No More Learning

The garrison, he says, is
starving, and worn out by constant fighting. There is no money to
pay the soldiers. All the church plate has long ago been melted down.
"The Marathas have carried on mines, covered ways and other
approaches to the very foundation of the wall, their batteries being
very near the town : they throw large stones into the place from
mortars. ” A little moved by this touching appeal, the council sent
1 “Tratando o de Negro", Kincaid and Parasnis, 261 note, quoting a Portu-
guese authority.
>


## p. 406 (#444) ############################################

406 RISE OF THE MARATHA EMPIRE (1707-1761)
them two hundred barrels of gunpowder, and four thousand rounds
of cannon-shot. Later, with the quixotic gallantry of his nation, the
commandant actually offered to pledge to the English some of his
best cannon in return for further supplies, “having this considera-
tion, that it is most becoming my nation that it should be known
to the world how, for the preservation of their king's city, Bassein
was stripped of its artillery, the principal instruments of its defence,
whilst they put their trust more in their personal valour, in their
constant fidelity and zeal, than on the extraordinary force or hard-
ness of metal”. But nothing could save the city. On 13 May, a mine
was sprung under one of the principal bastions, and the Maratha
storming parties, led in person by their greatest captains, Malhar
Rac Holkar, Ranoji Sindia, Manaji Angria and Chimaji Appa himself,
swarmed up the walls, only to be driven back in disorder. Eleven
times the columns moved to the assault, and eleven times they
were repulsed with slaughter; and when the attack was renewed
at daylight, it was found that the Portuguese had repaired the
breaches. But on the next day another mine was exploded, and the
Marathas established themselves in a position among the ruins, from
which they could enfilade the defences. All that day the Portuguese
Inaintained an unequal combat with the courage of despair, and in
the evening Chimaji sent an envoy to say that, unless the town sur-
rendered, further mines would be exploded, and the whole popula-
tion put to the sword. The governor then capitulated, after one of
the most heroic defences in history. The severity of the fighting is
indicated by the fact that the Maratha losses were estimated at 5000
out of a total of 22,000. Chimaji chivalrously allowed the garrison
to march out with the honours of war, and a safe-conduct to Goa
or Daman, while those who preferred to remain were promised com-
plete religious freedom. The English, be it said to their honour, did
all in their power to help the refugees. ?
The fall of Bassein warned the English in Bombay to prepare for
a similar peril. A sum of 30,000 rupees was subscribed by the Indian
merchants of the town for the purpose of putting the defences in
order and two embassies were despatched, one under captain Inch-
bird to visit king Shahu in the Deccan, and the other under captain
Gordon to congratulate Chimaji Appa at Bassein. Both were entirely
successful, and a treaty was drawn up, dated 12 July, 1739, giving
the English the right of free trade in the Deccan. 2
In the following year, an irreparable calamity overtook the
Marathas. Their guiding spirit, Baji Rao Peshwa, worn out by his
hard life in the field, suddenly passed away, at the early age of forty-
two, on the banks of the Narbada, on 28 April, 1740. "He died as
Forrest, Selections, Maratha Series, 1, 25-66.
2 Forrest, op. cit. pp. 66-84; Aitchinson's Treaties, v. 14. "First wars and Trea-
ties of the Bombay Presidency”, Bombay Quarterly Review, 1855, Art. rv.
1


