No More Learning

? Cf. post, Chapter vi.


## p. 46 (#66) ##############################################

46
Old English Christian Poetry
The most important of the religious poems at one time
attributed to Caedmon are Genesis, Exodus, Daniel.
From the point of view of the historian of literature, Genesis
is the most interesting of these. It is a poetical paraphrase of
the first of the canonical books in the Old Testament, extending
to the story of the sacrifice of Isaac by Abraham. The poem
opens with the praise of the Creator in a style recalling the
lines quoted by Bede. The poet then proceeds to relate the revolt
and fall of the angels (which, according to ancient theology,
necessitated the creation of man to fill the vacant place in
heaven), and then the creation of the earth, in accordance with
the opening chapters of the Vulgate. At this point we have a
repetition of the first motif, the fall of the angels ; Satan, in
anger at having fallen from his high estate, avenges himself on
God by tempting man; and the rest of the narrative proceeds
in accordance with the Biblical narrative.
Attention had been drawn to metrical and linguistic peculiarities
distinguishing the second version (Genesis B) of the fall of the
angels and the temptation (II. 235–851) from the rest of
the poem; but it remained for Sievers to point out that this
obviously interpolated passage was borrowed from a foreign
source, that the structure of the alliterative lines resembled
that in vogue amongst continental Saxons and that the voca-
bulary and syntax were now and again Old Saxon, not English.
Relying upon the accuracy of his observation in detail, he then
hazarded the bold conjecture that these lines were an Anglicised
version of a portion of an Old Saxon paraphrase of the Old
Testament, long lost, composed by the author of the Old Saxon
paraphrase of the New Testament, commonly known as the
Heliand. This brilliant conjecture has since been confirmed
by the discovery in the Vatican library of portions of the Old
Saxon original, which dates from the latter part of the ninth
century. One of the Old Saxon fragments so found corresponded
to a passage in the Old English Genesis. Caedmonian authorship
is, therefore, rendered impossible for the interpolation, and the
scholarship of the author seems to preclude the possibility that an
unlearned man was the author of the rest of the poem, though
Caedmon's hymns may have been familiar to, and used by, the
writer. It matters little whether we assume the interpolated
passage to be the work of an Old Saxon monk resident in
* Cf. the Latin Praefatio prefixed to the Heliand.


## p. 47 (#67) ##############################################

Genesis
47
England, but unable to dissociate himself entirely from native
habits of speech, or whether we look upon it as a somewhat
imperfect translation from Old Saxon by some Old English monk
whom professional duties—we need only think of Boniface-had
brought into contact with the learning and literature of the
continent. At any rate it is an early, and a pleasing, instance
of the fruitful exchange of literary ideas between two great
nations.
The relative age of the two poems is a matter still under
discussion Genesis B cannot have been composed earlier than
the second half of the ninth century, since we know that the author
of the Heliand, upon whose work it is based, wrote in response to
a command from king Lewis the Pious; but we have hardly any
data for determining whether it is earlier or later in date of
composition than Genesis A. Its author, like the author of the
Heliand, apparently made use of the works of bishop Avitus of
Vienne, the medieval Latin poet.
Genesis A contains not a few passages illustrative of that
blending of heathen and Christian elements which is characteristic
of Old English religious poetry. The description of Old Testament
fights shows that the spirit of the author of the Battle of Finns-
burh is to be found beneath the veneer of Christianity. And,
on the other hand, the description of the dove, seeking rest
and finding none, could only be the work of a Christian poet.
The tenderness of feeling for the dumb creation, and the joy in
“rest after toil” which it expresses, are due to Christian influences
upon the imaginative powers of an Old English scop
Genesis B contains some fine poetic passages. The character
of Satan is admirably conceived, and the familiar theme of a
lost paradise is set forth in dignified and dramatic language
not unworthy of the height of its great argument. In the
dark regions and “swart mists” of Hell, Satan and his host,
swept thither by the Lord of Heaven himself, indulge in a
joy that is purely heathen, in contemplating the vengeance
to be taken on the race that has supplanted them in the favour
of God.
Exodus is a paraphrase of a portion only of the book from
which it takes its name, i. e. the passage of the Israelites through
the Red Sea and the destruction of the Egyptians. Part of the
For a discussion of the possible relation between the Satan of Genesis B and the
Satan of Paradise Lost, of, Stopford Brooke, Early English Literature, vol. a,
pp. 101 ff. and Morley, English Writers, vol. II, p. 109.
hand, the at the ven
and findino


## p. 48 (#68) ##############################################

#8
Old English Christian Poetry
poem? , in which the ancestors of the Israelites are enumerated and
described, is, possibly, the work of a second poet, as it is simpler
in style than the body of the poem, and the theme is not entirely
relevant; there is certainly a break after 1. 445. The distinctive
feature of the poem is the beauty and vigour with which martial
scenes are depicted. Here again, the feeling of the old epic
writers, under another guise, is clearly apparent. Not even in
Judith or The Battle of Maldon do we find more successful
attempts in dramatic grouping; the din and clash of battle, though
no actual battle is described, the war-wolf and the raven greedy
for prey, the heaving of the shields, the brandishing of battle-bills,
recall the martial tone of the best war-poetry of our battle-loving
ancestors. The author of Genesis A writes as though afraid to
depart even from the wording of his original; the author of
Exodus, possessed by the lust for word-painting, draws upon an
exuberant imagination steeped in reminiscences of brave blows
and doughty deeds, not even nominally Christian.
The poem entitled Danid need not detain us. After a
historical introduction, for which the poet is not indebted to his
source, he versifies selected portions of the book of Daniel? The
poem has one new feature. The author uses his material for
homiletic purposes and inculcates certain moral virtues : for
instance, the duty of humility and obedience to the will of God.
Daniel is transmitted in the Junian codex. A portion of the
subject, dealing with the episode of the three children in the fiery
furnace, is transmitted also in the Exeter Book, in a short poem of
75 lines called Azarias, in which are the beautiful lines descriptive
of the change wrought by the appearance of the angel of the Lord:
Then 'twas in the oven when the angel came,
Windy cool and winsome, to the weather likest
When is sent to earth in the summer tide,
Dropping down of dew-rain at the dawn of day3.
Three minor poems, originally thought to be one, and by
Grein called Crist and Satan, should be mentioned here,
since, by reason of their being transmitted in the codex MS
Bodl. XI, they, together with the three more important poems
just discussed, have been attributed to Caedmon. The first of
them deals with the subject of the Fall of the Angels, the second
with Chrisť s Harrowing of Hell and His resurrection, together
with a brief account of His ascension and coming to judgment,
1 Ll. 362_-445.
• Up to chapter v, 22.
8 Stopford Brooke's version.


