonable that he should be close to the mean on this variable. A problem is presented by the fact that he is actually above the mean on Authoritarian Aggression. True, his score is still far below that of Mack, but Larry's inter- view gave the impression of a young man who would hardly want to punish anybody, and it is a criticism of the scale that it fails to confirm this impres- sion. The two items on which his score goes up are 3I (Homosexuals), which was discussed above, and 23 (Undying love). This latter item, though it has an element of punishment in it, also expresses Authoritarian Submis- sion, and Larry's response is probably to be explained on the basis of his family loyalty. The group means and D. P. 's of the Authoritarian Aggres- sion items are, relatively, quite satisfactory. It seems that in regard to the present variable, the F scale was not a fine enough instrument to give the true picture in Larry's case.
The differences between Larry and Mack seem to be reflected fairly well in their F-scale responses. Mack scores higher than Larry on all the variables save one, Superstition. Mack is more than 2 points higher on Anti-intracep- tion, Projectivity, and Sex, more than I point higher on Power and "Tough- ness," Authoritarian Aggression, and Conventionalism, and r. oo and . 87 higher, respectively, on Destructiveness and Cynicism, and Authoritarian Submission. It is particularly interesting that the variables which are most differentiating, that is, Anti-intraception, Projectivity, and Sex, are those which seem to be at the greatest distance from the overt content of fascist ideology. They are variables that seem to have their sources deep within the personality and to be relatively impervious to superficial changes in the external situation. It will remain for later chapters to show that as we go deeper into the person the differentiation between high and low scorers becomes more clear-cut and dependable.
? MEASUREMENT OF ANTIDEMOCRA TIC TRENDS
279
G. CONCLUSION
The attempt to construct a scale that would measure prejudice without appearing to have this aim and without mentioning the name of any minority group seems to have been fairly successful. The correlation of . 75 between the E and the F scale means that scores on the former may be predicted with fair accuracy from scores on the latter. That we have achieved the second purpose underlying the F scale-to construct an instrument that would yield an estimate of fascist receptivity at the personality level-has still to be demonstrated.
Numerous variables in areas not ordinarily covered by studies of political, economic, and social ideology have been attacked directly; and they have been found to form a syndrome and to correlate significantly with antidemo- cratic trends in areas covered by the A-S, E, and PEC scales. This means, at the least, that the conception of a potentially fascistic pattern can be con- siderably extended, and that the hypothesis of central personality disposi- tions which give rise to this pattern is lent considerable support. It remains to be shown conclusively, however, that the variables with which the F scale has been concerned are, in reality, variables of personality. If it is true that they are, then they will be exposed directly as we consider findings from procedures designed especially for the investigation of personality and in which the individual is allowed to express himself spontaneously. If our major hypothesis is correct, then the clinical investigations soon to be re- ported should not only substantiate the findings of the present chapter, but give a deeper understanding of the potentially fascistic pattern and of its development within the individual.
? CHAPTER VIII
ETHNOCENTRISM IN RELA TION TO INTELLIGENCE AND EDUCA TION Daniel ]. Levinson
There are several reasons why one might expect intelligence and educa- tion to be related to ethnocentrism. One reason is primarily methodological: since all of theE-scale items (and most of the items in the E-F-PEC series) are negative, i. e. , agreement represents a pro-ethnocentric stand, perhaps some of the less intelligent individuals make high scores not out of real con- viction but simply out of suggestibility and lack of discernment. In answer to this point, it may be noted that we were primarily interested in measur- ing both active receptivity as well as a more passive suggestibility to anti- democratic ideology. Nevertheless, we should expect suggestibility to be but one-and far from the most important one-of the many factors showing some association with high scores on the E scale.
Various hypotheses and interpretations presented in other chapters have implied, directly or indirectly, that intelligence and ethnocentrism are nega- tively correlated, i. e. , that the high scorers on E are somewhat less intelli- gent on the average than the low scorers. Thus, the analysis of the ideological as well as of the clinical material has suggested that ethnocentrism is related to stereotypy, rigidity, and concreteness in thinking (also see Rokeach (98) ), to narrowness of the ego bounds, and to difficulty in grasping psychosocial explanations of social phenomena. Since these variables are at best only partial components of intelligence, and since they are only imperfectly
(though significantly) related to ethnocentrism, we might expect a rela- tively low but consistent negative correlation between intelligence and ethnocentrism.
The correlation may be brought closer to zero by the operation of another factor: it has often been observed that an individual may function in a highly complex, abstract, and flexible manner in one area of life (e. g. in his occupa- tion as a physical scientist, mechanic, or businessman), and in a completely contrasting-less intelligent-manner in his social outlook or in his family life. It is as if the basic intellectual capacity can express itself only in accord-
z8o
? ETHNOCENTRISM IN RELA TION TO INTELLIGENCE 281
ance with certain emotiomil-motivational principles; it is free, indeed stim- ulated, to act along certain lines, impeded and distorted to varying degrees along other lines. Whatever the reasons, it is a matter of fact that many individuals are inconsistent in their actual intellectual performance, and may show certain "nonintelligent" (stereotyped, rigid) qualities in their social thinking despite having a relatively high intelligence as it is ordinarily meas- ured. Conversely, individuals of moderate or low "basic" intelligence may be able to function realistically and flexibly in their social thinking. To the extent that intelligence tests measure something more basic-unfortunately it is not entirely clear what specific psychological functions they do measure -their correlation with ethnocentrism may be lower than initially expected. If the correlation were very high, above . 4-. 5, say, we should be inclined to suspect that the scales are inadequate; it does not seem likely, on theo- retical grounds, that intelligence per se plays so large a role in ideology.
The relation between ethnocentrism and education is also likely to be sig- nificant but low. One of the main stated aims of our educational system is the teaching of democratic values as expressed in our Constitution and in other great documents. To the extent that we are succeeding in aims such as these, ethnocentrism and years of education ought to be negatively cor- related, that is, the more the education the less the ethnocentrism.
The above hypotheses are consistent with the results of previous studies of prejudice and generalliberalism-conservatism. 1
On the average, "liberals" (with respect to ideology regarding group rela- tions, politics, religion, etc. ) have been shown to be slightly more intelligent, to receive better grades in college, to read more and to have greater intel- lectual curiosity. While the differences are significant, there is of course much overlap between the two extreme groups.
It was not feasible within the scope of the present research to administer intelligence tests to the groups taking the questionnaire. Fortunately, such tests had already been administered to some or all of the members of four groups: Maritime School Men, Employment Service Men, Psychiatric Clinic Men and Women, and San Quentin Men. No information was obtained in our questionnaire regarding years of education; this question was omitted partly because of the probable unreliability of the answers and partly because of the fear that it might make the less educated subjects defensive about the entire questionnaire. In some cases, e. g.
