No More Learning

Few men can have
had as few illusions as he. One would scarcely care to possess such
an insight into the hearts of others. He seems to feel little warmth
of indignation, and never indulges in invective. But woe to those
who stood in the way of the accomplishment of his objects. Dread-
ful was the punishment of those who revolted after making peace.
Still, even his vengeance seems dictated by policy rather than by
passion. He is charged with awful cruelty because he slew a million
men and sold another million into slavery. But he did not enjoy
human suffering. These were simply necessary incidents in the


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3044
CAIUS JULIUS CÆSAR
execution of his plans. It is hard to see how European civilization
could have proceeded without the conquest of Gaul, and it is surely
better to make a conquest complete, rapid, overpowering, that the
work may have to be done but once.
It is hard not to judge men by the standards of our own age.
The ancients rarely felt an international humanity, and in his own
time “Cæsar's clemency” was proverbial. As he was always careful
not to waste in useless fighting the lives of his soldiers, so he was
always true to his own precept, «Spare the citizens. ” The way in
which he repeatedly forgave his enemies when they were in his
power was an example to many a Christian conqueror. The best of
his antagonists showed themselves bloodthirsty in word or act; and
most of them, not excepting Cicero, were basely ungrateful for his
forbearance. His treatment of Cicero was certainly most handsome
our knowledge of it is derived mainly from Cicero's letters. Per-
haps this magnanimity was dashed with a tinge of kindly contempt
for his fellow-citizens; but whatever its motives, it was certainly wise
and benign at the beginning of the new era he was inaugurating.
He was no vulgar destroyer, and did not desire to ruin in order to
rule.
He is charged with ambition, the sin by which the angels fell. It
is not for us to fathom the depths of his mighty mind.
Let us
admit the charge. But it was not an ignoble ambition. Let us say
that he was so ambitious that he laid the foundations of the Roman
Empire and of modern France; that his services to civilization and
his plans for humanity were so broad that patriots were driven to
murder him.
Some of Casar's eulogists have claimed for him a moral greatness
corresponding to his transcendent mental power. This is mistaken
zeal. He may stand as the supreme representative of the race in the
way of practical executive intellect. It is poor praise to put him
into another order of men, with Plato or with Paul. Their greatness
was of another kind. We cannot speak of degrees. He is the expo-
nent of creative force in political history — not of speculative or
ethical power.
Moreover, with all his originality of conception and power of exe-
cution, Cæsar lacked that kind of imagination which makes the true
poet, the real creative artist in literature. Thus we observe the
entire absence of the pictorial element in his writings. There is no
trace of his ever being affected by the spectacular incidents of war-
fare nor by the grandeur of the natural scenes through which he
passed. The reason may be that his intellect was absorbed in the
contemplation of men and motives, of means and ends. We cannot
conceive of his ever having been carried out of himself by the


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CAIUS JULIUS CÆSAR
3045
rapture of inspiration. Such clearness of mental perception is natu-
rally accompanied by a certain coolness of temperament. A man of
superlative greatness must live more or less alone among his fellows.
With his immense grasp of the relations of things in the world,
Cæsar cannot have failed to regard men to some extent as the
counters in a great game - himself the player. So he used men,
finding them instruments efficient and zealous, often — of his far-
reaching plans. He was just in rewarding their services — more than
just: he was generous and kind. But he did not have real associ-
ates, real friends; therefore it is not surprising that he met with so
little gratitude. Even his diction shows this independence, this isola-
tion. It would be difficult to find an author of any nation in a
cultivated age so free from the influence of the language of his
predecessors. Cæsar was unique among the great Roman writers in
having been born at the capital. Appropriately he is the incarnation
of the specifically Roman spirit in literature, as Cicero was the em-
bodiment of the Italian, the Hellenic, the cosmopolitan spirit.
Toward the close of Cæsar's career there are some signs of weari-
ness observable — a certain loss of serenity, suspicion of vanity, a
dimming of his penetrating vision into the men about him. The
only wonder is that mind and body had not succumbed long before
to the prodigious strain put upon them. Perhaps it is well that he
died when he did, hardly past his prime. So he went to his setting,
like the other weary Titan,” leaving behind him a brightness which
lasted all through the night of the Dark Ages. Cæsar died, but the
imperial idea of which he was the first embodiment has proved the
central force of European political history even down to our time.
Such is the man who speaks to us from his pages still. He was a
man who did things rather than a man who said things. Yet who
could speak so well? His mastery of language was perfect, but in
the same way as his mastery of other instruments. Style with him
was a means rather than an end. He had the training which others
of his kind enjoyed. Every Roman noble had to learn oratory. But
Cæsar wrote and spoke with a faultless taste and a distinction that
no training could impart. So we find in his style a beauty which
does not depend upon ornament, but upon perfect proportion; a dic-
tion plain and severe almost to baldness; absolute temperateness of
expression. The descriptions are spirited, but never made so by
strained rhetoric; the speeches are brief, manly, business-like; the
arguments calm and convincing; always and everywhere the lan-
guage of a strong man well inside the limits of his power.
The chief ancient authorities for the life of Cæsar, besides his
own works, are Suetonius in Latin, Plutarch and Appian in Greek.
Among modern works of which he is made the subject may be


## p. 3046 (#624) ###########################################

3046
CAIUS JULIUS CÆSAR
mentioned Jules César,' by Napoleon III. (Paris, 1865); continued by
Colonel Stoffel, with an Atlas; Cæsar, a Sketch,' by J. A. Froude
(London, 1886); (Cæsar,' by A. Trollope (London, 1870); Cæsar,' by
T. A. Dodge, U. S. A. (Boston, 1893).
Jothest
esterst
THE DEFEAT OF ARIOVISTUS AND THE GERMANS
From The Gallic Wars)
Web
manner
HEN he had proceeded three days' journey, word was
brought to him that Ariovistus was hastening with all
his forces to seize on Vesontio,* which is the largest
town of the Sequani, and had advanced three days' journey from
his territories. Cæsar thought that he ought to take the greatest
precautions lest this should happen, for there was in that town
a most ample supply of everything which was serviceable for
war; and so fortified was it by the nature of the ground as to
afford a great facility for protracting the war, inasmuch as the
river Doubs almost surrounds the whole town, as though it were
traced round with a pair of compasses.
A mountain of great
height shuts in the remaining space, which is not more than six
hundred feet, where the river leaves a gap in such a
that the roots of that mountain extend to the river's bank on
either side. A wall thrown around it makes a citadel of this
mountain, and connects it with the town. Hither Cæsar hastens
by forced marches by night and day, and after having seized
the town, stations a garrison there.
Whilst he is tarrying a few days at Vesontio, on account of
corn and provisions; from the inquiries of our men and the
reports of the Gauls and traders (who asserted that the Ger-
mans were men of huge stature, of incredible valor and practice
in arms, – that ofttimes they, on encountering them, could not
bear even their countenance and the fierceness of their eyes),
so great
panic on a sudden seized the whole army, as to dis-
compose the minds and spirits of all in no slight degree. This
* Modern Besançon.