## p. 49 (#69) ##############################################

Cynewulf
49
the third with Christ's Temptation. Only the first is complete,
All three, probably, belong to the end of the ninth century and
all have a homiletic tendency. The second has been compared
with the Crist of Cynewulf, with which it is linked by virtue of
theme as well as by style. The description of the last judgment
suggests the more impressive picture of that event contained
in Crist, and the Harrowing of Hell recalls, and can sustain
comparison with, examples of later more elaborate treatment of
the same subject. By their religious fervour, and by their ap-
parently ruder form, it is possible that these poems are nearer to
the original body of Caedmon's work than the poems previously
discussed.
The finest of all the poems erroneously attributed to Caedmon
is the fragment entitled Judith. As there seems to be ground
for supposing that this beautiful fragment, worthy of the skill
of a scop whose Christianity had not sufficed to quell his martial
instincts, his pride in battle and his manly prowess, is of later
date than has been thought by certain historians, it is dealt with
in a later chapter of the present volume.
Turning to Cynewulf and the poems that may be, or have
been, attributed to him, we are on somewhat safer ground. The
personality of the poet is, indeed, wrapped in an obscurity
hardly less deep than that which hides Caedmon. The only
truth at which we can arrive concerning him is that he must be
the author of four well-known poems, since he marked them as
his own by the insertion of his signature in runes. Conjecture
has been busy to prove that he may have been identical with
a certain abbot of Peterborough, who lived about the year 1000.
But this hypothesis has ceased to be tenable since we know that
the West Saxon transcript of his poems, the only form in which
the accredited ones are preserved, cannot be the original ; more-
over, the abbot invariably spelt his name Cinwulf. Equally
impossible is the theory that he was Cynewulf, bishop of
Lindisfarne, who died in 781 or 783. The latter lived in
troublous times, and nothing we know of his life agrees with
inferences we may reasonably draw from autobiographical
allusions in Cynewulf's poems. A theory that the author was
certainly of Northumbrian origin was, in the first instance, based
upon an erroneous interpretation of the first riddle in a col-
lection of Old English Riddles long attributed to him. Dietrich
gave the solution as Coenwulf, the supposed Northumbrian
form of the name Cynewulf. But, apart from the fact that
E. L. I. CH. IV.


## p. 50 (#70) ##############################################

50
Old English Christian Poetry
syllabic riddles are not known in Old English literature, we
must remember that, on the four occasions when the poet
spelt his own name, he used one or other of two forms, i. e.
Cynewulf or Cynwulf. Both these forms must go back to an
older one in which the medial e appeared as ¿. In Northumbria,
this medial i became e, roughly speaking, about 800; in Mercia
the transition was practically accomplished by 750. This fact
lends colour to the hypothesis of Wülker that Cynewulf was a
Mercian, a theory which A. S. Cook has adopted in support of a
conjecture of his own, namely, that the poet was a certain
Cynulf, an ecclesiastic who was present, as his signature to a
decree proves, at a synod held at Clovesho in 803. The synod
was an important one, in so far as at it the archbishop of
Canterbury was recognised as primate of the English church.
Cynulf's signature, following close upon that of the bishop of
Dunwich, leads A. S. Cook to the further assumption that he
was a priest in the diocese of Dunwich, where he would have
ample opportunity for studying those sea-effects, the description
of which is characteristic of his poetry. Whether or not Cynewulf
is to be identified with this ecclesiastic, there is no doubt
that the assumption of Mercian origin would do away with
one or two difficulties which the assumption of Northumbrian
origin in the narrower sense leaves unsolved. During the latter
half of the eighth century, Northumbria was, politically, too
troubled to be a “kindly nurse” of letters, though, on the other
hand, it might be asserted that the political unrest of Northumbria
may be reflected in the melancholy nature and “autumnal grace"
of Cynewulf's poetry. Again, though there is no doubt that a Mercian
origin would facilitate the transcription of the poems into West
Saxon, yet we have West Saxon transcripts of other originally
Northumbrian poems, a fact which affects the value of geographical
arguments of this nature.
The most valid, albeit negative, argument against taking the
term Northumbrian to mean simply non-West Saxon, hence,
possibly, Mercian, is that we have no definite evidence for the
existence of a Mercian school of poetry, such as the development
of a poet like Cynewulf seems to postulate. His undisputed work
is of too mature a character to seem to be the spontaneous product
of a self-made singer, unfostered by literary society. Moreover,
he excels more especially in descriptions of the sea and the sea-
coast, a point in which a dweller inland might easily have been
deficient. Notable in this respect are Elene, which we know to be