, the college students and the pro- fessionals, the amount of schooling was relatively constant for the entire. group. For two groups, the Psychiatric Clinic patients and the Maritime School, the years of schooling had been determined in a way that seemed fairly (though not entirely) reliable.
The data on intelligence are presented in Tables 1-3 (VIII), on education in Tables 4 (VIII) and 5 (VIII). We may consider intelligence first.
1 For reports and summaries see: Murphy, Murphy and Newcomb (85); Kerr (63).
? 282 THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
For all three groups in Tables I-J(VIII), namely the Maritime School Men, Employment Service Men, and Psychiatric Clinic Men and Women, the average IQ is significantly above the general population average (usually by about one sigma); indeed, even the lowest scorer is, except in the third group, above the population mean. This fact, namely the restriction in the "range of talent," must be considered in evaluating the results. The correla- tions for the Maritime School Men, obtained with the AGCT (Army Gen- eral Classification Test), are very similar to those obtained with the Otis Higher Form A Intelligence Test on the Employment Service Veteran Men. The correlations of these tests with the Ethnocentrism scale, Forms 45 and
Ability Test
AGCT
Mechanical Comprehension
Reading Comprehension
Arithmetical Comprehension
Test Properties
Correlation with:b
TABLE 1 (VIII)
CORRELATIONS OF THE E AND F SCALES WITH VARIOUS ABILITY TESTS {MARITIME SCHOOL MEN)
Mean a 126. 7
126. 5
92. 5
81. 2
~ R a n g e 8. 98 102-153
14. 61 66-166
AGCT
? 25
EA -. 02
-. 17
EA+B F -. 20 -. 20
. 00 -. 13
13. 04 57-121 . 55 -. 08 -. 06 -. 20 8. 88 61-105 ? 59 -. 06 -. 16 -. 16
aThe present means may be compared with the following population means: For the general population, the AGCT and Mechanical Comprehension Tests have means of 100. For the "high school graduate? populatiorr the Read- ing comprehension and Arithmetical Comprehension Tests have means of 79. On all but the last-named test, therefore, the present sample is con- siderably above average,
bThe number of cases (N) involved in the correlations are as follows:
Of the 343 subjects in the total sample, 342 received all of the ability tests, with the exception of four individuals who omitted the Reading Comprehension Test, The correlations involving AGCT and F, then, are based on an N of 342. The EA Scale, contained in Form 40, has an N of 168. while EA+B has an N of 178.
40, range between -. 02 and -. p, averaging above -. 2. The correlations ? of E with the Mechanical, Reading and Arithmetical Comprehension Tests2 (Table 1 (VIII)) are slightly lower, averaging about - . 1 . These correla- tions, taken together, are statistically significant, that is, dependably above zero, at the 5 per cent level. It may be noted also that there are no positive correlations. Table 3 (VIII) gives the mean (Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence
2 The Bennett Mechanical Aptitude Test, the Iowa Silent Reading Test, the Stanford Adult Arithmetical Reasoning Test.
? Otis Raw Score Otis IQ
St anford-Binet
IQb
56. 5 114. 5 129. 5
ETHNOCENTRISM IN RELA TION TO INTELLIGENCE TABLE 2 (VIII)
CORRELATIONS OF THE E, F, AND PEC SCALES WITH 'THE OTIS HIGHER FORM A INTELLIGENCE TEST
(Eli! PLOYMENT SERVICE VETERAN MEN)
Otis Test Properties Meana
Range 34-75 92-133
108-140
Correlation of Otis with:c
EA: -. 32 EA+B: -. 22 F: -. 48 PEC: -. 16
aThe mean Otis IQ of 114. 5 is significantly above the population average of 100. 0 (population S. D. is 10. 0).
bThe conversion of the Otis scores into Stanford-Binet IQ scores was
done by means of a table prepared by Dr. E. E. Ghiselli. For the general population the Stanford-Binet has a mean of 100, an S. D. of 16?
Cotis Test data were available for 104 of the 105 cases in this sample. The N is, then, 104 for the correlations with F and ? PEC. The N is also 104 for EA? since the EA scores of the subjects taking Form 45 as well as of those taking form 40 were used, The N is 50 in the case of EA+B (Form 45).
Form 45 E? Scale Quartiles Low quartile
Low middle quartile
High middle quartile
High quartile
Range on E . ! '! . 10-24 8 25-36 5 37-50 13 51-70 11
37
Mean IQ 125. 3 117. 8 113. 9 107. 3 114. 9
TABLE 3 (VIII)
MEAI~ WECHSLER-BELLEVUE I Q SCORE FOR EACH QUARTILEa OF THE ETHNOCENTRISM SCALE (PSYCHIATRIC CLINIC MEN AND WOMEN)
aThe subjects represent only a part of each quartile. In all, 15 of the 50 men, and 22 of the 71 women, had received Wechsler-Bellevues. The men and women were similar with respect to proportion in each quartile, identical with respect to mean IQ. It is not clear why more upper-half than lower-half subjects have been tested. The mean of 114 approximates that for the patients generally.
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
Test) IQ for the four E scale quartiles, and we find the equivalent of a low negative correlation.
Tables I-3 (VIII) indicate that, for individuals with IQ's of approximately wo and above, there is a very low but dependable negative relationship be- tween intelligence and ethnocentrism: the most ethnocentric subjects are, on the average, less intelligent than the least ethnocentric, while the middle
scorers on E are intermediate in IQ.
Data on the San Quentin Men, not presented in the above tables, suggest a similar relation between E and IQ in groups having a wider intellectual range. Wechsler-Bellevue Test Scores were available on 77 of the IIO sub- jects in the San Quentin sample. This subsample had a mean E score of 4. 68 and a Standard Deviation of I. 28, as compared with the total-sample mean of 4. 6I and S. D. of 1. 28. The mean Wechsler-Bellevue IQ (full scale) was
I09. o, the S. D. q. 8, and the range 78-q2. This subsample is, then, almost identical with the total (questionnaire) sample in E mean and S. D. ; it is slightly more intelligent than the total prison population, whose mean IQ is just under 100. The obtained r between E and IQ was -. 2 8. This value is of the same order of magnitude as those reported above for samples in which the IQ range was more constricted. It is, of course, not conclusive, since the tested sample may have been systematically biased in its selection. In addi- tion, other factors such as educational and class level are probably con- tributing to this correlation, since they seem to be at least slightly related to both E and IQ. A conclusive study of the relation between IQ and E would have to partial out, or to keep constant, these other factors. Never- theless, the series of negative r's, on a variety of groups and by means of a variety of intelligence tests, provides substantial evidence of a significant relation between E and IQ. That the correlation is greater than zero, and in a negative direction, is in keeping with previous studies as well as with the results of the present study regarding the role of stereotypy and rigidity in ethnocentrism. That the correlation is only moderately dose-apparently in the range of -. 2 to -. 4-is evidence that intelligence is only one of many variables which determine E-scale scores.