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CAIUS JULIUS CÆSAR
3047
first arose from the tribunes of the soldiers, the prefects and the
rest, who, having followed Cæsar from the city (Rome) from
motives of friendship, had no great experience in military affairs.
And alleging, some of them one reason, some another, which
they said made it necessary for them to depart, they requested
that by his consent they might be allowed to withdraw; some,
infuenced by shame, stayed behind in order that they might
avoid the suspicion of cowardice. These could neither compose
their countenance, nor even sometimes check their tears: but
hidden in their tents, either bewailed their fate or deplored with
their comrades the general danger. Wills were sealed universally
throughout the whole camp. By the expressions and cowardice
of these men, even those who possessed great experience in the
camp, both soldiers and centurions, and those [the decurions]
who were in command of the cavalry, were gradually discon-
certed. Such of them as wished to be considered less alarmed
said that they did not dread the enemy, but feared the narrow-
ness of the roads and the vastness of the forests which lay
between them and Ariovistus, or else that the supplies could not
be brought up readily enough. Some even declared to Cæsar
that when he gave orders for the camp to be moved and the
troops to advance, the soldiers would not be obedient to the
command nor advance, in consequence of their fear.
When Cæsar observed these things, having called a council,
and summoned to it the centurions of all the companies, he
severely reprimanded them, “particularly for supposing that it
belonged to them to inquire or conjecture either in what
direction they were marching or with what object. That Ario-
vistus during his [Cæsar's] consulship had most anxiously
sought after the friendship of the Roman people; why should
any one judge that he would so rashly depart from his duty ?
He for his part was persuaded that when his demands were
known and the fairness of the terms considered, he would reject
neither his nor the Roman people's favor. But even if, driven
on by rage and madness, he should make war upon them, what
after all were they afraid of ? - or why should they despair
either of their own valor or of his zeal? Of that enemy a trial
had been made within our fathers' recollection, when on the
defeat of the Cimbri and Teutones by Caius Marius, the army
was regarded as having deserved no less praise than their com-
mander himself. It had been made lately too in Italy, during


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3048
CAIUS JULIUS CÆSAR
the rebellion of the slaves, whom, however, the experience and
training which they had received from us assisted in some
respect. From which a judgment might be formed of the
advantages which resolution carries with it, - inasmuch as those
whom for some time they had groundlessly dreaded when
unarmed, they had afterwards vanquished when well armed and
flushed with success. In short, that these were the same men
whom the Helvetii, in frequent encounters, not only in their
own territories, but also in theirs [the German), have generally
vanquished, and yet cannot have been a match for our army. If
the unsuccessful battle and flight of the Gauls disquieted any,
these, if they made inquiries, might discover that when the
Gauls had been tired out by the long duration of the war, Ario-
vistus, after he had many months kept himself in his camp and
in the marshes, and had given no opportunity for an engage-
ment, fell suddenly upon them, by this time despairing of a
battle and scattered in all directions; and was victorious more
through stratagem and cunning than valor. But though there
had been room for such stratagem against savage and unskilled
men, not even Ariovistus himself expected that thereby our
armies could be entrapped. That those who ascribed their fear
to a pretense about the deficiency of supplies and the narrow-
ness of the roads acted presumptuously, as they seemed either
to distrust their general's discharge of his duty or to dictate
to him. That these things were his concern; that the Sequani,
the Leuci, and the Lingones were to furnish the corn; and that
it was already ripe in the fields; that as to the road, they
would soon be able to judge for themselves. As to its being
reported that the soldiers would not be obedient to command,
or advance, he was not at all disturbed at that; for he knew
that in the case of all those whose army had not been obedient
to command, either upon some mismanagement of an affair for-
tune had deserted them, or that upon some crime being discov-
ered covetousness had been clearly proved against them. His
integrity had been seen throughout his whole life, his good
fortune in the war with the Helvetii. That he would therefore
instantly set about what he had intended to put off till a more
distant day, and would break up his camp the next night in
the fourth watch, that he might ascertain as soon as possible
whether a sense of honor and duty, or whether fear, had more
infiuence with them. But that if no one else should follow, yet


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CAIUS JULIUS CÆSAR
3049
he would go with only the tenth legion, of which he had no
misgivings, and it should be his prætorian cohort. ”—This legion
Cæsar had both greatly favored, and in it, on account of its
valor, placed the greatest confidence.
Upon the delivery of this speech, the minds of all were
changed in a surprising manner, and the highest ardor and
eagerness for prosecuting the war were engendered; and the
tenth legion was the first to return thanks to him, through
their military tribunes, for his having expressed this most
favorable opinion of them; and assured him that they were
quite ready to prosecute the war. Then the other legions
endeavored, through their military tribunes and the centurions
of the principal companies, to excuse themselves to Cæsar,
saying that they had never either doubted or feared, or sup-
posed that the determination of the conduct of the war was
theirs and not their general's. Having accepted their excuse,
and having had the road carefully reconnoitred by Divitiacus,
because in him of all others he had the greatest faith, he found
that by a circuitous route of more than fifty miles he might
lead his army through open parts; he then set out in the fourth
watch, as he had said he would. On the seventh day, as he did
not discontinue his march, he was informed by scouts that the
forces of Ariovistus were only four-and-twenty miles distant
from ours.
Upon being apprised of Cæsar's arrival, Ariovistus sends am-
bassadors to him, saying that what he had before requested as
to a conference might now, as far as his permission went, take
place, since he [Cæsar) had approached nearer; and he considered
that he might now do it without danger. Cæsar did not reject
the proposal, and began to think that he was now returning to a
rational state of mind, as he voluntarily proffered that which he
had previously refused to him when he requested it; and was
in great hopes that, in consideration of his own and the Roman
people's great favors towards him, the issue would be that he
would desist from his obstinacy upon his demands being made
known. The fifth day after that was appointed as the day of
conference. Meanwhile, as ambassadors were being often sent to
and fro between them, Ariovistus demanded that Cæsar should
not bring any foot-soldier with him to the conference, saying
that "he was afraid of being ensnared by him through treachery,
that both should come accompanied by cavalry; that he would