## p. 407 (#445) ############################################

)
2
DEATH OF BAJI RAO
407
he had lived," says Sir Richard Temple, "in camp, under canvas
among his men, and he is remembered to this day among Marathas
as the fighting Peshwa or the incarnation of Hindu energy. ” He was
the most remarkable man, next to Shivaji himself, that his nation
had produced. In the words of the historian of the Marathas, his
was “the head to plan and the heart to execute”. Tall and com-
manding in appearance, he was, like all his family, famous for his
good looks. He was equally great as a soldier and as a statesman.
He understood to perfection the peculiar tactics of the Maratha
horse, and his campaigns against the Nizam were masterpieces, of
strategy. He was as chivalrous in the hour of victory as he was brave
in the field. As a politician, he had the lofty and far-reaching
ambitions of his father, and he lived to see the tiny Maratha race,
once “ a cloud no bigger than a man's hand", spread all over India,
from Delhi to Tanjore. He was an eloquent and inspiring orator,
and if in private life he had something of the haughty and imperious
reserve of the Chitpavan, he was a generous master to those who
served him faithfully. He made his home, during the short intervals
of his campaigns, at Poona, which was fast becoming the rival of
Satara, and here in 1732 he built the famous Shanwar Wada, or
"Saturday Palace", which he decorated with the spoils of Hindustan.
Captain Închbird, who visited Poona in 1739, describes it as well
built and abounding with people, and the district in appearance
more fertile and valuable than any other he had passed through.
He especially noted the Peshwa's gun-foundry. Baji Rao left behind
four children, two of whom, Balaji and Raghunath Rao, familiarly
known as Ragoba, rose to fame. Another son, Shamsher Bahadur,
borne to him by his beautiful Muhammadan mistress Mastani,fell
at Panipat. In January, 1741, he was followed to the funeral pyre
by his brother Chimaji, the conqueror of Bassein, who, had he not
been overshadowed by the Peshwa's transcendent genius, would have
been recognised as one of the greatest names in Maratha history :
as an administrator, he was, perhaps, Baji Rao's superior, but he
was loyally content to give his brother the credit for his achievements.
His son, Sadashiv Rao (the Bhao Sahib), was destined to play a
tragic part in his country's annals.
The death of Baji Rao was followed by the usual scramble for
office, but Balaji Baji Rao, the late Peshwa's eldest son, had already
insinuated himself into the old king's favour, and Shahu had no
hesitation about bestowing upon him the robes of office, although
he was only nineteen at the time. The investiture took place in
August, 1740. Balaji's chief rival was Raghuji Bhonsle of Berar, a
1 Poona in Bygone Days, by R. B. Parasnis, chap. I.
Baji Rao's relations with Mastani caused much scandal: she is said to have
taught him to eat meat and drink to excess. For her history, see Kincaid and
Parasnis, 270 sqq.


## p. 408 (#446) ############################################

408 RISE OF THE MARATHA EMPIRE (1707-1761)
kinsman of Shahu and an inveterate enemy of the Peshwas, who was
away at the time on an expedition to the Carnatic. This expedition
had been sent at the request of the Hindu rajas of the south, and in
particular of the Maratha prince Pratap Singh of Tanjore, the de-
scendant of Vyankaji, the half-brother of the great Shivaji : they
were threatened with extermination at the hands of Dost "Ali, the
Nawab of the Carnatic.
The Maratha armies marched from victory to victory. Dost ‘Ali
was defeated and killed (31 May, 1740) at the Damalcherry pass
and in the following August Raghuji patched up a truce with his
son Safdar 'Ali, and proceeded to Satara to dispute the Peshwaship.
Not succeeding, he returned to the Carnatic, and in December laid
siege to Chanda Sahib, Dost ‘Ali's son-in-law, in Trichinopoly, which
fell in March, 1741. Chanda Sahib was sent to Satara as a state
prisoner, and remained there for eight years. Trichinopoly was
handed over to the charge of Murari Rao Ghorpare of Gooty.
Raghuji next proceeded to threaten Pondicherry, the headquarters
of Chanda Sahib's French allies : but the Marathas were no match
for European troops behind ramparts, and prudently retired. This
expedition, which was warmly supported by the party in court and
advocated expansion in the south rather than conquests in Hindustan,
was completely successful.
Raghuji Bhonsle continued, after his return from the Carnatic, to
oppose the Peshwa, who was at length (1744) forced to buy off his
formidable rival by allowing him a free hand in Bengal, where
'Ali Vardi Khan (Mirza Muhammad 'Ali) had set himself up as an
independent ruler. 'Ali Vardi Khan treacherously massacred in
cold blood Bhaskar Pant, Raghuji's revenue minister, and a score of
Maratha officers whom he had invited to a conference, but he had
to pay heavily for his perfidy. In 1751 he was forced to surrender
the province of Orissa (Cuttack) to the Marathas, with 1,200,000
rupees annually as the chauth of Bengal. The Marathas never
attempted to establish any civil administration in the province, but
left it to the local chiefs. The "Maratha ditch", built round Calcutta
in 1742, long bore witness to the terror aroused by the Bhonsle's
far-flung horsemen.
Meanwhile Shahu was slowly dying.
"Shahu the good” was an
amiable and religious man, whose piety is still remembered with
affection by the Marathas. He could be magnanimous to a fallen
foe, and was by no means destitute of ability. (But his upbringing
in the Mughul court had made him ill-fitted to deal with the tur.
bulent spirits of his age). His grandfather had been reared in the
wilds of the mountain forest; Shahu's boyhood was spent in the
imperial seraglio. He was content to pass his time hunting, fishing
1 See chap. XII, p. 366.
2 See chap. xv, p. 441.
8 Grant Duff, 1, chap. XVIII; V. A. Smith, Oxford History of India, pp. 487-8.