Correlations between the Ability Tests and the F scale were computed for the Maritime School Men (Table I (\llll)) and the Employment Service Veterans (Table 2 (VIII)). In the former group the correlations range be- tween -. q and -. 20 while in the latter the extremely high value of -. 48 was obtained. It appears, then, that IQ is more closely related to F than to E although, except for the Veterans, the correlation is relatively small. Further study is required to determine whether or not the r of -. 48 is spurious or exceptional. The higher correlations with F than with E might be explained on the basis of certain of the F clusters, e. g. , superstition and stereotypy; correlations between IQ and the individual F items might well be obtained
? ETHNOCENTRISM IN RELA TION TO INTELLIGENCE 285
in future research. The correlation of -. r6 between IQ and the PEC scale (Table 2 (VIII)) is consistent with other findings.
That the relation between intelligence and ethnocentrism is not very close is suggested also by the over-all group data. Thus, while the three groups in Tables I-3 (VIII) are very similar in average IQ, they vary greatly in aver- age E score. The Psychiatric Clinic patients have an E mean of 3. 7, a full point below the means for the Maritime School and Veteran Men. More- over, the latter groups, while extremely high in average IQ, are also among the most ethnocentric of all groups tested. It would seem, therefore, that high tested intelligence is no guarantee against the overall authoritarian pattern of ideology and personality.
Data on the relation of ethnocentrism to amount of education are pre- sented in Tables 4 (VIII) and 5 (VIII). One of the most striking results is
TABLE 4 (VIII)
MEAN NUMBER OF YEARS OF EDUCATION FOR EACH QUARTILE OF THE ETHNOCENTRIS\t SCALE
(PSYCHIATRIC CLINIC MEN AND WOMEN)
Form 45 E Seale Quartiles Low quartile
Low middle quartile
Hi~h middle quartile
High quartile
Range onE 10-24 25-36 37-50 51-70
Na Mean Yrs. Educationb 29 13. 8
28 12. 7
27 11. 8
28 11. 2 112 12. 4
aThese data are based on 45 of the 50 men, 66 of the 71 women, The means for men and women separately were so similar that they were combined in order to increase the N.
bone year has been added to the number of years of education in five cases where the individual had specialized training such as secretarial or accounting school,
that these two variables are much more closely related in the Psychiatric Clinic group than in the Maritime School group. The average number of years of education drops gradually but consistently (from I 3. 8 to I 1. 2) in the Clinic group as score on the E scale increases (Table 4 (VIII)). How- ever, in the Maritime School data, computed in another manner, the changes are not so consistent. On the basis of the combined Forms 45 and 40 data, subjects with less than I2 years of education (i. e. , not high school graduates) have the highest E mean, 4? 9, while those with I2-I4 years (there were no college graduates) had almost identical E means of about 4. 6. However,
? 286
THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
Years
Education
Form 45 ( EA+B) Form 40 (Ea> T otal Group
Less than 12 12 years
13 years
14 years
Blank OVer-all
N Mean N
36 4. 38 60 104 4. 28 91 13 4. 75 7 18 4. 34 6 7 4. 63 0 178 4. 36 164
Mean N Mean 5. 21 96 4. 90
5. 04 195 4. 63 4. 40 20 4. 63 5. 17 24 4. 55
7 4. 63 5. 08 342 4. 68
TABLE 5 (VIII)
MEAN E SCORE FOR GROUPS HAVING VARIOUS YEARS OF EDUCATION (MARITIME SCHOOL MEN)
there is some question as to whether the results for the two Forms should be combined, since the results for each Form separately are not so clear-cut. In the Form 45 group there is no consistent trend, the subjects with 13 years of education having the highest E mean and the other educational levels varying only within a range of o. I points. In the Form 40 group, on the other hand, the 13-year level is the least ethnocentric, while the 14-year group vies with the less-than-12 for the most ethnocentric position. The only difference that holds up for both Forms is that between the 12 and the less-than-12 year levels, and this difference borders on the 5 per cent level of statistical significance.
Why is the relation between ethnocentrism and education more consistent in the Psychiatric Clinic group? One possibility is that the Maritime School members who had one or two years of college and then dropped out are systematically atypical, and that an unselected group of college students might be less ethnocentric. To the extent that this is true, a clear-cut relation- ship between ethnocentrism and education does exist. However, the relation in the case of the Psychiatric Clinic may be spuriously high, since the college students and college graduates in this sample are not a random sample of these educational levels. It is possible-though not yet demonstrated-that the col- lege-trained patients are, to a greater degree than those who did not attend college, selected for willingness to recognize the need for, and to seek, psychological aid. To the extent that this is true, the relationship between ethnocentrism and education is less clear-cut than these results indicate.
One might venture the hypothesis that ethnocentrism is at least as closely related to the desired amount of education as to the actual amount. Thus the two Extension Classes (Forms 78 and 45), most of whose members were
? ETHNOCENTRISM IN RELA TION TO INTELLIGENCE 287
adults having only 12 years or less of schooling, but trying to "learn some- thing on the side" and perhaps even to obtain a college degree, had E means as low as those of the University of California students. There is also some clinical evidence to support this hypothesis. At any rate, examination of the various group means shows that two groups may have similar educational levels and very different E means, as well as similar E means and very dif- ferent educational levels. For example, the University of California students and the George Washington University Students, with similar educational levels, are significantly different in E means (Form 78, A-S scale, and Form 40, E scale). Again, the Working-Class group, though similar in socioeco- nomic and educational background to the San Quentin group, is significantly less ethnocentric (Form 45).
We may tentatively conclude that ethnocentrism shows a slight negative correlation with amount of education. It is likely, though far from a demon- strated fact, that college graduates are less ethnocentric than high school graduates, who are in turn less ethnocentric than those who did not complete high school. It is not clear which is more important: that the correlation is greater than zero, or that it is at best not far from zero. To those who urge education per se as a kind of panacea, the smallness of the correlation ought probably to be stressed. But this is not to deny the importance of education.