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3050
CAIUS JULIUS CÆSAR
not come on any other condition. ” Cæsar, as he neither wished
that the conference should, by an excuse thrown in the way, be
set aside, nor durst trust his life to the cavalry of the Gauls,
decided that it would be most expedient to take away from the
Gallic cavalry all their horses, and thereon to mount the legionary
soldiers of the tenth legion, in which he placed the greatest con-
fidence; in order that he might have a body-guard as trustworthy
as possible, should there be any need for action. And when this
was done, one of the soldiers of the tenth legion said, not without
a touch of humor, «that Cæsar did more for them than he had
promised: he had proinised to have the tenth legion in place of
his prætorian cohort; but he now converted them into horse. ”
There was a large plain, and in it a mound of earth of consid-
erable size. This spot was at nearly an equal distance from both
camps. Thither, as had been appointed, they came for the confer-
ence. Cæsar stationed the legion which he had brought with
him on horseback, two hundred paces from this mound. The
cavalry of Ariovistus also took their stand at an equal distance.
Ariovistus then demanded that they should confer on horseback,
and that, besides themselves, they should bring with them ten
men each to the conference. When they were come to the place,
Cæsar, in the opening of his speech, detailed his own and the
Senate's favors towards him (Ariovistus], “in that he had been
styled king, in that he had been styled friend, by the Senate,–
in that very considerable presents had been sent him; which cir.
cumstance he informed him had both fallen to the lot of few, and
had usually been bestowed in consideration of important personal
services; that he, although he had neither an introduction, nor a
just ground for the request, had obtained these honors through
the kindness and munificence of himself [Cæsar] and the Senate.
He informed him, too, how old and how just were the grounds
of connection that existed between themselves [the Romans) and
the Ædui, what decrees of the Senate had been passed in their
favor, and how frequent and how honorable; how from time
immemorial the Ædui had held the supremacy of the whole of
Gaul; even, said Cæsar, before they had sought our friendship;
that it was the custom of the Roman people to desire not only
that its allies and friends should lose none of their property, but
be advanced in influence, dignity, and honor: who then could
endure that what they had brought with them to the friendship
of the Roman people should be torn from them ? ” He then


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CAIUS JULIUS CÆSAR
3051
made the same demands which he had commissioned the ambas-
sadors to make, that Ariovistus should not make war either
upon the Ædui or their allies; that he should restore the hostages;
that if he could not send back to their country any part of the
Germans, he should at all events suffer none of them any more
to cross the Rhine.
Ariovistus replied briefly to the demands of Cæsar, but expa-
tiated largely on his own virtues: “that he had crossed the Rhine
not of his own accord, but on being invited and sent for by the
Gauls; that he had not left home and kindred without great
expectations and great rewards; that he had settlements in Gaul,
granted by the Gauls themselves; that the hostages had been
given by their own good-will; that he took by right of war the
tribute which conquerors are accustomed to impose on the con-
quered; that he had not made war upon the Gauls, but the Gauls
upon him; that all the States of Gaul came to attack him, and
had encamped against him that all their forces had been routed
and beaten by him in a single battle; that if they chose to make
a second trial, he was ready to encounter them again; but if they
chose to enjoy peace, it was unfair to refuse the tribute which
of their own free-will they had paid up to that time. That the
friendship of the Roman people ought to prove to him an orna-
ment and a safeguard, not a detriment; and that he sought it
with that expectation. But if through the Roman people the
tribute was to be discontinued, and those who surrendered to be
seduced from him, he would renounce the friendship of the
Roman people no less heartily than he had sought it. As to his
leading over a host of Germans into Gaul, that he was doing this
with a view of securing himself, not of assaulting Gaul: that
there was evidence of this, in that he did not come without being
invited, and in that he did not make war, but merely warded it
off. That he had come into Gaul before the Roman people.
That never before this time did a Roman army go beyond the
frontiers of the province of Gaul. What, said he, does Cæsar
desire ? — why come into his [Ariovistus's] domains ? — that this
was his province of Gaul, just as that is ours. As it ought not
to be pardoned in him if he were to make an attack upon our
territories, so likewise that we were unjust to obstruct him in
his prerogative. As for Cæsar's saying that the Ædui had been
styled brethren' by the Senate, he was not so uncivilized nor
so ignorant of affairs as not to know that the Ædui in the


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3052
CAIUS JULIUS CÆSAR
very last war with the Allobroges had neither rendered assistance
to the Romans nor received any from the Roman people in the
struggles which the Ædui had been maintaining with him and
with the Sequani. He must feel suspicious that Cæsar, though
feigning friendship as the reason for his keeping an army in
Gaul, was keeping it with the view of crushing him. And that
unless he depart and withdraw his army from these parts, he
shall regard him not as a friend, but as a foe; and that even if
he should put him to death, he should do what would please
many of the nobles and leading men of the Roman people; he
had assurance of that from themselves through their messengers,
and could purchase the favor and the friendship of them all by
his [Cæsar's] death. But if he would depart and resign to him
the free possession of Gaul, he would recompense him with a
great reward, and would bring to a close whatever wars he wished
to be carried on, without any trouble or risk to him. ”
Many things were stated by Cæsar to the following effect:-
“That he could not waive the business, and that neither his nor
the Roman people's practice would suffer him to abandon most
meritorious allies; nor did he deem that Gaul belonged to Ario-
vistus rather than to the Roman people; that the Arverni* and
the Rutenif had been subdued in war by Quintus Fabius Max-
imus, and that the Roman people had pardoned them and had
not reduced them into a province or imposed a tribute upon
them. And if the most ancient period was to be regarded,
then was the sovereignty of the Roman people in Gaul most just:
if the decree of the Senate was to be observed, then ought Gaul
to be free, which they [the Romans) had conquered in war, and
had permitted to enjoy its own laws. ”
While these things were being transacted in the conference, it
was announced to Cæsar that the cavalry of Ariovistus were
approaching nearer the mound, and were riding up to our men
and casting stones and weapons at them. Cæsar made an end
of his speech and betook himself to his men; and commanded
them that they should by no means return a weapon upon the
enemy. For though he saw that an engagement with the cavalry
would be without any danger to his chosen legion, yet he did not
think proper to engage, lest after the enemy were routed it
might be said that they had been ensnared by him under the
* Modern Auvergne.
+ Modern Le Rouergue.