## p. 51 (#71) ##############################################

His Personality
51
his, and Andreas which is very possibly his. The following lines,
for instance, must, surely, be the work of one whose daily life had
been spent in contact with the sea :
Over the sea-marges
Hourly urged they on. . . the wave-riding horses.
Then they let o'er Fifel's wave foaming stride along
Steep-stemmed rushers of the sea. Oft withstood the bulwark,
O'er the surging of the waters, swinging strokes of waves 1,
Further, assuming Guthlac B to be by Cynewulf, we may note
the fact that the fen-journey of the original has been transformed
into a sea-voyage, and this would appear to tell against an East
Anglian authorship.
The final result of much discussion seems to resolve itself
into this : that Cynewulf was not a West Saxon, but, probably,
a Northumbrian, though Mercian origin is not impossible; and
that he wrote towards the end of the eighth century. This latter
point will find further support when we proceed to discuss the
individual poems.
We know nothing else concerning Cynewulf with any degree of
certainty. We infer from the nature of his poetry that he was of
a deeply religious nature, but it is hazardous to deduce the
character of a poet from his apparently subjective work; we
learn that he lived to an old age, which he felt to be a burden;
that, at some time of his life, he had known the favour of
princes and enjoyed the gifts of kings; he must have been the
thegn or scop of some great lord, and not merely an itinerant
singer or gleeman, as some critics have beld. He was a man
of learning, certainly a good Latin scholar, for some of his work
is based upon Latin originals. Critics are not agreed as to
the period of life in which he occupied himself with the compo-
sition of religious poetry, nor as to the chronological order of his
works. Some scholars assume that, after leading until old age the
life of a man of the world, and attaining some distinction as an
author of secular poetry-of which, by the way, if the Riddles are
rejected, we have no trace-he became converted by the vision
described in The Dream of the Rood, and devoted himself ever
afterwards to religious poetry, the last consummate effort of his
poetic powers being Elene. There are two drawbacks to this
theory, the first being that we cannot base biographical deductions
with any certainty upon a poem like The Dream of the Rood, which
we have no historical grounds for claiming as Cynewulf's; the
· Stopford Brooke's version.
• See p. 58.
4–2


## p. 52 (#72) ##############################################

52
Old English Christian Poetry
second, that it is difficult to assume that a man advanced in years
could have composed so large a quantity of religious poetry as,
even after the most rigid exclusion of the unlikely, we are com-
pelled to attribute to him. Other critics hold that The Dream of
the Rood was followed immediately by Elene, and that all other
Cynewulfian poems were written later. If that be so, the poet's
art must have undergone very rapid deterioration, for all the other
poems attributed to him are inferior to Elene and The Dream.
The poems marked as Cynewulf's own by the insertion of runes
are Crist, Juliana, The Fates of the Apostles and Elene. Crist is
the first poem in the codex known as the Exeter Book, a manuscript
I preserved in the cathedral library at Exeter. The first eight pages,
and, consequently, the opening portion of Crist, are missing. The
manuscript probably dates from the eleventh century and is,
apparently, written throughout by one and the same hand.
Juliana is contained in the same book, and, of other poems
attributed to Cynewulf, and certainly belonging to his school,
Guthlac, Andreas and The Phoenix will be mentioned below.
Crist falls into three clearly defined parts, the first dealing with
the advent of Christ on earth, the second with His ascension, the
third with His second advent to judge the world. The second part
contains Cynewulf's signature in runes? The unity of the poem
has not remained unquestioned Scholars have brought forward
linguistic and metrical arguments to prove that we are dealing not
with one but with three poems; that source, theme and treat-
ment differ so greatly as to render the assumption of a common
authorship for all three incredible, and to reduce us to the necessity
of denying authorship by Cynewulf to any but the second part,
which is signed by him. Almost the best argument brought forward
by these iconoclastic critics is the undoubted fact that Cynewulf's
signature occurs, as a rule, near the conclusion of a poem, not
in the middle, and that it does so occur towards the end of the
second part. A further valid argument against the unity of the
poem might be derived from the theme of the second part.
This deals with Christ's reception in Heaven after His sojourn on
earth, and only by some stretch of imagination can the event be
looked upon as parallel to His twofold coming on earth. Yet
critics have discovered a link with the first part in a passage
definitely referring to Christ's first advent, and the references to
the last judgment in the runic passage have been regarded as an
ure occurs, as critics is the unest argument
1 Ll. 797 ff.
' LI, 586—599.


## p. 53 (#73) ##############################################

Crist
53
anticipation of the third part. The question is a nice one and is
not, at present, capable of solution. If we assume the unity of the
poem, Cynewulf is, undoubtedly, the author; if we deny it, we are
confronted with the further difficulty of determining the authorship
of the first and third parts. From a literary point of view,
Crist is, perhaps, the most interesting of Cynewulf's poems. It
illustrates fully the influence of Latin Christianity upon English
thought. The subject is derived from Latin homilies and hymns :
part I, the advent of Christ, seems to be largely based upon the
Roman Breviary, part II upon the Ascension sermon of pope
Gregory, part III upon an alphabetic Latin hymn on the last
judgment, quoted by Bede in De Arte Metrica. In addition, the
Gospel of St Matthew and Gregory's tenth homily have furnished
suggestions. Yet the poet is no mere versifier of Latin theology.
We are confronted, for the first time in English literature, with
the product of an original mind. The author has transmuted the
material derived from his 'sources into the passionate out-pourings
of personal religious feeling. The doctrines interspersed are, of
course, medieval in tone : one of the three signs by which the
blessed shall realise their possession of God's favour is the joy they
will derive from the contemplation of the sufferings of the damned.
But, for the most part, the poem is a series of choric hymns of
praise, of imaginative passages descriptive of visions not less
sublime than that of The Dream of the Rood.
Crist is followed immediately in the Exeter Book by the poem
entitled Juliana. This is an Old English version of the Acta 8.
Julianae virginis martyris. The proof of Cynewulfian authorship
lies, as has already been said, in the insertion of his name in runes.
The martyr is supposed to have lived about the time of the emperor
Maximian. She, of course, successfully overcomes all the minor
temptations with which she is confronted, including an offer of
marriage with a pagan, and, finally, having routed the devil in
person, endures martyrdom by the sword.
Equally insignificant considered as poetry, but of the utmost
importance as a link in a chain of literary evidence, are the lines
known as The Fates of the Apostles. The title sufficiently indicates
the contents. The poem is preserved in the Vercelli Book, a codex
containing both verse and prose, and, for some unknown reason, in
the possession of the chapter of Vercelli, north Italy. The first
ninety-five lines, which follow immediately after the poem called
Andreas, occupy fol. 52 b53b. They were considered an anony-
mous fragment until Napier discovered that a set of verses on