It seems that Mack does believe that "a woman's place is in the home," but
9 Throughout the book, the interviewer's report of the interview is given in small type. Quotation marks within this material indicate a verbatim record of the subject's state- ments.
? MEASUREMENT OF ANTIDEMOCRA TIC TRENDS
273
was prevented by the logic of his situation at the time from saying so in his questionnaire.
Sex, Anti-intraception, Conventionalism, and Projectivity, in the order named, are the other variables on which Mack is well above the group mean. Sex was not mentioned in the interview protocol given in Chapter II. The following quotation from the clinical part of Mack's interview may, how- ever, throw some light on his responses to the Sex items in the scale:
(Where did you get your sex instruction? ) "I never had any from my parents, though I did get some suggestions from my aunt; no real instruction. What I know I have picked up from reading. I've listened to men talk, but accepted little of it; I weighed it in the light of what I have read. "
(What was your first sex experience? ) "It was in 194o-'4r, the aftermath of a New Year's party in Washington. There was liquor. I was always a backward boy. "
According to well-supported theory, it is precisely the kind of sexual inhi- bition and "backwardness" described here, and further expressed in the extreme conventionalism of the passage about plans for marriage, that lies behind the moralistic and punitive attitude toward the supposed sexuality of other people which is the main theme of the Sex items in the scale. The inconsistency seen in Mack's disagreement with the statement that "men are interested in women for only one reason" might be explained in the same way as was his response to Item 6 (Women restricted): agreement would contradict too sharply the facts of his present situation. It is to be noted, how- ever, that the item (For one reason) has a very low group mean and a low D. P .
Mack's interview could serve well as a model of Anti-intraception. His emphasis upon practicality, efficiency, and diligence as ends in themselves, his tendency to ignore social and psychological determinants of human characteristics and human events, his failure to take into account possible inner sources of his opinions, the discrepancies between his expressed values and what appear to be his real motives, were outstanding features of his interview. The several Anti-intraception items of the F scale seem to have afforded him an excellent opportunity to express these same tendencies. An interesting discrepancy occurs in the case of Item 53 (Things too intimate), where his score of 3 is well below the group mean. This response is not very consistent with the pattern of values that he sets forth in his interview, but it seems quite consistent with what he does in the interview: as the above passage in which he discusses his approaching marriage well illustrates, he is able within the space of an hour to come to a rather free discussion of certain intimate matters with a stranger. True, his generally deferential behavior in the interview is probably an aspect of his Authoritarian Submission, but, more than this, there is a strong indication that however much Mack may assert his independence he is really a rather lonesome and troubled young man who would like to talk with someone who understood him.
? 274
THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
One familiar with Mack's interview might have expected him to go higher on Conventionalism. One of his major reasons for rejecting so many groups is that they violate conventional values, and his positive evaluations of in- groups are in the same terms-honesty, charity, thrift, diligence, etc. His ideas about work and about love and marriage seem to be utterly conven- tional. True, his mean score for Conventionalism is as high as it is for any other variable save Anti-intraception, and one reason why he does not stand out more sharply from the group is that the group mean itself is high-higher than for any of the other variables. Furthermore, the Conventionalism items, as a group, were not very discriminating, the mean D. P. , r. 26, being the lowest of those obtained for the several variables. Item r9 (One should avoid), on which Mack's score is below the group mean, does not discrim- inate between the high and low quartiles; that he should not agree with it seems consistent with his expressed value for independence. It is interesting that despite his rejection of religion in the interview, he refuses to criticize the modern church when invited to do so by Item r2. His conventionalism will not allow him to attack so well-established an institution.
From Mack's interview (Chapter II) we inferred that one reason he accuses various groups and agencies of wishing to establish a closely cohesive and selfishly exploitive ingroup was that he wished to do the same thing himself; unable to justify such antisocial wishes, he sees them as existing not in himself but in the world around him. This is projectivity in a rather extreme form, and if Mack had not gone above the group mean on this vari- able, in his scale responses, we should have had to conclude that something was radically wrong with the scale. His score of 7 on Item 70 (Plot) seems perfectly in keeping with what he had to say about politics in his interview. His responses to Items 46 (Sex orgies) and 73 (Infection and disease) are consistent with the picture of sexual inhibition given above. That he is well below the group mean on Item 65 (World catastrophe) seems attributable to the value for hard-headed scientificness which he expressed both in his interview and in his response to items under the heading of Superstition. It is notable that his scientific "realism" does not insure that he keeps his feet on the ground when it comes to interpreting social events. (Indeed, it seems to have the opposite effect, and one might inquire if this is not generally true. )
Mack stands only slightly above the group mean on Destructiveness and Cynicism. This is a reminder of the fact that his interview leaves the impres- sion of a relatively "mild case"; he makes no rabid statements, nor does he show any taste for violence. Attention to the individual items of the Destruc- tiveness and Cynicism group shows that it is those pertaining to open or all- out aggression on which he scores at or below the mean, while he goes well above the mean on items that have to do primarily with cynicism. It is interesting to recall, in this connection, his outstandingly high score on
? MEASUREMENT OF ANTIDEMOCRA TIC TRENDS 2 75
Authoritarian Aggression. One might say that Mack cannot express aggres- sion directly unless it is done in the name of some moral authority or unless it is against some group that has been rejected on moral grounds.
It might be suggested that another way in which Mack handles aggression is by means of cynicism. There was certainly no want of cynicism in his interview-the bureaus grab power, the civil servants think only of them- selves, Roosevelt selfishly seeks a fourth term, etc. -and he obtains top scores on the items most expressive of this trend: 30 (Reports of atrocities), 59
(Always war), 67 (Eye to profit). This is, of course, hypothesizing that Mack has unconscious aggressive tendencies which are projected onto human nature and the world. Something like a high-water mark in cynicism is reached by Mack when he agrees, rather emphatically, with both Item 30 (Reports of atrocities are exaggerated) and Item 48 (Germans and Japs should be wiped out) of theE scale: in agreeing with the former he is saying that the Germans were not as bad as they were pictured; in agreeing with the latter he is saying that nevertheless we ought to wipe out as many of them as possible.