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CAIUS JULIUS CÆSAR
3053
sanction of a conference. When it was spread abroad among the
common soldiery with what haughtiness Ariovistus had behaved
at the conference, and how he had ordered the Romans to quit
Gaul, and how his cavalry had made an attack upon our men,
and how this had broken off the conference, a much greater
alacrity and eagerness for battle was infused into our army.
Two days after, Ariovistus sends ambassadors to Cæsar to
state that he wished to treat with him about those things which
had been begun to be treated of between them, but had not
been concluded ”; and to beg that “he would either again
appoint a day for a conference, or if he were not willing to do
that, that he would send one of his officers as an ambassador to
him. ” There did not appear to Cæsar any good reason for
holding a conference; and the more so as the day before, the
Germans could not be restrained from casting weapons at our
men. He thought he should not without great danger send to
him as ambassador one of his Roman officers, and should expose
him to savage men. It seemed therefore most proper to send
to him C. Valerius Procillus, the son of C. Valerius Caburus, a
young man of the highest courage and accomplishments (whose
father had been presented with the freedom of the city by C.
Valerius Flaccus), both on account of his fidelity and on account
of his knowledge of the Gallic language, - which Ariovistus, by
long practice, now spoke fluently, -- and because in his case the
Germans would have no motive for committing violence;* and
for his colleague, M. Mettius, who had shared the hospitality of
Ariovistus. He commissioned them to learn what Ariovistus had
to say, and to report to him. But when Ariovistus saw them
before him in his camp, he cried out in the presence of his
army, “Why were they come to him ? was it for the purpose of
acting as spies? ” He stopped them when attempting to speak,
and cast them into chains.
The same day he moved his camp forward and pitched under
a hill six miles from Cæsar's camp. The day following he led his
forces past Cæsar's camp, and encamped two miles beyond him;
with this design - that he might cut off Cæsar from the corn
and provisions which might be conveyed to him from the Se-
quani and the Ædui. For five successive days from that day
Cæsar drew out his forces before the camp and put them in
* Inasmuch as he was not a Roman, but a Gaul.


## p. 3054 (#632) ###########################################

3054
CAIUS JULIUS CÆSAR
battle order, that if Ariovistus should be willing to engage in
battle, an opportunity might not be wanting to him. Ariovistus
all this time kept his army in camp, but engaged daily in cavalry
skirmishes. The method of battle in which the Germans had
practiced themselves was this: There were six thousand horse,
and as many very active and courageous foot, one of whom each
of the horse selected out of the whole army for his own protec-
tion. By these men they were constantly accompanied in their
engagements; to these the horse retired; these on any emer-
gency rushed forward; if any one, upon receiving a very severe
wound, had fallen from his horse, they stood around him; if it
was necessary to advance farther than usual or to retreat more
rapidly, so great, from practice, was their swiftness, that sup-
ported by the manes of the horses they could keep pace with
their speed.
Perceiving that Ariovistus kept himself in camp, Cæsar, that
he might not any longer be cut off from provisions, chose a
convenient position for a camp beyond that place in which the
Germans had encamped, at about six hundred paces from them,
and having drawn up his army in three lines, marched to that
place. He ordered the first and second lines to be under arms;
the third to fortify the camp. This place was distant from the
enemy about six hundred paces, as has been stated. Thither
Ariovistus sent light troops, about sixteen thousand men in num-
ber, with all his cavalry; which forces were to intimidate our
men and hinder them in their fortification. Cæsar nevertheless,
as he had before arranged, ordered two lines to drive off the
enemy; the third to execute the work. The camp being fortified,
he left there two legions and a portion of the auxiliaries, and led
back the other four legions into the larger camp.
The next day, according to his custom, Cæsar led out his
forces from both camps, and having advanced a little from the
larger one, drew up his line of battle, and gave the enemy an
opportunity of fighting. When he found that they did not even
then come out from their intrenchments, he led back his army
into camp about noon. Then at last Ariovistus sent part of his
forces to attack the lesser camp.
The battle was vigorously
maintained on both sides till the evening. At sunset, after
many wounds had been inflicted and received, Ariovistus led back
his forces into camp. When Cæsar inquired of his prisoners
wherefore Ariovistus did not come to an engagement, he dis-


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CAIUS JULIUS CÆSAR
3055
covered this to be the reason that among the Germans it was
the custom for their matrons to pronounce from lots and divi-
nation whether it were expedient that the battle should be
engaged in or not; that they had said that “it was not the will
of heaven that the Germans should conquer, if they engaged in
battle before the new moon. ”
The day following, Cæsar left what seemed sufficient as a
guard for both camps; and then drew up all the auxiliaries in
sight of the enemy, before the lesser camp, because he was not
very powerful in the number of legionary soldiers, considering
the number of the enemy; that thereby he might make use of
his auxiliaries for appearance. He himself, having drawn up his
army in three lines, advanced to the camp of the enemy. Then
at last of necessity the Germans drew their forces out of camp
and disposed them canton by canton, at equal distances, the
Harudes, Marcomanni, Tribocci, Vangiones, Nemetes, Sedusii,
Suevi; and surrounded their whole army with their chariots and
wagons, that no hope might be left in flight. On these they
placed their women, who, with disheveled hair and in tears,
entreated the soldiers, as they went forward to battle, not to
deliver them into slavery to the Romans.
Cæsar appointed over each legion a lieutenant and a quæstor,
that every one might have them as witnesses of his valor.
He
himself began the battle at the head of the right wing, because
he had observed that part of the enemy to be the least strong.
Accordingly our men, upon the signal being given, vigorously
made an attack upon the enemy, and the enemy so suddenly
and rapidly rushed forward that there was no time for casting
the javelins at them. Throwing aside, therefore, their javelins,
they fought with swords hand to hand. But the Germans,
according to their custom, rapidly forming a phalanx, sustained
the attack of our swords. There were found very many of our
soldiers who leaped upon the phalanx, and with their hands
tore away the shields and, wounded the enemy from above.
Although the army of the enemy was routed on the left wing
and put to flight, they still pressed heavily on our men from the
right wing, by the great number of their troops. On observing
this, P.
Crassus the Younger, who commanded the cavalry,-
as he was more disengaged than those who were employed in
the fight, — sent the third line as a relief to our men who were
in distress.