## p. 54 (#74) ##############################################

54
Old English Christian Poetry
nature in The Faire
as, the poem imeitional plea in fe
fol. 54 a, which had hitherto been assumed to have no connection
with the lines preceding them, were, in reality, a continuation of
the lines on fol. 53, and that they contained the name of Cynewulf
in runes. The authenticity of Fata Apostolorum was, thereby,
raised above dispute; but the gain to Cynewulf's literary reputation
was not great.
Yet critics, anxious to vindicate the claim of our greatest pre-
Conquest poet to whatever poetry may seem worthy of him, have
tried to twist the occurrence of Cynewulf's signature in The Fates
of the Apostles into an additional plea in favour of his authorship
of Andreas, the poem immediately preceding it in the Vercelli
Book. This poem deals with the missionary labours of St Andrew,
and is based, probably, upon a lost Latin version of a Greek original
(in Paris), the II pákers 'Av&péov kai Mardalov. St Andrew is com-
manded by God to go to the assistance of St Matthew, who is in
danger of death at the hands of the Mermedonians, cannibal
Ethiopians. He sets out in a boat manned by our Lord and two
angels. Having landed safely, he becomes of great spiritual comfort
to the captive, but is himself taken prisoner and tortured. He de-
livers himself and converts the Mermedonians by working a miracle.
The distinguishing feature of the poem, which links it with
passages in Beowulf and The Seafarer, is the skill with which
its author gives expression to his passion for the sea. Andreas
is a romance of the sea. Nowhere else are to be found such
superb descriptions of the raging storm, of the successful struggle
of man with the powers of the deep. It illustrates, moreover, in
an unusual degree, the blending of the old spirit with the new.
St Andrew, though professedly a Christian saint, is, in reality, a
viking: though crusader in name he is more truly a seafarer on
adventure bent. The Christ he serves is an aetheling, the apostles
are folctogan-captains of the people--and temporal victory, not
merely spiritual triumph, is the goal.
Could it be proved that The Fates of the Apostles is merely an
epilogue to the longer poem preceding it, the adventures of one of
the twelve being related in greater detail than is vouchsafed to them
treated collectively, we should be enabled to attribute with greater
certainty than is otherwise possible the poem of Andreas to
Cynewulf, an author of whom, on aesthetic grounds, it is not
unworthy. Its authenticity would then be vouched for by
the runic signature contained in the shorter poem. This hypo-
thesis is, however, more ingenious than convincing. The poem
Andreas, as it stands, lacks, indeed, as definite a conclusion as many


## p. 55 (#75) ##############################################

Elene
55
i
other poems possess; there is, for instance, no finit or "amen"
to denote the end, but, unfortunately for the inventors of the
hypothesis, The Fates of the Apostles does not lack a beginning;
nor are St Andrew's labours omitted from the general review of the
good works done by the twelve, which might possibly have been
expected had the author of The Fates of the Apostles also been
the author of the longer history of St Andrew. There is more
ground for accepting a theory originated by Sievers with regard
to the last sixteen lines of the fragment containing Cynewulf's signa-
ture, discovered by Napier. In the opinion of Sievers these sixteen
lines would not only be an inordinately lengthy conclusion to
so short a poem as The Fates, but they are superfluous in so far
as they are a mere repetition of the lines which had preceded
the runic passage. He would, therefore, wish to see in them the
conclusion of some lost poem of Cynewulf, and only accidentally
attached to The Fates of the Apostles. Upholders of the theory
of the Cynewulfian authorship of Andreas might be able to
claim them as the missing conclusion to that poem, and the fact
of their being attached to a piece of undoubtedly Cynewulfian work
might strengthen the attribution of Andreas to our poet. But,
after fully weighing the arguments on either side, we must confess
that the evidence so far forthcoming does not suffice for a satis-
factory solution of the question.
Elene is, undoubtedly, Cynewulf's masterpiece. The subject is
contained in the Acta Sanctorum of 4 May. Grimm also referred
to the same subject as occurring in the Legenda aurea of Jacobus
a Voragine. It is impossible to decide whether the legend first
reached England in a Latin or in an older Greek form. The story is
that of the discovery of the true cross by Helena, the mother of the
emperor Constantine. The search carried to so successful a con-
clusion was instituted by the emperor in consequence of the famous
vision, the sign of a cross in the sky bearing the inscription in hoc
signo vinces. Much history hangs upon this tale. Its immediate
importance for us is that the conversion of the emperor by this
means became the starting-point for the adoration of the cross: the
symbol which had hitherto been one of ignominy became one of
triumph and glory. The festival of the exaltation of the cross was
established in the western church in 701, in consequence of the
supposed discovery in Rome of a particle of the true cross. This
event is duly recorded by Bede in De sex aetatibus saeculi,
the news having, no doubt, been brought to England by abbot
Ceolfrid, who was in Rome at the time. At any rate, if this event