On the strength of Mack's interview, we should expect him to obtain one of his highest mean scores on Authoritarian Submission. Glorification of such ingroup authorities as General Marshall, the vVar Department, the big capitalists, and God as "strictly a man," was one of the interview's outstand- ing features. Yet his scale score on this variable (4. 0) is at the group mean. Consideration of the items which pertain to this variable can effect some reconciliation of scale and interview, but it also reveals certain weaknesses in the Form 78 scale. The items on which Mack scores well above the mean -23 (Undying love), 32 (Essential for learning), 50 (Obedience and re- spect), and 77 (No sane, normal person)-are those which express Authori- tarian Submission in its purest form: three of them have to do with family loyalty and the third with . authoritarian education. When it comes to the items which have to do with religion, however-39 (Supernatural force) and 43 (Sciences like chemistry)-and in which ideas and feelings first ex- perienced, presumably, in relationships with parents are now represented on a cosmic plane, his value for the objective-scientific comes to the fore and his scores are as low as they could be. One might say that Mack's submissive tendencies are insufficiently sublimated to permit their expression in abstract
religious terms; the forces which are important for him are more tangible; they have concrete existence either in men or in physical objects. In this light, it is surprising that he does not agree with Item 74 (Tireless leaders). This item, be it noted, has a very high group mean and a relatively low Discriminatory Power. It seems likely that for some of the truly submissive subjects, like Mack, the item is too open, comes too close home, so that in responding they go contrary to their strongest feeling, while the great ma- jority of the subjects, for whom the item was not emotionally involving,
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
responded in accordance with the element of objective truth in the statement. Rephrasing of this item in later forms seems to have improved it by minimiz- ing the rational aspect and by putting the emphasis more squarely on leader- ship. Another poor item, it seems, is 20 (Progressive education). Liberals and potential fascists alike, very probably, are attracted by the word "pro- gressive. " That Mack is no real supporter of progressive education is attested to by his enthusiastic endorsement of Item 32 (Essential for learning) which is about as clear a statement of educational reactionism as could be found.
Mack is below the group mean on the rather unsatisfactory Power and "Toughness" cluster. All the items of this cluster have been discussed above. The? correspondence between interview and scale lies in the fact that in neither place does he show any strong inclination to be a tough and aggres- sive fellow. It is in his admiration for power and in his willingness to submit to it, rather than in any wish to be an aggressive leader, that his potentiality for fascism lies.
Enough has been said about Mack's extraceptive outlook, as seen both in his interview and in the scale responses discussed above, so that his very low score on Superstition is no more than is to be expected. The surprising thing, perhaps, is that he should agree with Item 2 (Astrology), when the great majority of the subjects do not. His agreement here suggests that his relative lack of superstition is not based upon a genuine identification with science as a way of life, but rather upon his general need to appear hard-headed and realistic and unlikely to be "taken in. "
In general, there is rather close correspondence between Mack's interview and his scale responses. Discrepancies appear chiefly when the scale, which concentrates upon things thought to be generally significant, fails to catch something which is relatively specific and unique, and, more commonly, when the particular scale item is deficient and fails to discriminate between high and low scorers. There is reason to believe that the latter difficulty has been largely overcome in the revisions of the scale.
Turning to a consideration of Larry's case, it may be noted first, that he scores below the group mean on all the F scale variables save one, Authori- tarian Aggression. He deviates most widely from the mean, in the low direc- tion, on Power and "Toughness," Projectivity, and Anti-intraception; then come Superstition and Authoritarian Submission; and he comes close to the mean on Destructiveness and Cynicism, Sex, and Conventionalism.
Less can be said about the relative lack of these tendencies in Larry than about their operation in Mack. Larry agrees with none of the statements in the Power and "Toughness" cluster, and this accords with the interview's picture of him as a rather soft and agreeable young man. He agrees with only one of the Projectivity statements, Item 56 (Crime wave), and even here his score is barely above the group mean on a statistically poor item. His lack of this tendency was commented upon in the discussion of his interview,
? MEASUREMENT OF ANTIDEMOCRA TIC TRENDS 277
where his willingness to admit his-not too lofty-motives and his inclina- tion to find the origins of his own views were noteworthy. A low score on Anti-intraception is certainly to be expected from a man who gives consid- erable attention to his own feelings, makes a positive value of pleasure, says he likes to "philosophize," and discusses psychological determinants of prej- udice-as Larry did in his interview. Inconsistencies appear in the case of Items 55 (Leisure) and 53 (Things too intimate), where he goes somewhat above the mean; the former may be taken as an expression of his conven- tionality, while the latter would appear to be connected with his special problem-"that disease" (tuberculosis) that he had.
There was nothing in Larry's interview to suggest that he was super- stitious and, hence, it is to be expected that he should obtain a low score on the Superstition variable. Why he should agree with the astrology item is a question. Perhaps it should not be surprising to find an element of mysticism in this weak and rather passive character. Authoritarian Submission was rather prominent in Larry's interview. He made it clear that he has a great deal of respect for his family and that he has had little occasion to rebel against them either in deed or in thought. That he is still below the mean makes it clear that in order to be high on this variable something more than ordinary respect for proper authority is required: the submission must be exaggerated or overdone, and it must be generalized to include other objects besides family members. Two of the three items on which Larry goes above the mean-23 (Undying love) and 77 (No sane, normal person)-refer spe- cifically to ingroup feelings in regard to the family; the third, 32 (Essen- tial for learning), gives him an opportunity to express his conventionality.
Larry is below the group mean on Destructiveness and Cynicism, but the naive optimism and friendliness toward the world which he showed in his interview is enough to raise the question of why he is not still lower. One thing to note is that the items on which he goes up have, in general, high group means and low D. P. 's. It seems that these items approach close enough to being cliches so that most people agree with them, and Larry is enough of a conformist to go along.
In connection with Larry's score on Sex, which is . 55 below the group mean, the following quotation from the clinical section of his interview is enlightening.
(Sex? ) "No great problem. I thought about girls all the time, as boys will, and I looked at them. I started out with them at about I 5. I liked them a lot and associated with them at school and in the neighborhood. You know, you have the usual sexual desires, but you don't let them bother you. "
(Sex morals? ) "I feel a girl should remain a virgin until 2 I or 2 2 anyway. If she expects to marry soon after that, she should wait until after marriage, but if she is a career girl or doesn't want to get married, then an affair with an unmarried man is OK if they keep it quiet and secluded so the moral standards of others are not
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
lowered. She should pick out one fellow to have a sex relation with, not carry on with several. "
(You? ) "Not until after I came out of the hospital, when I \Vas 2 3 or 24. Since then I've had several affairs, lasting a few weeks or a month. I won't marry until I have more security. She almost has to be a virgin, though not necessarily. I lost respect for the women I slept with. I know that's selfish, but I guess that's the way most fellows are. "
Although this is conventional enough-"the way most fellows are," as Larry says-it does not bespeak the kind of inhibition which we conceive to lie behind high scores on the Sex items. Actually, Larry's score on this variable would have been very low were it not for his score of 6 on Item 3I (Homo- sexuality). It is possible that he is not free of worry in this area-but this is a matter that had best be left until it is time to discuss the clinical material itself.