## p. 3056 (#634) ###########################################

3056
CAIUS JULIUS CÆSAR
Both per-
Thereupon the engagement was renewed, and all the enemy
turned their backs, nor did they cease to flee until they arrived
at the river Rhine, about fifty miles from that place. There
some few, either relying on their strength, endeavored to swim
over, or finding boats procured their safety. Among the latter
was Ariovistus, who, meeting with a small vessel tied to the
bank, escaped in it: our horse pursued and slew all the rest of
them. Ariovistus had two wives, one a Suevan by nation, whom
he had brought with him from home; the other a Norican, the
sister of King Vocion, whom he had married in Gaul, she having
been sent thither for that purpose by her brother.
ished in that flight. Of their two daughters, one was slain, the
other captured. C. Valerius Procillus, as he was being dragged
by his guards in the flight, bound with a triple chain, fell into the
hands of Cæsar himself, as he was pursuing the enemy with his
cavalry. This circumstance indeed afforded Cæsar no less pleasure
than the victory itself; because he saw a man of the first rank in
the province of Gaul, his intimate acquaintance and friend,
rescued from the hand of the enemy and restored to him, and
that fortune had not diminished aught of the joy and exultation
of that day by his destruction. He [Procillus said that in his
own presence the lots had been thrice consulted respecting him,
whether he should immediately be put to death by fire or be
reserved for another time: that by the favor of the lots he was
uninjured. M. Mettius also was found and brought back to him
[Cæsar].
This battle having been reported beyond the Rhine, the
Suevi, who had come to the banks of that river, began to return
home; when the Ubii,* who dwelt nearest to the Rhine, pursuing
them while much alarmed, slew a great number of them. Cæsar,
having concluded two very important wars in one campaign, con-
ducted his army into winter quarters among the Sequani a little
earlier than the season of the year required. He appointed
Labienus over the winter quarters, and set out in person for
hither Gaul to hold the assizes.
The Ubii were situated on the west side of the Rhine. Cologne is sup-
posed to occupy the site of their capital.


## p. 3057 (#635) ###########################################

CAIUS JULIUS CÆSAR
3057
OF THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF ANCIENT GAULS AND
GERMANS
From The Gallic Wars)
INCE we have come to this place, it does not appear to be
of the manners of Gaul and Germany, and wherein these
nations differ from each other. In Gaul there are factions not
only in all the States, and in all the cantons and their divisions,
but almost in each family, and of these factions those are the
leaders who are considered according to their judgment to
possess the greatest influence, upon whose will and determination
the management of all affairs and measures depends. And that
seems to have been instituted in ancient times with this view,
that no one of the common people should be in want of support
against one more powerful; for none of those leaders suffers
his party to be oppressed and defrauded, and if he do otherwise,
he has no influence among his party. This same policy exists
throughout the whole of Gaul; for all the States are divided into
two factions.
When Cæsar arrived in Gaul, the Ædui were the leaders of
one faction, the Sequani of the other. Since the latter were less
powerful by themselves, inasmuch as the chief influence was
from of old among the Ædui, and their dependencies were great,
they had united to themselves the Germans and Ariovistus, and
had brought them over to their party by great sacrifices and
promises. And having fought several successful battles and slain
all the nobility of the Ædui, they had so far surpassed them in
power that they brought over from the Ædui to themselves a
large portion of their dependants, and received from them the
sons of their leading men as hostages, and compelled them to
swear in their public character that they would enter into no
design against them; and held a portion of the neighboring land,
seized on by force, and possessed the sovereignty of the whole
of Gaul. Divitiacus, urged by this necessity, had proceeded to
Rome to the Senate for the purpose of entreating assistance, and
had returned without accomplishing his object. A change of
affairs ensued on the arrival of Cæsar: the hostages were
turned to the Ædui, their old dependencies restored, and new
ones acquired through Cæsar (because those who had attached
re-
V-192


## p. 3058 (#636) ###########################################

3058
CAIUS JULIUS CÆSAR
themselves to their alliance saw that they enjoyed a better state
and a milder government); their other interests, their influence,
their reputation were likewise increased, and in consequence the
Sequani lost the sovereignty. The Remi succeeded to their place,
and as it was perceived that they equaled the Ædui in favor
with Cæsar, those who on account of their old animosities could
by no means coalesce with the Ædui, consigned themselves in
clientship to the Remi. The latter carefully protected them. Thus
they possessed both a new and suddenly acquired influence.
Affairs were then in that position, that the Ædui were considered
by far the leading people, and the Remi held the second post of
honor.
Throughout all Gaul there are two orders of those men who
are of any rank and dignity: for the commonalty is held almost
in the condition of slaves, and dares to undertake nothing of
itself and is admitted to no deliberation. The greater part, when
they are pressed either by debt, or the large amount of their
tributes, or the oppression of the more powerful, give themselves
up in vassalage to the nobles, who possess over them the same
rights, without exception, as masters over their slaves. But of
these two orders, one is that of the Druids, the other that of the
knights. The former are engaged in things sacred, conduct the
public and the private sacrifices, and interpret all matters of
religion. To these a large number of the young men resort for
the purpose of instruction, and they [the Druids] are in great
honor among them. For they determine respecting almost all
controversies, public and private; and if any crime has been per-
petrated, if murder has been committed, if there be any dispute
about an inheritance, if any about boundaries, these same persons
decide it; they decree rewards and punishments; if any one,
either in a private or public capacity, has not submitted to their
decision, they interdict him from the sacrifices.
This among
them is the most heavy punishment. Those who have been thus
interdicted are esteemed in the number of the impious and crim-
inal: all shun them, and avoid their society and conversation,
lest they receive some evil from their contact; nor is justice
administered to them when seeking it, nor is any dignity be-
stowed on them. Over all these Druids one presides, who
possesses supreme authority among them. Upon his death, if any
individual among the rest is pre-eminent in dignity, he succeeds;
but if there are many equal, the election is made by the suffrages