## p. 409 (#447) ############################################

CHARACTER OF SHAHU
409
and hawking, and left the drudgery of state affairs more and more
to his Peshwa, little realising that he was building up a power destined
to supersede his house. But it is a mistake to suppose that he was a
mere puppet, like his successors. He exacted the homage due to his
person on every occasion. "He was not the mere titular head of the
Maratha government", says Ranade :
He directed all the operations, ordered and recalled commanders, and he
exercised a great controlling power on the chiefs, though he led no armies in the
field. . . Shahu was strong enough to enforce moderation even over the towering
ambition of Balaji, and forced him to leave the eastern provinces of India free
for the development of the Bhonsle's power. Baji Rao was only a general under
Shahu : and the Pratinidhis, Bhonsles, Nimbalkars, Dabhades, Gaikwars, Kadam
Bandes, Angres and Ghorpades all respected his power. 1
His chief defect was his intense conservatism. “Do not break the
old, or introduce the new”, was his motto, and he confirmed incap-
able assignees and other useless officers in their holdings, much to
the detriment of the state. To the day of his death, he was incapable
of shaking off the belief that he was still the vassal of the Mughul
empire, for which, and for the memory of the great emperor in whose
household he was reared, he cherished the profoundest reverence.
For this reason he never approved of the policy of the Peshwas in
northern India, though he was unable to check their soaring ambi.
tions. His last years were clouded by failing health ? and the quarrels
of his two Ranis, Sakwar Bai and Saguna Bai. The latter died in
1748, and Sakwar Bai, the survivor, was a turbulent and ambitious
woman. Lastly, he was deeply distressed at the lack of a legitimate
heir. The Peshwa wished him to nominate Shambhuji, and so unite
the crowns of Satara and Kolhapur, but Shahu could never over-
come his dislike of his cousin, who was, moreover, an elderly man
without heirs, and disinherited him. He contemplated adopting a boy
of the Bhonsle family, when Tara Bai dramatically announced the
existence of a posthumous son of Shivaji II named Ram Raja, who,
she asserted, had been smuggled by a gondhali, or wandering bard,
at Tuljapur.
Whether Tara Bai's story was true or not will never be known, but
Shahu, after due enquiry, accepted it. Sakwar Bai, on the other
hand, stigmatised it as a fresh plot' on the part of the old dowager
to regain her influence. Feeling his end to be near, Shahu sent for
the Peshwa, and in the presence of Govind Rao Chitnis handed
him two wills or rescripts. The first of these states
We order that you should command the forces. . . . The government of the
empire must be carried on. Appoint therefore a successor, but none from
1 Miscellaneous Writings, p. 348.
2 Shahu was eccentric, but not, as Grant Duff says, in a state of "mental im-
becility". His actions show that he was compos mentis.
3 Selections from Peshwa's Daftar, vol. vi, No. 147.