Enough has been said about Larry's conventionalism to make it appear reasonable that he should be close to the mean on this variable. A problem is presented by the fact that he is actually above the mean on Authoritarian Aggression. True, his score is still far below that of Mack, but Larry's inter- view gave the impression of a young man who would hardly want to punish anybody, and it is a criticism of the scale that it fails to confirm this impres- sion. The two items on which his score goes up are 3I (Homosexuals), which was discussed above, and 23 (Undying love). This latter item, though it has an element of punishment in it, also expresses Authoritarian Submis- sion, and Larry's response is probably to be explained on the basis of his family loyalty. The group means and D. P. 's of the Authoritarian Aggres- sion items are, relatively, quite satisfactory. It seems that in regard to the present variable, the F scale was not a fine enough instrument to give the true picture in Larry's case.
The differences between Larry and Mack seem to be reflected fairly well in their F-scale responses. Mack scores higher than Larry on all the variables save one, Superstition. Mack is more than 2 points higher on Anti-intracep- tion, Projectivity, and Sex, more than I point higher on Power and "Tough- ness," Authoritarian Aggression, and Conventionalism, and r. oo and . 87 higher, respectively, on Destructiveness and Cynicism, and Authoritarian Submission. It is particularly interesting that the variables which are most differentiating, that is, Anti-intraception, Projectivity, and Sex, are those which seem to be at the greatest distance from the overt content of fascist ideology. They are variables that seem to have their sources deep within the personality and to be relatively impervious to superficial changes in the external situation. It will remain for later chapters to show that as we go deeper into the person the differentiation between high and low scorers becomes more clear-cut and dependable.
? MEASUREMENT OF ANTIDEMOCRA TIC TRENDS
279
G. CONCLUSION
The attempt to construct a scale that would measure prejudice without appearing to have this aim and without mentioning the name of any minority group seems to have been fairly successful. The correlation of . 75 between the E and the F scale means that scores on the former may be predicted with fair accuracy from scores on the latter. That we have achieved the second purpose underlying the F scale-to construct an instrument that would yield an estimate of fascist receptivity at the personality level-has still to be demonstrated.
Numerous variables in areas not ordinarily covered by studies of political, economic, and social ideology have been attacked directly; and they have been found to form a syndrome and to correlate significantly with antidemo- cratic trends in areas covered by the A-S, E, and PEC scales. This means, at the least, that the conception of a potentially fascistic pattern can be con- siderably extended, and that the hypothesis of central personality disposi- tions which give rise to this pattern is lent considerable support. It remains to be shown conclusively, however, that the variables with which the F scale has been concerned are, in reality, variables of personality. If it is true that they are, then they will be exposed directly as we consider findings from procedures designed especially for the investigation of personality and in which the individual is allowed to express himself spontaneously. If our major hypothesis is correct, then the clinical investigations soon to be re- ported should not only substantiate the findings of the present chapter, but give a deeper understanding of the potentially fascistic pattern and of its development within the individual.
? CHAPTER VIII
ETHNOCENTRISM IN RELA TION TO INTELLIGENCE AND EDUCA TION Daniel ]. Levinson
There are several reasons why one might expect intelligence and educa- tion to be related to ethnocentrism. One reason is primarily methodological: since all of theE-scale items (and most of the items in the E-F-PEC series) are negative, i. e. , agreement represents a pro-ethnocentric stand, perhaps some of the less intelligent individuals make high scores not out of real con- viction but simply out of suggestibility and lack of discernment. In answer to this point, it may be noted that we were primarily interested in measur- ing both active receptivity as well as a more passive suggestibility to anti- democratic ideology. Nevertheless, we should expect suggestibility to be but one-and far from the most important one-of the many factors showing some association with high scores on the E scale.
Various hypotheses and interpretations presented in other chapters have implied, directly or indirectly, that intelligence and ethnocentrism are nega- tively correlated, i. e. , that the high scorers on E are somewhat less intelli- gent on the average than the low scorers. Thus, the analysis of the ideological as well as of the clinical material has suggested that ethnocentrism is related to stereotypy, rigidity, and concreteness in thinking (also see Rokeach (98) ), to narrowness of the ego bounds, and to difficulty in grasping psychosocial explanations of social phenomena. Since these variables are at best only partial components of intelligence, and since they are only imperfectly
(though significantly) related to ethnocentrism, we might expect a rela- tively low but consistent negative correlation between intelligence and ethnocentrism.
The correlation may be brought closer to zero by the operation of another factor: it has often been observed that an individual may function in a highly complex, abstract, and flexible manner in one area of life (e. g. in his occupa- tion as a physical scientist, mechanic, or businessman), and in a completely contrasting-less intelligent-manner in his social outlook or in his family life. It is as if the basic intellectual capacity can express itself only in accord-
z8o
? ETHNOCENTRISM IN RELA TION TO INTELLIGENCE 281
ance with certain emotiomil-motivational principles; it is free, indeed stim- ulated, to act along certain lines, impeded and distorted to varying degrees along other lines. Whatever the reasons, it is a matter of fact that many individuals are inconsistent in their actual intellectual performance, and may show certain "nonintelligent" (stereotyped, rigid) qualities in their social thinking despite having a relatively high intelligence as it is ordinarily meas- ured. Conversely, individuals of moderate or low "basic" intelligence may be able to function realistically and flexibly in their social thinking. To the extent that intelligence tests measure something more basic-unfortunately it is not entirely clear what specific psychological functions they do measure -their correlation with ethnocentrism may be lower than initially expected. If the correlation were very high, above . 4-. 5, say, we should be inclined to suspect that the scales are inadequate; it does not seem likely, on theo- retical grounds, that intelligence per se plays so large a role in ideology.
The relation between ethnocentrism and education is also likely to be sig- nificant but low. One of the main stated aims of our educational system is the teaching of democratic values as expressed in our Constitution and in other great documents. To the extent that we are succeeding in aims such as these, ethnocentrism and years of education ought to be negatively cor- related, that is, the more the education the less the ethnocentrism.
The above hypotheses are consistent with the results of previous studies of prejudice and generalliberalism-conservatism. 1
On the average, "liberals" (with respect to ideology regarding group rela- tions, politics, religion, etc. ) have been shown to be slightly more intelligent, to receive better grades in college, to read more and to have greater intel- lectual curiosity. While the differences are significant, there is of course much overlap between the two extreme groups.