## p. 3059 (#637) ###########################################

CAIUS JULIUS CÆSAR
3059
of the Druids; sometimes they even contend for the presidency
with arms. These assemble at a fixed period of the year in a
consecrated place in the territories of the Carnutes, which is
reckoned the central region of the whole of Gaul. Hither all
who have disputes assemble from every part and submit to their
decrees and determinations. This institution is supposed to have
been devised in Britain, and to have been brought over from it
into Gaul; and now those who desire to gain a more accurate
knowledge of that system generally proceed thither for the pur-
pose of studying it.
The Druids do not go to war, nor pay tribute together with
the rest; they have an exemption from military service and a
dispensation in all matters. Induced by such great advantages,
many embrace this profession of their own accord, and many
are sent to it by their parents and relations. They are said
there to learn by heart a great number of verses; accordingly
some remain in the course of training twenty years. Nor do
they regard it lawful to commit these to writing, though in
almost all other matters, in their public and private transactions,
they use Greek characters. That practice they seem to me to
have adopted for two reasons: because they neither desire their
doctrines to be divulged among the mass of the people, nor
those who learn, to devote themselves the less to the efforts of
memory, relying on writing; since it generally occurs to most
men that in their dependence on writing they relax their dili-
gence in learning thoroughly, and their employment of the
memory. They wish to inculcate this as one of their leading
tenets: that souls do not become extinct, but pass after death
from one body to another; and they think that men by this
tenet are in a great degree excited to valor, the fear of death
being disregarded. They likewise discuss and impart to the
youth many things respecting the stars and their motion; respect-
ing the extent of the world and of our earth; respecting the
nature of things; respecting the power and the majesty of the
immortal gods.
The other order is that of the knights. These, when there
is occasion and any war occurs (which before Cæsar's arrival was
for the most part wont to happen every year, as either they on
their part were inflicting injuries or repelling those which others
inflicted on them), are all engaged in war. And those of them
most distinguished by birth and resources have the greatest


## p. 3060 (#638) ###########################################

3060
CAIUS JULIUS CÆSAR
number of vassals and dependants about them. They acknowl-
edge this sort of influence and power only.
The nation of all the Gauls is extremely devoted to supersti-
tious rites; and on that account they who are troubled with
unusually severe diseases, and they who are engaged in bat-
tles and dangers, either sacrifice men as victims, or vow that
they will sacrifice them, and employ the Druids as the per-
formers of those sacrifices; because they think that unless the
life of a man be offered for the life of a man, the mind of the
immortal gods cannot be rendered propitious, and they have sac-
rifices of that kind ordained for national purposes. Others have
figures of vast size, the limbs of which formed of osiers they fill
with living men, which being set on fire, the men perish envel-
oped in the flames. They consider that the oblation of such as
have been taken in theft, or in robbery, or any other offense, is
more acceptable to the immortal gods; but when a supply of
that class is wanting, they have recourse to the oblation of even
the innocent.
They worship as their divinity Mercury in particular, and
have many images of him, and regard him as the inventor of all
arts; they consider him the guide of their journeys and marches,
and believe him to have very great influence over the acquisition
of gain and mercantile transactions, Next to him they worship
Apollo, and Mars, and Jupiter, and Minerva; respecting these
deities they have for the most part the same belief as other
nations: that Apollo averts diseases, that Minerva imparts the
invention of manufactures, that Jupiter possesses the sovereignty
of the heavenly powers; that Mars presides over wars. To him,
when they have determined to engage in battle, they commonly
vow those things which they shall take in war. When they have
conquered, they sacrifice whatever captured animals may have
survived the conflict, and collect the other things into one place.
In many States you may see piles of these things heaped up in
their consecrated spots; nor does it often happen that any one,
disregarding the sanctity of the case, dares either to secrete in his
house things captured, or take away those deposited; and the most
severe punishment, with torture, has been established for such a
deed.
All the Gauls assert that they are descended from the god
Dis, and say that this tradition has been handed down by the
Druids. For that reason they compute the divisions of every


## p. 3061 (#639) ###########################################

CAIUS JULIUS CÆSAR
3061
season, not by the number of days, but of nights; they keep
birthdays and the beginnings of months and years in such an
order that the day follows the night. Among the other usages
of their life, they differ in this from almost all other nations;
that they do not permit their children to approach them openly
until they are grown up so as to be able to bear the service of
war; and they regard it as indecorous for a son of boyish age to
stand in public in the presence of his father.
Whatever sums of money the husbands have received in the
name of dowry from their wives, making an estimate of it, they
add the same amount out of their own estates. An account is kept
of all this money conjointly, and the profits are laid by; whichever
of them shall have survived the other, to that one the portion
of both reverts, together with the profits of the previous time.
Husbands have power of life and death over their wives as well
as over their children: and when the father of a family born in
a more than commonly distinguished rank has died, his relations
assemble, and if the circumstances of his death are suspicious,
hold an investigation upon the wives in the manner adopted
towards slaves; and if proof be obtained, put them to severe
torture and kill them. Their funerals, considering the state of
civilization among the Gauls, are magnificent and costly; and
they cast into the fire all things, including living creatures, which
they suppose to have been dear to them when alive; and a little
before this period, slaves and dependants who were ascertained
to have been beloved by them were, after the regular funeral
rites were completed, burnt together with them.
Those States which are considered to conduct their common-
wealth more judiciously have it ordained by their laws, that if
any person shall have heard by rumor and report from his
neighbors anything concerning the commonwealth, he shall con-
vey it to the magistrate and not impart it to any other; because
it has been discovered that inconsiderate and inexperienced men
were often alarmed by false reports and driven to some rash act,
or else took hasty measures in affairs of the highest importance.
The magistrates conceal those things which require to be kept
unknown; and they disclose to the people whatever they deter-
mine to be expedient. It is not lawful to speak of the common-
wealth except in council.
The Germans differ much from these usages, for they have
neither Druids to preside over sacred offices nor do they pay