## p. 410 (#448) ############################################

410 RISE OF THE MARATHA EMPIRE (1707-1761)
Kolhapur. We have given full instructions to the Chitnis. Act accordingly.
Whoever succeeds, obey him and uphold the dignity of the throne. The Chitnis
has always been loyal to us. You are jointly to take measures to preserve the
Kingdom. Our successors will not interfere with your post.
The second document adds nothing material, except a solemn injunc-
tion to Shahu's successors to maintain the Peshwa in office.
Shahu died on 15 December, 1749, aged sixty-seven, after a reign
of over forty-one years. The Peshwa at once occupied Satara with
his troops, arrested the Pratinidhi and other rivals, and calling a
meeting of the council produced the papers. These, he asserted,
gave him the right to administer the kingdom on behalf of Ram
Raja and his heirs. Sakwar Bai was offered the alternative of coming
in on the Peshwa's side or becoming sati. She chose the latter, and
went to her doom with the traditional courage of a Maratha lady :
the place of her self-immolation is still regarded as holy ground.
The young king was brought in triumph to Satara, and solemnly
crowned by the Peshwa amid great public rejoicings (4 January,
1750). He was a feeble-minded youth, and an easy tool in the hands
of his astute minister. Tara Bai, who had hoped to control him as
she had done his father, retired to Sinhgarh, ostensibly to be near
her husband's ashes, but in reality in order to start intriguing with
the Pant Sachiv, who was the commandant of the fort. Balaji, who
was attending some wedding ceremonies in Poona, thereupon sum-
moned Tara Bai and the Pant Sachiv into his presence. Tara Bai
was treated with respect, but the Pant Sachiv was thrown into prison.
Ram Raja was then invited to leave Satara, where he was in charge
of Raghuji Bhonsle, and come to Poona. This marks the culminating
point in the Peshwa's coup d'état. Never before had the Chhatrapati
been brought from his capital by his minister. "From this point",
says Grant Duff, "Poona may be considered the capital of the
Peshwas. " Under Balaji's directions, Ram Raja drew up a document
known as the "Sangola agreement”, by which all the chief offices
in the state were handed over to the Peshwa's adherents. ?
When the monsoon of 1750 was drawing to a close, and the Dasahra
festival ushered in the campaigning season, the Peshwa thought him-
self sufficiently secure to set out for Hyderabad. The old Nizam had
died on 1 June, 1748, at Burhanpur, aged seventy-nine, and a war of
succession had broken out among his sons. The Peshwa, in return
for important concessions, had agreed to support the elder Ghazi-ud-
din against Salabat Jang. His real aim, however, was no less than
the annexation of Hyderabad to the Maratha empire. But he had
reckoned without Tara Bai. Scarcely had he turned his back, than
that indefatigable old queen, upon whom years seemed only to confer
1 These momentous documents are in the Parasnis Museum, Satara. A photo-
static copy is in Itihasa Sangraha, Nov. -Dec. 1915, and an English translation in
Kincaid and Parasnis, p. 455.
2 Rajwade, u, p. ! 15.
3 See chap. XII, pp. 387-8.


## p. 411 (#449) ############################################

DEFEAT OF THE GAIKWAR
411
fresh energy, organised a far-reaching conspiracy to throw off for
ever the yoke of the hated Brahman. She found no lack of support
among the Maratha chiefs, who were smarting under the Sangola
agreement. Her first step, however, was to get into her power the
miserable puppet who sat on the throne of the great Shivaji. Having
seized the fort of Satara, she invited Ram Raja to a banquet and cast
him into prison (24 November, 1750). She then prevailed upon
another Maratha lady, Uma Bai, the widow of Khande Rao Dabhade,
to call in her late husband's old lieutenant, the Gaikwar, from
Gujarat. Damaji Gaikwar was nothing loath. He advanced upon
Satara with 15,000 men in order to link up with the forces of Tara
Bai.
But the Peshwa was too quick for him. Hearing of what had
happened while near Raichur, by forced marches in which he covered
400 miles in thirteen days he descended upon Damaji Gaikwar, who
was being hotly engaged by Nana Purandhare and others. The
Gaikwar fell back before his new opponent, and retreated into a
cul-de-sac in the Krishna valley. The Gujarat troops, unused to
jungle-fighting, became disorganised, and Damaji had no option but
to negotiate. The Peshwa pressed him to surrender half Gujarat and
pay an indemnity of two and half million rupees. Finding him
obdurate, he suddenly, in spite of the truce, attacked and captured
Damaji, together with his son and Uma Bai Dabhade, and sent
them as prisoners to Poona. So incensed was Damaji at this piece
of treachery, that ever after he refused to salute the Peshwa except
with his left hand. Balaji's terms of ransom-half of Gujarat, and
a yearly tribute of 500,000 rupees—were severe, and for a long time
Damaji resisted. After six months of rigorous confinement, however,
he capitulated, and in the cold weather of 1752-53 he returned
homewards, accompanied by Raghunath Rao and a considerable
force, with the object of reinstating himself as sole ruler of Gujarat
and expelling the Mughul viceroy. After a desperate struggle,
Ahmadabad was captured, and the last remains of Mughul rule in
Gujarat were obliterated. 1
Tara Bai still held out defiantly in Satara fort, and refused to come
to terms until the Peshwa guaranteed her liberty under the most
solemn oaths. The unfortunate Ram Raja remained in custody, and
Tara Bai now shamelessly declared that he was an impostor, and
the son of a gondhali. Imprisonment told on his reason, and he died
in obscurity in 1777. Shortly before his death, he adopted a son, wh
received the name of Shahu the Younger, and reigned till 1810.
But after the death of Shahu I in 1749, the kings were mere rois
fainéants, though the Peshwas, always strict constitutionalists, pro-
fessed to the last to act as their viceroys, and sent all documents for
1 In July, 1756, Mumin Khan, Nawab of Cambay, temporarily occupied the
town, but was expelled in the following year.