## p. 56 (#76) ##############################################

56 Old English Christian Poetry
be considered too remote to have influenced Cynewulf's choice of
a subject, we may remember that he probably lived through a
part of the iconoclastic controversy which raged from 726 to 842,
and which contributed perhaps more than anything else to an
increased veneration of the cross. Indeed, the poetry of the cross
in England has been regarded as the first-fruit of the impetus given
to its worship by the condemnation of the worship of all other
symbols. The two festivals of the cross, the invention on 3 May
and the exaltation on 14 September, were both observed in the
old English church.
p Cynewulf's poem on Helena's search for the true cross is
contained in fourteen cantos or "fitts. ” It is written in a simple,
dramatic style, interspersed with imaginative and descriptive pas-
sages of great beauty. The glamour and pomp of war, the gleam of
jewels, the joy of ships dancing on the waves, give life and colour
to a narrative permeated by the deep and serious purpose of the
author. The fifteenth fitt, superfluous from the point of view of
the story, is valuable as documentary evidence bearing on the
poet's personality. It contains not only his signature in runes, but
is a "fragment of a great confession,” unveiling to us the manner
of the man to whom the cross became salvation.
“I am old,” he says, “and ready to depart, having woven worderaft
and pondered deeply in the darkness of the world. Once I was gay in
the hall and received gifts, appled gold and treasures. Yet was I buffeted
with care, fettered by sins, beset with sorrows, until the Lord of all might
and power bestowed on me grace and revealed to me the mystery of the
holy cross. Now know I that the joys of life are fleeting, and that the
Judge of all the world is at hand to deal to every man his doom. ”
Two useful deductions may be made from this passage. In the
first place, the poet was evidently advanced in age when he com-
posed this poem, a point already alluded to; in the second, he
ascribes his conversion to a true understanding of the cross. In
other poems, notably Crist, Cynewulf reveals an almost equal
veneration for the symbol of man's redemption.
But the poem which, above all others, betrays the spirit of
tender yet passionate veneration, of awe and adoration for "the
wondrous cross on which the Prince of glory died,” is The Dream
of the Rood. It is transmitted to us in a West Saxon form in the
Vercelli Book, and portions of it are to be found carved in runes
on the Ruthwell cross in Dumfriesshire? . The poem is now
1 In addition, there is out upon the cross an inscription which was interpreted to
mean “Caedmon made me," and, upon this supposed signature, was based the
attribution of The Dream of the Rood to Caedmon. The inscription, it decipherable at


## p. 57 (#77) ##############################################

The Dream of the Rood
57
claimed as Cynewulf's by probably the majority of English scholars,
though it is possible that he worked on older material. At the
same time, we have none but aesthetic evidence to go upon.
A resemblance has been fancied or detected between the reference
to the cross in the concluding portion of Elene discussed above
and the subject and treatment of this poem. It would be possible
to overrate the value of this coincidence. References to the
cross are frequent in both prose and verse. They need prove
nothing beyond the undoubtedly early custom of the adoration.
At the same time, the two poems have much in common: the
character of the intimate self-revelation contained in each, the
elegiac tone of the reflections on the transitoriness of the world
and the sinfulness of man, the phraseology and syntactical
structure are alike to a degree which makes the Cynewulfian
authorship of both more than probable. The Dream of the Rood
is the choicest blossom of Old English Christian poetry; religious
feeling has never been more exquisitely clothed than in these one
hundred and forty lines of alliterative verse. It is full of imagina-
tive power and enters deeply into the mysteries of sin and of
sorrow. We have no other instance of a dream-poem in pre-
Conquest England, though Bede relates several visions. The poet
dreamt a dream and in it saw the holy rood decked with gems and
shining gloriously. Angels guarded it, and, at its sight, the singer
was afeared, for he was stained with guilt. As he watched, the
tree changed colour; anon it was adorned with treasure, anon
stained with gore; and, as he watched, it spoke, and told the story
of the crucifixion, the descent from the cross, the resurrection.
This conception of the cross as being gifted with power of speech
lends a singular charm to the poem. The address is followed by
the poet's reflection on what he has seen: the cross shall be
henceforth his confidence and help. The concluding ten lines of
the poem seem superfluous and are possibly a later accretion. The
theme concludes with line 146. The characteristic opening of the
all, may have been the sculptor's autograph. In no case could it, apparently, be a
reference to the poet Caedmon, for the language of the poem on the Ruthwell cross is
younger than that of the MS poem, possibly of the tenth century. The decoration of
the cross, also, is thought to be too elaborate and ornate for eighth century work and
can hardly be dated much earlier than the tenth century. See Chapter 11 ante and the
bibliography to that chapter, especially the writings of Vietor and A. S. Cook, The
Dream of the Rood.
A somewhat similar, though very short, example of an inscription in the first
person is preserved on a cross at Brussels :-
Rod is min nama: geo io ricno oyning
baer byfigende, blode bestemed.


## p. 58 (#78) ##############################################

Old English Christian Poetry
poem may be noted. As in Beowulf, Andreas, Exodus and other
poems, the singer arrests the attention of his hearers by the
exclamation : “Hwaet ! ” =Lo, comparable to the “Listneth, lord-
ings” of the later minstrels. The device must have been a common
one in days when the harp was struck at festive gatherings and
the scop urged his claim to a hearing by a preliminary chord.
We must pass on to other poems that have, with more or less
show of reason, been attributed to Cynewulf. Of these, the longest
is the life of the Mercian saint Guthlac. It falls into two parts,
the first, apparently, having been composed during the lifetime of
the anchorite who is the subject of the poem, the second being
based upon the Latin Vita by Felix of Croyland. The main
question that has been discussed has been whether both parts
are by one and the same author or not, and whether Cynewulf
can lay claim to one or both parts. If only one part can be attri-
buted to him it should be part II (Guthlac B). Since the conclusion
to this part is missing, it may, conceivably, have contained Cyne-
wulf's signature in runes. There is no gap in the MS between the
conclusion of Crist and the beginning of Guthlac, and Gollancz
has assumed that the passage commonly read as the conclusion of
Crist (1l. 1666—1694) really forms the introduction to Guthlac.
These lines are, no doubt, superfluous as regards Crist, but they
are yet more unsuitable considered as an introduction to Guthlac,
which begins, quite appropriately, with a common epic formula
“Monge sindon” (cf. the opening of The Phoenix). It would be
better to assume them to be a fragment of some independent poem
on the joys of the blessed.
The death of Guthlac is related in lines full of strength and
beauty. The writer has entered into the spirit of the last great
struggle with the powers of darkness and death, even as Bunyan
did when he related the passage of Christian through the Valley
of the Shadow of Death. The wondrous light that shines over
Guthlac's hut before he dies irresistibly recalls the waving lights
in the sky familiar to every northerner and, when we read that,
at the saint's entry into the heavenly mansions, the whole land of
England trembled with rapture, we feel that, whether Cynewulf
wrote the poem or not, we are in the presence of a poet who does
not lack imaginative power of a high order.
The Phoenix has been attributed to Cynewulf by a large
number of competent critics. The first portion of it is based
upon a Latin poem attributed to Lactantius, and there is some
ground for assuming Cynewulf's acquaintance with that Latin