## p. 3062 (#640) ###########################################

3062
CAIUS JULIUS CÆSAR
great regard to sacrifices. They rank in the number of the gods
those alone whom they behold, and by whose instrumentality
they are obviously benefited, — namely, the sun, fire, and the
moon; they have not heard of the other deities even by report.
Their whole life is occupied in hunting and in the pursuits of
the military art; from childhood they devote themselves to
fatigue and hardships. Those who have remained chaste for the
longest time receive the greatest commendation among their
people; they think that by this the growth is promoted, by this
the physical powers are increased and the sinews are strength-
ened. And to have had knowledge of a woman before the
twentieth year they reckon among the most disgraceful acts; of
which matter there is no concealment, because they bathe pro-
miscuously in the rivers and only use skins or small cloaks of
deer's hides, a large portion of the body being in consequence
naked.
They do not pay much attention to agriculture, and a large
portion of their food consists in milk, cheese, and flesh; nor has
any one a fixed quantity of land or his own individual limits;
but the magistrates and the leading men each year apportion to
the tribes and families who have united together, as much land
as, and in the place in which, they think proper, and the year
after compel them to remove elsewhere. For this enactment
they advance many reasons — lest seduced by long-continued cus-
tom, they may exchange their ardor in the waging of war for
agriculture; lest they may be anxious to acquire extensive es-
tates, and the more powerful drive the weaker from their posses-
sions; lest they construct their houses with too great a desire to
avoid cold and heat; lest the desire of wealth spring up, from
which cause divisions and discords arise; and that they may
keep the common people in a contented state of mind, when
each sees his own means placed on an equality with (those of
the most powerful.
It is the greatest glory to the several States to have as wide
deserts as possible around them, their frontiers having been laid
waste. They consider this the real evidence of their prowess,
that their neighbors shall be driven out of their lands and aban-
don them, and that no one dare settle near them; at the same
time they think that they shall be on that account the more
secure, because they have removed the apprehension of a sudden
incursion. When a State either repels war waged against it or


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CAIUS JULIUS CÆSAR
3063
wages it against another, magistrates are chosen to preside over
that war with such authority that they have power of life and
death. In peace there is no common magistrate, but the chiefs
of provinces and cantons administer justice and determine con-
troversies among their own people. Robberies which are com-
mitted beyond the boundaries of each State bear no infamy, and
they avow that these are committed for the purpose of disciplin-
ing their youth and of preventing sloth. And when any of their
chiefs has said in an assembly that he will be their leader; let
those who are willing to follow, give in their names,” they who
approve of both the enterprise and the man arise and promise
their assistance and are applauded by the people; such of them
as have not followed him are accounted in the number of de-
serters and traitors, and confidence in all matters is afterwards
refused them.
To injure guests they regard as impious; they defend from
wrong those who have come to them for any purpose whatever,
and esteem them inviolable; to them the houses of all are open
and maintenance is freely supplied.
And there was formerly a time when the Gauls excelled the
Germans in prowess, and waged war on them offensively, and
on account of the great number of their people and the insuffi-
ciency of their land, sent colonies over the Rhine. Accordingly,
the Volcæ Tectosăges seized on those parts of Germany which
the most fruitful and lie around the Hercynian forest
(which I perceive was known by report to Eratosthenes and
some other Greeks, and which they call Orcynia), and settled
there. Which nation to this time retains its position in those
settlements, and has a very high character for justice and mili-
tary merit: now also they continue in the same scarcity, indi-
gence, hardihood, as the Germans, and use the same food and
dress; but their proximity to the Province and knowledge of
commodities from countries beyond the sea supplies to the Gauls
many things tending to luxury as well as civilization. Accus-
tomed by degrees to be overmatched and worsted in many
engagements, they do not even compare themselves to the Ger-
mans in prowess.
The breadth of this Hercynian forest which has been referred
to above is, to a quick traveler, a journey of nine days. For it
cannot be otherwise computed, nor are they acquainted with the
measures of roads. It begins at the frontiers of the Helvetii,
are


## p. 3064 (#642) ###########################################

3064
CAIUS JULIUS CÆSAR
Nemetes, and Rauraci, and extends in a right line along the
river Danube to the territories of the Daci and the Anartes; it
bends thence to the left in a different direction from the river,
and owing to its extent, touches the confines of many nations;
nor is there any person belonging to this part of Germany who
says that he either has gone to the extremity of that forest,
though he had advanced a journey of sixty days, or has heard in
what place it begins. It is certain that many kinds of wild
beast are produced in it which have not been seen in other
parts; of which the following are such as differ principally from
other animals and appear worthy of being committed to record.
There is an ox of the shape of a stag, between whose ears a
horn rises from the middle of the forehead, higher and straighter
than those horns which are known to us. From the top of this,
branches, like palms, stretch out a considerable distance. The
shape of the female and of the male is the same; the appearance
and the size of the horns is the same.
There are also animals which are called elks. The shape of
these, and the varied color of their skins, is much like roes, but
in size they surpass them a little and are destitute of horns, and
have legs without joints and ligatures; nor do they lie down for
the purpose of rest, nor if they have been thrown down by any
accident, can they raise or lift themselves up. Trees serve
beds to them; they lean themselves against them, and thus
reclining only slightly, they take their rest; when the huntsmen
have discovered from the footsteps of these animals whither they
are accustomed to betake themselves, they either undermine all
the trees at the roots, or cut into them so far that the upper
part of the trees may appear to be left standing. When they
have leant upon them, according to their habit, they knock down
by their weight the unsupported trees, and fall down themselves
along with them.
There is a third kind, consisting of those animals which are
called uri. These are a little below the elephant in size, and of
the appearance, color, and shape of a bull. Their strength and
speed are extraordinary; they spare neither man nor wild beast
which they have espied. These the Germans take with much
pains in pits and kill them. The young men harden themselves
with this exercise, and practice themselves in this kind of hunt-
ing, and those who have slain the greatest number of them,
having produced the horns in public to as evidence,
as
serve


## p. 3065 (#643) ###########################################

CAIUS JULIUS CÆSAR
3065
receive great praise. But not even when taken very young can
they be rendered familiar to men and tamed. The size, shape,
and appearance of their horns differ much from the horns of our
These they (the Gauls] anxiously seek after, and bind at
the tips with silver, and use as cups at their most sumptuous
entertainments.
oxen.
THE TWO LIEUTENANTS
From "The Gallic Wars)
IN
N THAT legion there were two very brave men, centurions, who
were now approaching the first ranks, — T. Pulfio and L.
Varenus. These used to have continual disputes between
them which of them should be preferred, and every year used to
contend for promotion with the utmost animosity. When the
fight was going on most vigorously before the fortifications,
Pulfio, one of them, says: “Why do you hesitate, Varenus? or
what better opportunity of signalizing your valor do you seek?
This very day shall decide our disputes. ” When he had uttered
these words, he proceeds beyond the fortifications, and rushes
on that part of the enemy which appeared the thickest. Nor
does Varenus remain within the rampart, but respecting the high
opinion of all, follows close after. Then, when an inconsidera-
ble space intervened, Pulfio throws his javelin at the enemy, and
pierces one of the multitude who was running up, and while the
latter was wounded and slain, the enemy cover him with their
shields, and all throw their weapons at the other and afford him
no opportunity of retreating. The shield of Pulfio is pierced
and a javelin is fastened in his belt. This circumstance turns
aside his scabbard and obstructs his right hand when attempting
to draw his sword: the enemy crowd around him when thus
embarrassed. His rival runs up to him and succors him in this
emergency. Immediately the whole host turn from Pulfio to him,
supposing the other to be pierced through by the javelin. Vare-
nus rushes on briskly with his sword and carries on the combat
hand to hand; and having slain one man, for a short time drove
back the rest: while he urges on too eagerly, slipping into a
hollow, he fell. To him in his turn, when surrounded, Pulfio
brings relief; and both, having slain a great number, retreat into
the fortifications amidst the highest applause. Fortune so dealt