## p. 412 (#450) ############################################

412 RISE OF THE MARATHA EMPIRE (1707-1761)
their signature to their state prison in Satara fort. For this change
in the government, Tara Bai and the Maratha nobles, rather than
the Peshwa, were to blame. They had no fixed policy, and little
thought except for personal aggrandisement. Shahu had deliberately
allowed the executive power to lapse into the hands of his capable and
patriotic minister, and preferred to leave the young heir to the throne
under the tutelage of the Peshwa, rather than expose the country
to the risks of civil war. "The usurpation of the Peshwas”, Scott
Waring justly remarks, "neither attracted observation nor excited
surprise. Indeed, the transition was easy, natural and progressive. ” 1
Its greatest disadvantage was that it aggravated the centrifugal ten-
dencies of the Maratha state, and especially the enmity between
Brahman and Maratha, which were at least kept in check while a
member of the house of Bhonsle actually ruled; after the Peshwa's
prestige was shaken by the defeat of Panipat, the disintegration
became more and more evident.
Balaji, having crushed his rivals, was now once more at liberty
to turn his attention to foreign affairs. In the cold weather of 1751
the war with Hyderabad was renewed, but Bussy's trained infantry
outmanœuvred the Peshwa and inflicted more than one defeat upon
him. At one time he penetrated to within sixteen miles of Poona:
but the troops mutinied for want of pay and the campaign collapsed
with the poisoning, in 1752, of Ghazi-ud-din, the Peshwa's candidate.
In 1754, Balaji organised a mulukgiri expedition on a stupendous
scale to collect arrears of tribute from the Carnatic, exterminate
the last remnants of Mughul rule, plunder Mysore, and replenish
the Peshwa's exhausted coffers. From every village through which
the Marathas passed money was extorted and treasure chests rifled,
till the countryside looked as though it had been devastated by a
swarm of locusts.
On their return, laden with booty, the Marathas
combined with the Nizam's forces in attacking the Nawab of Savanur,
who had put himself at the head of a confederacy of Afghan
Nawabs and southern Maratha chiefs who refused to acknowledge
the Peshwa : the tremendous effect of Muzaffar Khan's artillery
trained by Bussy at the bombardment of Savanur greatly impressed
his allies.
In 1758 Bussy was recalled by Lally from the Nizam's service,
and a quarrel broke out between Nizam 'Ali, the brother of Salabat
Jang, and the Peshwa. Balaji, knowing that without their famous
French commandant the Hyderabad troops would be easy to deal
with, determined to attack them. He first scored two bloodless
triumphs. Ahmadnagar, the Nizam's great fortress and place of
arms in the Deccan, was taken without a blow, the commandant,
Kavi Jang, having been bribed to open the gates to the Marathas.
This deprived the Hyderabad army of its advanced base. Secondly,
1 History of the Marathas, p. 169.