## p. 59 (#79) ##############################################

The Phoenix
59
author, since a copy of the book was contained in Alcuin's library
at York, and Cynewulf may very well have been a scholar in the
school at York? . The second part of the poem, the allegorical -
application of the myth to Christ, is based on the writings of
Ambrose and Bede. The characteristic feature of the poem is its
love of colour and wealth of gorgeous descriptive epithets.
Especially noteworthy, in this respect, is the description of the
land where the phoenix dwells :
Winsome is the wold there; there the wealds are green,
Spacious spread below the skies; there may neither snow nor rain,
Nor the furious air of frost, nor the flare of fire,
Nor the headlong squall of hail, nor the hoar-frost's fall,
Nor the burning of the sun, nor the bitter cold,
Nor the weather over-warm, nor the winter shower,
Do their wrong to any wight-but the wold abides
Ever happy, healthful there 2.
This passage illustrates not only the feeling of English poets
towards nature, but also the development that took place in
consequence of the influence of Latin letters. The Northumbrian
poets were not unskilled in the depiction of scenes with which
they were familiar; but in The Phoenix we have, for the first time,
a poet attempting, under literary influence, and with an obviously a
conscious striving after artistic effect, to paint an ideal landscape,
the beauty and gentleness of summer climes, the wealth of tropical
nature, the balminess of a softer air, where there shall be no more,
or only a sun-lit, sea, unlike the sullen gloom of the northern
waters.
The conclusion of the poem is of an unusual kind. It consists
of eleven lines in a mixture of English and Latin, the first half of
each line being English, the second half Latin, the Latin alliterating
with the English.
Portions of an Old English Physiologus have also been at
tributed to Cynewulf. Allegorical bestiaries were a favourite
form of literature from the fifth century down to the Middle
Ages. They consisted of descriptions of certain beasts, birds and
fishes which were considered capable of an allegorical significance.
The allegorical meaning was always attached to the description,
much as a moral is appended to a fable. The development of this
form of literature was due to the fondness for animal symbolism
characteristic of early Christian art. Only three specimens of
such descriptions are extant in Old English literature. They deal
with the panther, the whale and the partridge. The panther is
* Cook, Christ, p. lxiv.
• Stopford Brooke's version.


## p. 60 (#80) ##############################################

60
Old English Christian Poetry
complete, there is a gap in the description of the whale, of the
partridge there is hardly sufficient to prove that the bird described
was really a partridge. It is uncertain whether these pieces
were merely isolated attempts at imitation of a foreign model or
whether they formed part of a complete Old English Physiologus.
Two somewhat divergent texts of a Latin Physiologus (B and C),
belonging to the ninth century, have been discovered. The re-
semblance between the Latin text and the Old English is fairly
striking in B where, after twenty-two other animals have been
described, we have the panther, the whale and the partridge ;
probably both Old English and Latin versions are derived from a
common source. The panther, as usual, is symbolical of Christ,
and the whale, which lures seafarers to moor their “ocean-mares”
to it, thinking its back an island, represents the “accuser of the
brethren” and its gaping mouth is the gate of Hell.
The assumption that the first of a series of Old English Riddles,
95 in all, was a charade meaning Cynewulf, or Coenwulf, caused
the collection to be attributed to him. These riddles are trans-
mitted in the Exeter Book. They are closely connected with
similar collections of Latin riddles, more especially one by Aldhelm.
Aldhelm's work is based upon that of the fifth century Latin poet
Symphosius, and Aldhelm was the first English writer to acclimatise
the Latin riddle in England. Forty riddles by archbishop Tatwin,
which were expanded by Eusebius to the number of 100, are also
extant. The author of the Old English riddles derived most of
his inspiration from Aldhelm, but he also seems to have gone
direct to Symphosius and to have made some slight use of the
work of Eusebius and Tatwin.
The theory that the solution of the first riddle was the name
Coenwulf, i. e. Cynewulf, was refuted by Trautmann, in 1883, and,
later, by Sievers, on linguistic and other grounds.
The peculiarly English tone and character of the riddles is, in
some measure, due to Aldhelm's example. For, though he wrote
in Latin, his style differentiates his work from that of the Latin
authors, and accounts for the popularity this form of literature
acquired in England. Furthermore, the author or authors of the
Old English riddles borrow themes from native folk-song and saga;
in their hands inanimate objects become endowed with life and
personality; the powers of nature become objects of worship such
as they were in olden times; they describe the scenery of their
own country, the fen, the river and the sea, the horror of the
untrodden forest, sun and moon engaged in perpetual pursuit of


## p. 61 (#81) ##############################################

The Riddles
61
ul.
each other, the nightingale and the swan, the plough guided by
the "grey-haired enemy of the wood,” the bull breaking up the
clods left unturned by the plough, the falcon, the arm-companion
of aethelings-scenes, events, characters familiar in the England of
that day. Riddle XLI, De Creatura, and Riddle ix, on the Nightin-
gale, which are subjects taken from Aldhelm, may be compared with
the Latin versions to prove how far the more imaginative English
poet was from being a mere imitator, and the storm and iceberg
riddles breathe the old northern and viking spirit. Riddle XXXVI
is also preserved in Northumbrian in a MS at Leyden.
The most varied solutions have, from time to time, been
suggested for some of the riddles, and the meaning of many is
by no means clear. The most recent attempts at a solution of the
first riddle have been made by Schofield and Gollancz. They see
in this short poem an Old English monodrama in five acts, wherein.
a lady boasts of fidelity to her lover, but, during his absence,
proves faithless and lives to endure the vengeance of her husband
in the loss of her child.
We may note, in conclusion, a group of minor poems which have
one characteristic feature in common, namely, the note of personal
religion; they are, for the most part, lyric or didactic in character,
dealing with the soul's need of redemption. Of these, the Death
Song attributed to Bede by his pupil Cuthbert, who gives an
approximate Latin rendering of it', is preserved in a Northumbrian
version in a MS at St Gall and belongs to the same period as
Caedmon's Hymn.
One of the most interesting of the group is the Address of the
Lost Soul to the Body, a frequent theme in later literature. It is
one of the very few Old English poems preserved in two versions,
one in the Exeter, the other in the Vercelli, Book. In the latter
codex is contained a fragment of a very rare theme, the Address
of the Saved Soul to the Body. A poem on the day of doom
is transmitted in the Exeter Book. It is a general admonition
to lead a godly, righteous and sober life after the fashion of many
similar warnings in later literature.
A group of four short poems, of which three are preserved in the
Exeter Book, deal with attributes common to mankind. The Gifts
of Men (Bi monna craeftum)-based, largely, upon the 29th homily
of pope Gregory, and, hence, sometimes attributed to Cynewulf ;
the Fates of Men (Bi manna wyrdum), which, though allied in
theme to the previous poem, differs very considerably from it
1 Epistola Cuđberti ad Cudwinum.