## p. 3066 (#644) ###########################################

3066
CAIUS JULIUS CÆSAR
with both in this rivalry and conflict, that the one competitor
was a succor and a safeguard to the other; nor could it be deter-
mined which of the two appeared worthy of being preferred to
the other.
EPIGRAM ON TERENTIUS
[This sole fragment of literary criticism from the Dictator's hand is pre-
served in the Suetonian life of Terence. Two of Cæsar's brief but masterly
letters to Cicero will be quoted under the latter name. ]
Yºu
moreover, although you are but the half of Menander,
Lover of diction pure, with the first have a place and with
reason.
Would that vigor as well to yrur gentle writing were added.
So your comic force would in equal glory have rivaled
Even the Greeks themselves, though now you ignobly are vanquished.
Truly I sorrow and grieve that you lack this only, O Terence!


## p. 3067 (#645) ###########################################

3067
THOMAS HENRY HALL CAINE
(1853-)
HOMAS HENRY HALL CAINE was born on the Isle of Man, of
Manx and Cambrian parentage. He began his career as an
re architect in Liverpool, and made frequent contributions to
the Builder and Building News. Acquiring a taste for literary work,
he secured an engagement on the Liverpool Mercury, and shortly
afterward formed an intimate friendship with Dante Gabriel Rossetti
which was of incalculable benefit to the young writer, then twenty-
five years of age. At eighteen he had already published a poem “of
the mystical sort under a pseudonym, and
two years later he received £10 for writing
the autobiography of some one else.
About 1880 Caine settled in London, liv-
ing with Rossetti until the poet's death in
1882. The same year he produced Recol-
lections of Rossetti” and “Sonnets of Three
Centuries, which were followed by Cob-
webs of Criticism' and a 'Life of Coleridge. '
In 1885 he published his first novel, The
Shadow of a Crime,' which was successful.
Speaking of the pains he took in the writ-
ing of this story, the author says: “Shall I
ever forget the agonies of the first efforts ? HALL CAINE
It took me nearly a fortnight to
start that novel, sweating drops as of blood at every fresh attempt. ”
The first half was written at least four times; and when the book
was finished, more than half of it was destroyed so that a fresh sug-
gestion might be worked in. This wonderful capacity for taking
infinite pains has remained one of the chief characteristics of this
novelist. In 1886 Mr. Caine brought out A Son of Hagar,' and this
was followed by The Deemster) (1887), afterwards dramatized under
the title of Ben-Ma'-Chree); “The Bondman (1890); The Scapegoat)
(1891): The Last Confession, Cap'n Davy's Honeymoon (1892):
and "The Manxman' (1894). The last story has achieved the widest
popularity, its theme being the unselfishness of a great love. He has
also written a history of his native island.
Mr. Caine visited Russia in 1892 in behalf of the persecuted Jews,
and in 1895 traveled in the United States and Canada, where he

•


## p. 3068 (#646) ###########################################

3068
THOMAS HENRY HALL CAINE
represented the Society of Authors, and obtained important inter-
national copyright concessions from the Dominion Parliament. He
makes his principal home at Greeba Castle on the Isle of Man, where
he is greatly endeared to the natives.
PETE QUILLIAM'S FIRST-BORN
From «The Manxman': copyrighted 1894, by D. Appleton and Company
on
ETE went up to Sulby like an avalanche, shouting his greet-
But when he got near to
the Fairy” he wiped his steaming forehead and held his
panting breath, and pretended not to have heard the news.
“How's the poor girl now ? ” he said in a meek voice, trying
to look powerfully miserable, and playing his part splendidly for
thirty seconds.
Then the women made eyes at each other and looked won-
drous knowing, and nodded sideways at Pete, and clucked and
chuckled, saying, "Look at him,- he doesn't know anything, does
he ? ” — “Coorse not, woman — these men creatures are no use for
nothing. ”
“Out of a man's way,' cried Pete with a roar, and he made
a rush for the stairs.
Nancy blocked him at the foot of them with both hands on
his shoulders. “You'll be quiet, then,” she whispered. “ You
were always a rasonable man, Pete, and she's wonderful wake
- promise you'll be quiet. ”
“I'll be like a mouse,” said Pete, and he wiped off his long
sea-boots and crept on tiptoe into the room. There she lay with
the morning light on her, and a face as white as the quilt that
she was plucking with her long fingers.
« Thank God for a living mother and a living child,” said
Pete in a broken gurgle, and then he drew down the bedclothes
a very little, and there too was the child on the pillow of her
other arm.
Then, do what he would to be quiet, he could not help but
make a shout.
"He's there! Yes, he is! He is, though!
He is, though! Joy! Joy! ”
The women were down on him like a flock of geese.
of this, sir, if you can't behave better. ”
« Out


## p. 3069 (#647) ###########################################

THOMAS HENRY HALL CAINE
3069
"Excuse me, ladies,” said Pete humbly, I'm not in the
habit of babies. A bit excited, you see, Mistress Nancy, ma'am.
Couldn't help putting a bull of a roar out, not being used of the
like. ” Then, turning back to the bed, “Aw, Kitty, the beauty it
is, though! And the big! As big as my fist already. And the
fat! It's as fat as a bluebottle. And the straight! Well, not so
very straight neither, but the complexion at him now! Give him
to me, Kitty! give him to me, the young rascal Let me have a
hould of him anyway. ”
«Him, indeed! Listen to the man,” said Nancy.
“It's a girl, Pete,” said Grannie, lifting the child out of the
bed.