## p. 413 (#451) ############################################

BATTLE OF UDGIR
413
Ibrahim Khan Gardi, the commandant of the Nizam's artillery, a
soldier of fortune who had been trained by Bussy himself, was
induced to enter the Peshwa's service. The two brothers, Salabat
Jang and Nizam 'Ali, were in no condition to fight : their troops were
in arrears and mutinous : but they could not afford to neglect the
challenge, when they saw the ancient stronghold of the Nizam Shahi
kings, which had cost the Mughuls so much blood and treasure to
capture, filched away in this treacherous manner. The Peshwa put the
Maratha army, 40,000 strong, under the command of his cousin,
Sadashiv Rao, son of Chimaji Appa. With it marched Ibrahim Khan
Gardi, with 5000 regular sepoys and his famous French artillery.
Battle was joined on 3 February, 1760, at Udgir, 200 miles east of
Poona. The Mughuls fought bravely; but their crowded ranks were
decimated by the Gardi's artillery, and a smashing cavalry charge
decided the action. The Mughul army fell back in disorder upon
the fortress of Ausa, where, after a four days' siege, the two brothers
sued for peace. Seldom had the Marathas won a more spectacular
victory, and Sadashiv Rao insisted on terms which were calculated
to cripple the state of Hyderabad for ever. Territory round Bijapur,
Bidar and Aurangabad, to the extent of an annual income of six
million rupees, together with the key fortresses of Daulatabad,
Asirgarh, Bijapur, Ahmadnagar and Burhanpur, were to be sur-
rendered.
The Marathas were now a very different people from the sturdy
hillmen who had fought and conquered under the great Shivaji,
“like our old Britons", as Fryer describes them, "half naked and as
fierce". Contact with the Mughuls had introduced into the Deccan
a love of refinement and culture before unknown. The nobles and
their wives went about arrayed in silk and cloth of gold. Contem-
porary correspondence contains constant applications from writers
in the Deccan to their friends in Hindustan to procure for them old
Sanskrit manuscripts, pictures and carvings, other articles of luxury,
and dancing girls and musicians. The fine examples of Mughul and
Rajput painting to be found to-day in places like Satara probably
found their way to the south about this time. The Shanwar Wada
in Poona, the Peshwa's official residence, was six storeys high, and
contained a series of sumptuous halls decorated with mirrors and
carved ivory, and marble courtyards where innumerable fountains
played incessantly. In the Peshwa's court, the elaborate etiquette
of the Mughul nobility was strictly followed. But all this imported
luxury had a demoralising effect upon the hardy and simple character
of the nation.
Balaji, in the intervals of his campaigns, did a great deal to improve
the administration of the Maratha state. Regularly appointed officers
1 See chap. XIII, p. 390.
2 D. B. Parasnis, Poona in Bygone Days, chap. I


## p. 414 (#452) ############################################

414
RISE OF THE MARATHA EMPIRE (1707-1761)
were placed in charge of the several districts; and the territory round
Satara, being the best protected and most productive, was entrusted
to the Peshwa's favourites. They had absolute charge of the civil
administration, but they were expected to furnish proper accounts:
this, however, was very irregularly done, as the holders of these
offices, being usually absent on campaign or in attendance on the
Peshwa in Poona, left the work in the hands of dishonest and extor-
tionate deputies. Balaji, however, placed the civil administration in
the hands of his great minister Ramchandra Shenvi, and after his
death in those of his cousin Sadashiv Rao. The latter appointed as
chief of the revenue-collectors a very able man by name Balloba
Manduvaguni, who introduced sweeping reforms, and forced the
collectors to produce their accounts. At the same time, the admini-
stration of justice was reformed : a strong police force was organised
in Poona city : and a famous jurist, Bal Kishan Gadgil, was appointed
as chief justice. The panchayats or courts of arbitration were im-
proved, and altogether the administration was established upon a
sound basis; abuses in revenue collection were checked, and the
villages were encouraged to resist the exactions of every petty com-
mander of horse who tried to levy blackmail on them. Each village
was, of course, a tiny republic, administered by the headman,
assisted by the accountant and other village officers: over the head-
man was the sub-collector, and over him the collector, who had
armed irregulars to assist in keeping order.
Balaji Baji Rao (or Nana Sahib, as he was familiarly called) had
the handsome appearance and gracious manner, but not the lofty
character, of his father and grandfather. His conduct towards Sakwar
Bai and Damaji Gaikwar has been stigmatised as unpardonably
treacherous, and later in life. he became indolent and sensual. But
the Maratha peasantry, remembering the all-round improvement
which took place in local government under his regime, have ever
since blessed the days of "Nana Sahib Peshwa". ?
The chief objection to be urged against the Maratha system of
government is that, outside its own territory, it was almost purely
predatory. The Maratha was never a colonist. While away on his
expeditions, his thoughts were always with his little holding in the
Deccan hills, and he seldom intermarried with the people of the
country. 3 Other Hindu states took a pride in improving the con-
dition of the territory they conquered. They constructed temples,
wells, canals, roads and other public works. The Marathas did nothing
of this kind. Their mulukgiri raids, by destroying the industries and
wealth of the countries overrun, merely "killed the goose which
1 Grant Duff, 1, 29 sqq. and 579 sqq. with Edwardes' footnotes. Sen, op. cit.
Book u, passim.
2 Grant Duff, 1, 531-2.
3 Grant Duff dwells on the devotion of the Maratha to his watan or hereditary
holding, 1, 340, 370, passim.