## p. 62 (#82) ##############################################

62 Old English Christian Poetry
in treatment; the Mind of Man (Bi manna mode) and the
Falsehood of Man (Bi manna lease), which may be described as
poetical homilies.
The Riming Poem is a solitary instance of the occurrence in
English poetry of the consistent use of end-rime and alliteration
in one and the same poem. The theme, "sorrow's crown of
sorrows is remembering happier things,” recalls the epilogue to
Elene, but the resemblance is not sufficiently striking to justify
the attribution of the poem to Cynewulf. The metrical form is
an accurate imitation of the Höfudlausn of Egill Skallagríms-
son, which was composed in Northumberland at the court of
Aethelstan.
It is generally thought that gnomic or didactic poetry,
which seems to have been very popular during the Old English
period, had its origin in the religious exercises of heathen times.
Certainly it is well represented in the mythological poems of the
Edda, whether we take the proverb form, as in the first part of
Hávamál, or the form of question and answer, as in Vaf þruðnismál
and other poems. Old English proverbs are, however, almost
entirely deprived of heathen colouring. One collection, amounting
altogether to 206 lines in three sections, is preserved in the Exeter
Book, and another, containing 66 lines, serves as a preface to one
of the texts of the Chronicle. The proverbs in the two collections
are of much the same kind, giving, in each case, the chief charac-
teristic of the thing mentioned, e. g. "frost shall freeze," or "a king
shall have government. " Generally, however, they run into two or
more lines, beginning and ending in the middle, so that the whole
collection has the form of a connected poem. In this class of
literature we may, perhaps, also include A Father's Instruction,
a poem consisting of ten moral admonitions (94 lines in all)
addressed by a father to his son somewhat after the nature of
the Proverbs of Solomon. In form, it may be compared with
Sigrdrífumál and the last part of Hávamál, but the matter is
very largely Christian. Mention must also be made of The Runic
Poem, which, likewise, has Scandinavian parallels. Each of the
letters of the runic alphabet had its own name, wbich was also the
word for some animal, plant or other article, e. g. riches, buffalo,
thorn; and it is the properties of these which the poem describes,
allotting three or four lines to each. The other form of didactic
poetry, the dialogue, is represented in Old English in the poem
known as Salomon and Saturn. This alliterative poem is pre-
served in two MSS in the Library of Corpus Christi College,


## p. 63 (#83) ##############################################

Caedmon and Cynewulf 63
Cambridge. King Solomon, as the representative of Jewish
wisdom, is represented as measuring forces with Saturn, a docile
learner and mild disputant. The Old English dialogue has its
counterpart in more than one literature, but, in other countries,
Marcolf, who takes the place of Saturn, gets the best of the game,
and saucy wit confounds the teacher.
names of Caedmthe work of the twned by Old 7
Any attempt to estimate the development attained by Old
English literature, as shown by the work of the two schools of
poetry which the names of Caedmon and Cynewulf connote, must,
of necessity, be somewhat superficial, in view of the fragmentary
nature of much of the work passed under review. Caedmon stands
for a group of singers whose work we feel to be earlier in tone and
feeling, though not always in age, than that which we know to be
Cynewulf's or can fairly attribute to him. Both schools of thought
are Christian, not rarely even monkish ; both writers, if not in
equal measure, are sons of their age and, palpably, inheritors of a
philosophy of life pagan in many respects. It is safe to say that,
in both groups, there is hardly a single poem of any length and
importance in which whole passages are not permeated with the
spirit of the untouched Beowulf, in which turns of speech, ideas, .
points of view, do not recall an earlier, a fiercer, a more self-
reliant and fatalistic age. God the All-Ruler is fate metamor-
phosed; the powers of evil are identical with those once called
giants and elves; the Paradise and Hell of the Christian are as
realistic as the Walhalla and the Niflheim of the heathen ancestor.
Yet the work of Cynewulf and his school marks an advance
upon the writings of the school of Caedmon. Even the latter
is, at times, subjective and personal in tone to a degree not
found in pure folk-epic; but in Cynewulf the personal note is
emphasised and becomes lyrical. Caedmon's hymn in praise of
the Creator is a sublime statement of generally recognised facts
calling for universal acknowledgment in suitably exalted terms;
Cynewulf's confessions in the concluding portion of Elene or in
The Dream of the Rood, or his vision of the day of judgment in
Crist, are lyrical outbursts, spontaneous utterances of a soul
which has become one with its subject and to which self-revelation
is a necessity. This advance shows itself frequently, also, in the de-)
scriptions of nature. For Cynewulf, “ earth's crammed with heaven,
and every common bush afire with God”; it is, perhaps, only in
portions of Exodus and in passages of Genesis B that the Divine
immanence in nature is obviously felt by the Caedmonian scop.
at the Christia
the work of no and the Nifheim