It was not feasible within the scope of the present research to administer intelligence tests to the groups taking the questionnaire. Fortunately, such tests had already been administered to some or all of the members of four groups: Maritime School Men, Employment Service Men, Psychiatric Clinic Men and Women, and San Quentin Men. No information was obtained in our questionnaire regarding years of education; this question was omitted partly because of the probable unreliability of the answers and partly because of the fear that it might make the less educated subjects defensive about the entire questionnaire. In some cases, e. g.
, the college students and the pro- fessionals, the amount of schooling was relatively constant for the entire. group. For two groups, the Psychiatric Clinic patients and the Maritime School, the years of schooling had been determined in a way that seemed fairly (though not entirely) reliable.
The data on intelligence are presented in Tables 1-3 (VIII), on education in Tables 4 (VIII) and 5 (VIII). We may consider intelligence first.
1 For reports and summaries see: Murphy, Murphy and Newcomb (85); Kerr (63).
? 282 THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
For all three groups in Tables I-J(VIII), namely the Maritime School Men, Employment Service Men, and Psychiatric Clinic Men and Women, the average IQ is significantly above the general population average (usually by about one sigma); indeed, even the lowest scorer is, except in the third group, above the population mean. This fact, namely the restriction in the "range of talent," must be considered in evaluating the results. The correla- tions for the Maritime School Men, obtained with the AGCT (Army Gen- eral Classification Test), are very similar to those obtained with the Otis Higher Form A Intelligence Test on the Employment Service Veteran Men. The correlations of these tests with the Ethnocentrism scale, Forms 45 and
Ability Test
AGCT
Mechanical Comprehension
Reading Comprehension
Arithmetical Comprehension
Test Properties
Correlation with:b
TABLE 1 (VIII)
CORRELATIONS OF THE E AND F SCALES WITH VARIOUS ABILITY TESTS {MARITIME SCHOOL MEN)
Mean a 126. 7
126. 5
92. 5
81. 2
~ R a n g e 8. 98 102-153
14. 61 66-166
AGCT
? 25
EA -. 02
-. 17
EA+B F -. 20 -. 20
. 00 -. 13
13. 04 57-121 . 55 -. 08 -. 06 -. 20 8. 88 61-105 ? 59 -. 06 -. 16 -. 16
aThe present means may be compared with the following population means: For the general population, the AGCT and Mechanical Comprehension Tests have means of 100. For the "high school graduate? populatiorr the Read- ing comprehension and Arithmetical Comprehension Tests have means of 79. On all but the last-named test, therefore, the present sample is con- siderably above average,
bThe number of cases (N) involved in the correlations are as follows:
Of the 343 subjects in the total sample, 342 received all of the ability tests, with the exception of four individuals who omitted the Reading Comprehension Test, The correlations involving AGCT and F, then, are based on an N of 342. The EA Scale, contained in Form 40, has an N of 168. while EA+B has an N of 178.
40, range between -. 02 and -. p, averaging above -. 2. The correlations ? of E with the Mechanical, Reading and Arithmetical Comprehension Tests2 (Table 1 (VIII)) are slightly lower, averaging about - . 1 . These correla- tions, taken together, are statistically significant, that is, dependably above zero, at the 5 per cent level. It may be noted also that there are no positive correlations. Table 3 (VIII) gives the mean (Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence
2 The Bennett Mechanical Aptitude Test, the Iowa Silent Reading Test, the Stanford Adult Arithmetical Reasoning Test.
? Otis Raw Score Otis IQ
St anford-Binet
IQb
56. 5 114. 5 129. 5
ETHNOCENTRISM IN RELA TION TO INTELLIGENCE TABLE 2 (VIII)
CORRELATIONS OF THE E, F, AND PEC SCALES WITH 'THE OTIS HIGHER FORM A INTELLIGENCE TEST
(Eli! PLOYMENT SERVICE VETERAN MEN)
Otis Test Properties Meana
Range 34-75 92-133
108-140
Correlation of Otis with:c
EA: -. 32 EA+B: -. 22 F: -. 48 PEC: -. 16
aThe mean Otis IQ of 114. 5 is significantly above the population average of 100. 0 (population S. D. is 10. 0).
bThe conversion of the Otis scores into Stanford-Binet IQ scores was
done by means of a table prepared by Dr. E. E. Ghiselli. For the general population the Stanford-Binet has a mean of 100, an S. D. of 16?
Cotis Test data were available for 104 of the 105 cases in this sample. The N is, then, 104 for the correlations with F and ? PEC. The N is also 104 for EA? since the EA scores of the subjects taking Form 45 as well as of those taking form 40 were used, The N is 50 in the case of EA+B (Form 45).
Form 45 E? Scale Quartiles Low quartile
Low middle quartile
High middle quartile
High quartile
Range on E . ! '! . 10-24 8 25-36 5 37-50 13 51-70 11
37
Mean IQ 125. 3 117. 8 113. 9 107. 3 114. 9
TABLE 3 (VIII)
MEAI~ WECHSLER-BELLEVUE I Q SCORE FOR EACH QUARTILEa OF THE ETHNOCENTRISM SCALE (PSYCHIATRIC CLINIC MEN AND WOMEN)
aThe subjects represent only a part of each quartile. In all, 15 of the 50 men, and 22 of the 71 women, had received Wechsler-Bellevues. The men and women were similar with respect to proportion in each quartile, identical with respect to mean IQ. It is not clear why more upper-half than lower-half subjects have been tested. The mean of 114 approximates that for the patients generally.
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Test) IQ for the four E scale quartiles, and we find the equivalent of a low negative correlation.
Tables I-3 (VIII) indicate that, for individuals with IQ's of approximately wo and above, there is a very low but dependable negative relationship be- tween intelligence and ethnocentrism: the most ethnocentric subjects are, on the average, less intelligent than the least ethnocentric, while the middle
scorers on E are intermediate in IQ.
Data on the San Quentin Men, not presented in the above tables, suggest a similar relation between E and IQ in groups having a wider intellectual range. Wechsler-Bellevue Test Scores were available on 77 of the IIO sub- jects in the San Quentin sample. This subsample had a mean E score of 4. 68 and a Standard Deviation of I. 28, as compared with the total-sample mean of 4. 6I and S. D. of 1. 28. The mean Wechsler-Bellevue IQ (full scale) was
I09. o, the S. D. q. 8, and the range 78-q2. This subsample is, then, almost identical with the total (questionnaire) sample in E mean and S. D. ; it is slightly more intelligent than the total prison population, whose mean IQ is just under 100. The obtained r between E and IQ was -. 2 8. This value is of the same order of magnitude as those reported above for samples in which the IQ range was more constricted. It is, of course, not conclusive, since the tested sample may have been systematically biased in its selection. In addi- tion, other factors such as educational and class level are probably con- tributing to this correlation, since they seem to be at least slightly related to both E and IQ. A conclusive study of the relation between IQ and E would have to partial out, or to keep constant, these other factors. Never- theless, the series of negative r's, on a variety of groups and by means of a variety of intelligence tests, provides substantial evidence of a significant relation between E and IQ. That the correlation is greater than zero, and in a negative direction, is in keeping with previous studies as well as with the results of the present study regarding the role of stereotypy and rigidity in ethnocentrism. That the correlation is only moderately dose-apparently in the range of -. 2 to -. 4-is evidence that intelligence is only one of many variables which determine E-scale scores.