## p. 415 (#453) ############################################

1
THE MARATHAS IN THE NORTH
416
laid the golden eggs”. The Maratha state was a Krieg Staat, pure
and simple : and it is the fate of the Krieg Staat, as Sarkar justly
observes, to defeat its own ends. The severity of the Maratha raids,
for the collection of chauth and other arrears, varied of course, in
intensity. In Gujarat, and in the Carnatic in 1754-56, the plundering
was as thorough as it was merciless : in Malwa, on the other hand,
war was waged against the government rather than the people, and
though the bulk of the revenue was appropriated at each incursion,
the sources from which it was drawn were crippled but not entirely
ruined. But the principle was the same. 2
Meanwhile, stirring events were happening in Hindustan, but only
a brief outline of the tangled skein of intrigue can be given here.
Nadir Shah died in 1747, and Ahmad Shah Abdali, the founder of
Afghanistan, continued his policy of raiding the declining empire,
which he invaded in 1748 and 1749. In the 1751 Safdar Jang, the Nawab
of Oudh, with the sanction of the young emperor, Ahmad Shah, and
heedless of the danger of drawing the Marathas into disputes in the
very heart of the empire, called in Malhar Rao Holkar from Malwa,
Jayappa Sindia from Narnaul, and Suraj Mal the Jat, to help him
against the Bangash Afghans, who had invaded Oudh and plundered
Allahabad and Lucknow. The Marathas drove the Afghans into the
hills with severe loss, and occupied Rohilkhand in 1751. They “sacked
the whole country, not allowing a single man to escape, and every
article they carried away as booty”. 4 For their help, they were given
half the Bangash territory in the Duab, which they held precariously
till the Panipat disaster (1761). This was the first territorial
acquisition of the Marathas beyond the Jumna. In 1752 Ahmad
Shah Abdali invaded the Punjab for a third time. There was a wild
panic at Delhi, and the invader was bought off with promises of the
cession of the Punjab and Multan. ”
A new figure now appears upon the scene in the person of Ghazi.
ud-din the younger, who at the time of his father's murder in 1752
was in Delhi, and, with the help of Safdar Jang, became paymaster-
general. Almost immediately, he turned against his patron, and
called in the Marathas under Raghunath Rao and Malhar Rao
Holkar, who were just then engaged in exacting money from the
Jats. With the help of Holkar, Ahmad Shah was deposed and blinded,
and ‘Alamgir II installed as emperor. Anarchy prevailed in the
unhappy capital, and the rival factions fought daily in the streets.
The Marathas bled the empire white with their insatiable demands,
and this led to a mutiny among the imperial soldiers, who were
months in arrears and starving. They then retired to Rajputana,
1 Shivaji, 3rd ed. chap. XVI, 4.
2 Grant Duif, 1, 464, 585; Malcolm, op. cit. chap. IV.
3 See chap. xv, p. 429.
4 See chap. XV, p. 431.
6 See chap. xy, p. 434.