## p. 64 (#84) ##############################################

64
Old English Christian Poetry
- The greatest distinction between the one school and the other
is due, however, to the degree in which Cynewulf and his group
show their power of assimilating foreign literary influences.
England was ceasing to be insular as the influence of a literary
tongue began to hold sway over her writers. They are scholars
deliberately aiming at learning from others—they borrow freely,
adapt, reproduce. Form has become of importance; at times, of
supreme importance; the attempt, architecturally imperfect as it
may be, to construct the trilogy we know as Crist is valuable as
a proof of consciousness in art, and the transformation that the
riddles show in the passage from their Latin sources furnishes
additional evidence of the desire to adorn.
Yet, it is hard not to regret much that was lost in the
acquisition of the new. The reflection of the spirit of paganism,
the development of epic and lyric as we see them in the fragments
that remain, begin to fade and change; at first, Christianity is seen
to be but a thin veneer over the old heathen virtues, and the gradual
assimilation of the Christian spirit was not accomplished without
harm to the national poetry, or without resentment on the part of the
people. “They have taken away our ancient worship, and no one
knows how this new worship is to be performed,” said the hostile
common folk to the monks, when the latter were praying at Tyne-
mouth for the safety of their brethren carried out to sea. “We are not
going to pray for them. May God spare none of them,” they jibed,
when they saw that Cuthbert's prayers appeared to be ineffectual.
It was many a year before the hostility to the new faith was
overcome and the foreign elements blended with the native
Teutonic spirit. The process of blending can be seen perfectly
at work in such lines as The Charm for Barren Land, where
pagan feeling and nominal Christianity are inextricably mixed.
There, earth spells are mingled with addresses to the Mother of
Heaven. But, in due season, the fusion was accomplished, and, in
part, this was due to the wisdom with which the apostles of
Christianity retained and disguised in Christian dress many of
the festivals, observances and customs of pre-Christian days. That
much of what remains of Old English literature is of a religious
nature does not seem strange, when it is remembered through
whose hands it has come down to us. Only what appealed to the
new creed or could be modified by it would be retained or adapted,
when the Teutonic spirit became linked with, and tamed by, that
of Rome.


## p. 65 (#85) ##############################################

CHAPTER V
LATIN WRITINGS IN ENGLAND TO THE TIME
OF ALFRED
It is outside the scope of this work to survey the various
scattered documents of British origin which were produced
outside Britain. Moreover, the influence of most of them upon
the main stream of English literature was, beyond all doubt,
extremely slight. Among the writings thus excluded from
consideration may be mentioned the remains of Pelagius, who
seems to have been actually the earliest British author, the
short tract of Fastidius, “a British bishop,” on the Christian
life, and the two wonderful books of St Patrick-the Confession
and the Letter to Coroticus—which, in spite of their barbaric style,
whereof the author was fully conscious, are among the most living
and attractive monuments of ancient Christianity. Outside our
province also falls the earliest piece of Latin verse produced in
these islands, the Hymn of St Sechnall; and also the hymns
of the Bangor antiphonary, the writings of Columban and the
lives and remains of the Irish missionaries abroad. All these are
named here principally lest it should be supposed that they
have been forgotten.
We pass to our earliest indigenous literary products ; and the
list of these is headed by two somewhat uncouth fragments,
marked off from almost all that follow them by the fact that they
are British and not English in origin. These are the book of
Gildas and the History of the Britons.
Concerning the career of Gildas the Wise, we are told much in
the lives of him by a monk of Rhuys, and by Caradoc of Lancarvan,
which belong respectively to the early part of the eleventh
century and to the twelfth ; but almost all the data that can
be regarded as trustworthy are derived from Gildas's own book
and from brief notices in Irish and Welsh annals. As examined
by Zimmer and Theodor Mommsen, these sources tell us that Gildas,
born about the year 500 A. D. , was living in the west of England and
E. L. I. CH. V.


## p. 66 (#86) ##############################################

66
Latin Writings in England
wrote the book which we possess shortly before 547; that, perhaps,
he journeyed to Rome; that he spent the last years of his life
in Britanny and probably died there in 570; and that not long
before his death (probably also in his younger days) he visited
Ireland. He is represented by various authorities as having been
a pupil of St Iltut at Lantwit Major in Wales, together with other
great saints of the time.
The book of his which remains to us is thus entitled by its most
recent editor, Mommsen: “Of Gildas the Wise concerning the
destruction and conquest of Britain, and his lamentable castigation
uttered against the kings, princes and priests thereof. " The
manuscripts differ widely in the names they assign to it.
The author himself in his opening words describes his work as
an epistle. For ten years it has been in his mind, he says, to deliver
his testimony about the wickedness and corruption of the British
state and church; but he has, though with difficulty, kept silence.
Now, he must prove himself worthy of the charge laid upon him as
a leading teacher, and speak. But, first, he will, with God's help, set
forth shortly some facts about the character of the country and
the fortunes of its people. Here follows that sketch of the history
of Britain which, largely used by Bede and by the compilers of the
History of the Britons, is almost our only literary authority for the
period. In compiling it, Gildas says he has not used native sources,
which, if they ever existed, had perished, but“narratives from beyond
the sea. " What this precisely means it is not easy to determine.
The only historical authors whose influence can be directly traced in
his text are Rufinus's version of Eusebius, Jerome's Chronicle and
Orosius; and none of these records the local occurrences which
Gildas relates. Moreover, the story, as he tells it, clearly appears
to be derived from oral traditions (in some cases demonstrably
incorrect) rather than copied from any older written sources. It
may be that Gildas drew his knowledge from aged British monks
who had settled in Ireland or Britanny: it may be that by the
relatio transmarina he merely means the foreign historians just
mentioned. Brief and rather vague as it is, the narrative may
be accepted as representing truly enough the course of events.
It occupies rather more than a quarter of the whole work, and
brings us down to the time, forty-four years after the British
victory of Mount Badon, when the descendants of the hero of
that field, Ambrosius Aurelianus, had departed from the virtues
of their great ancestor, and when, in the view of our author, the
moral and spiritual state of the whole British dominion had sunk


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Gildas
67
to the lowest level of degradation.