Correlations between the Ability Tests and the F scale were computed for the Maritime School Men (Table I (\llll)) and the Employment Service Veterans (Table 2 (VIII)). In the former group the correlations range be- tween -. q and -. 20 while in the latter the extremely high value of -. 48 was obtained. It appears, then, that IQ is more closely related to F than to E although, except for the Veterans, the correlation is relatively small. Further study is required to determine whether or not the r of -. 48 is spurious or exceptional. The higher correlations with F than with E might be explained on the basis of certain of the F clusters, e. g. , superstition and stereotypy; correlations between IQ and the individual F items might well be obtained
? ETHNOCENTRISM IN RELA TION TO INTELLIGENCE 285
in future research. The correlation of -. r6 between IQ and the PEC scale (Table 2 (VIII)) is consistent with other findings.
That the relation between intelligence and ethnocentrism is not very close is suggested also by the over-all group data. Thus, while the three groups in Tables I-3 (VIII) are very similar in average IQ, they vary greatly in aver- age E score. The Psychiatric Clinic patients have an E mean of 3. 7, a full point below the means for the Maritime School and Veteran Men. More- over, the latter groups, while extremely high in average IQ, are also among the most ethnocentric of all groups tested. It would seem, therefore, that high tested intelligence is no guarantee against the overall authoritarian pattern of ideology and personality.
Data on the relation of ethnocentrism to amount of education are pre- sented in Tables 4 (VIII) and 5 (VIII). One of the most striking results is
TABLE 4 (VIII)
MEAN NUMBER OF YEARS OF EDUCATION FOR EACH QUARTILE OF THE ETHNOCENTRIS\t SCALE
(PSYCHIATRIC CLINIC MEN AND WOMEN)
Form 45 E Seale Quartiles Low quartile
Low middle quartile
Hi~h middle quartile
High quartile
Range onE 10-24 25-36 37-50 51-70
Na Mean Yrs. Educationb 29 13. 8
28 12. 7
27 11. 8
28 11. 2 112 12. 4
aThese data are based on 45 of the 50 men, 66 of the 71 women, The means for men and women separately were so similar that they were combined in order to increase the N.
bone year has been added to the number of years of education in five cases where the individual had specialized training such as secretarial or accounting school,
that these two variables are much more closely related in the Psychiatric Clinic group than in the Maritime School group. The average number of years of education drops gradually but consistently (from I 3. 8 to I 1. 2) in the Clinic group as score on the E scale increases (Table 4 (VIII)). How- ever, in the Maritime School data, computed in another manner, the changes are not so consistent. On the basis of the combined Forms 45 and 40 data, subjects with less than I2 years of education (i. e. , not high school graduates) have the highest E mean, 4? 9, while those with I2-I4 years (there were no college graduates) had almost identical E means of about 4. 6. However,
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Years
Education
Form 45 ( EA+B) Form 40 (Ea> T otal Group
Less than 12 12 years
13 years
14 years
Blank OVer-all
N Mean N
36 4. 38 60 104 4. 28 91 13 4. 75 7 18 4. 34 6 7 4. 63 0 178 4. 36 164
Mean N Mean 5. 21 96 4. 90
5. 04 195 4. 63 4. 40 20 4. 63 5. 17 24 4. 55
7 4. 63 5. 08 342 4. 68
TABLE 5 (VIII)
MEAN E SCORE FOR GROUPS HAVING VARIOUS YEARS OF EDUCATION (MARITIME SCHOOL MEN)
there is some question as to whether the results for the two Forms should be combined, since the results for each Form separately are not so clear-cut. In the Form 45 group there is no consistent trend, the subjects with 13 years of education having the highest E mean and the other educational levels varying only within a range of o. I points. In the Form 40 group, on the other hand, the 13-year level is the least ethnocentric, while the 14-year group vies with the less-than-12 for the most ethnocentric position. The only difference that holds up for both Forms is that between the 12 and the less-than-12 year levels, and this difference borders on the 5 per cent level of statistical significance.
Why is the relation between ethnocentrism and education more consistent in the Psychiatric Clinic group? One possibility is that the Maritime School members who had one or two years of college and then dropped out are systematically atypical, and that an unselected group of college students might be less ethnocentric. To the extent that this is true, a clear-cut relation- ship between ethnocentrism and education does exist. However, the relation in the case of the Psychiatric Clinic may be spuriously high, since the college students and college graduates in this sample are not a random sample of these educational levels. It is possible-though not yet demonstrated-that the col- lege-trained patients are, to a greater degree than those who did not attend college, selected for willingness to recognize the need for, and to seek, psychological aid. To the extent that this is true, the relationship between ethnocentrism and education is less clear-cut than these results indicate.
One might venture the hypothesis that ethnocentrism is at least as closely related to the desired amount of education as to the actual amount. Thus the two Extension Classes (Forms 78 and 45), most of whose members were
? ETHNOCENTRISM IN RELA TION TO INTELLIGENCE 287
adults having only 12 years or less of schooling, but trying to "learn some- thing on the side" and perhaps even to obtain a college degree, had E means as low as those of the University of California students. There is also some clinical evidence to support this hypothesis. At any rate, examination of the various group means shows that two groups may have similar educational levels and very different E means, as well as similar E means and very dif- ferent educational levels. For example, the University of California students and the George Washington University Students, with similar educational levels, are significantly different in E means (Form 78, A-S scale, and Form 40, E scale). Again, the Working-Class group, though similar in socioeco- nomic and educational background to the San Quentin group, is significantly less ethnocentric (Form 45).
We may tentatively conclude that ethnocentrism shows a slight negative correlation with amount of education. It is likely, though far from a demon- strated fact, that college graduates are less ethnocentric than high school graduates, who are in turn less ethnocentric than those who did not complete high school. It is not clear which is more important: that the correlation is greater than zero, or that it is at best not far from zero. To those who urge education per se as a kind of panacea, the smallness of the correlation ought probably to be stressed. But this is not to deny the importance of education.