## p. 416 (#454) ############################################

416 RISE OF THE MARATHA EMPIRE (1707-1761)
" 2
where they had for some time been engaged in taking part in dynastic
disputes and collecting tribute. Here Jayappa Sindia was murdered
in July, 1755.
In October, 1756, the Abdali once more invaded the Punjab. In
January of the following year he entered Delhi and plundered it,
and two months later sacked the holy city of Muttra. He returned
with booty reckoned at twelve million rupees, leaving Najib Khan
as his agent in Delhi, and his son, Timur Shah, as viceroy of Lahore.
As soon as Ahmad Shah's back was turned, Ghazi-ud-din once more
called in the Marathas, and in February, 1758, a Maratha force
under Raghunath Rao invaded the Punjab, drove out Timur Shah,
and occupied Lahore (April, 1758). The Maratha power was now
at its zenith. “Their frontiers”, says Elphinstone, "extended on the
north to the Indus and the Himalaya, and to the south nearly to the
extremity of the peninsula : all the territory which was not their own
paid tribute. The whole of this great power was wielded by one
hand. . . and all pretensions of every description were concentrated
on the Peshwa. ” News of these successes were received with wild
elation in the Poona court, where it was fondly believed that the
Bhagwa Jhanda was "flying over the walls of Attock”. 3 As a matter
of fact, the wisdom of Raghunath Rao's ambitious policy was open
to grave doubts. It did not bring an anna to the Peshwa's coffers,
and the Marathas were not in a position to hold the country, where
both Sikhs and Muslims looked on them as hated intruders. Lastly,
by provoking the retaliation of the Abdali, it led to the downfall
of the Maratha power in Hindustan.
In 1758 the main Maratha army retired, leaving a garrison at
Lahore in charge of Sabaji Sindia. Meanwhile the Abdali, who was
furious at the expulsion of his son, and resolved “to bring to a
decisive issue the quarrel with the Hindu power which had crossed
his track of conquest, ill-treated his allies, and made war on true
believers", had settled his internal dissensions and was preparing
a fresh invasion. He crossed the Indus in August, 1759, and Sabaji
was forced to evacuate Lahore and fall back on Delhi. Having been
joined by the Rohilla chiefs, Ahmad Shah advanced on the capital,
driving the Marathas before him. His movements were hastened by
the news of the cruel murder of the emperor by Ghazi-ud-din on
29 November. On 9 January, 1760, at the Barari Ghat ten miles
north of Delhi, Ahmad Shah defeated and slew Dattaji Sindhia; his
nephew Jankoji fled with the remnants of his army to Rajputana,
where he managed to effect a junction with Malhar Rao Holkar.
Worse, however, was to follow. On 4 March Ahmad Shah's general
Jahan Khan, after a forced march, surprised and completely routed
1 See chap. xv, p. 445.
2 Cf. Grant Duff, I, 507.
3 Actually, the Marathas never crossed the Chenab.
4 Sarkar, Fall of the Mughul Empire, u, 159.


## p. 417 (#455) ############################################

THE BHAO SAHIB TAKES THE FIELD
417
Malhar Rao near Sikandarabad. In one short campaign the power
of the Marathas in Hindustan was completely shattered.
The news of the defeat and death of Dattaji reached the Peshwa
on 15 February, while the Marathas in the Deccan were jubilantly
celebrating the victory of Udgir. It was at once decided that a force
must be despatched under a member of the Peshwa's family to restore
Maratha influence in Hindustan. Raghunath Rao applied for the
command, and with his experience of fighting in northern India,
undoubtedly the choice should have fallen upon him. But Raghunath
Rao had incurred very heavy expenditure during his last campaign,
which had brought no revenue to the exchequer, and for this reason
he was under a cloud. Little love was lost between the two cousins,
and on the strength of this Sadashiv Rao, the hero of Udgir, claimed
the command. The Peshwa, now too indolent to take the field him-
self, unwisely agreed: but with him, "according to the ancient
custom of the Marathas”, he sent his young heir, Vishvas Rao, a
gallant and handsome lad of nineteen years, as nominal commander
and the Peshwa's representative. The army which set out from
Patdur in the Deccan on 10 March, 1760, was the most magnificent
that the Marathas had ever sent forth to battle. There were twenty
thousand of the famous Maratha horse, including the Khas Paga,
or household cavalry, commanded by chieftains of note who had
fought from one end of India to the other-Balvant Rao Mehendale,
Shamsher Bahadur, Baji Rao's son by the notorious Mastani, Naro
Shankar, Vithal Shivdeo Vinchurkar, Trimbak Sadashiv Purandhare,
Antaji Mankeshwar, and a host of others. With them went Ibrahim
Khan Gardi's corps of 9000 sepoys, trained under Bussy on the French
model, with forty pieces of cannon, which had done so well at Udgir.
But the experienced observer would have noted signs about this im-
posing array well calculated to make him uneasy. Shivaji's successes
had been due to the fact that his men moved without transport, sub-
sisting on a nose-bag of grain carried on the saddle and on food
taken from the surrounding country. And that great commander
had made it an offence punishable with death to bring a woman
into the camp. But the Bhao Sahib moved with a vast amount of
equipage and thousands of camp followers; behind followed numbers
of elephants, loaded with lofty silken tents; the wives of the principal
nobles accompanied their husbands with numerous retinues, and the
officers were resplendent in cloth of gold. Lastly, the Marathas were
forsaking their traditional tactics for new methods, based on European
models imperfectly assimilated.
But no thought of disaster troubled the mighty but unwieldy host,
as it slowly made its way, through Aurangabad, Burhanpur and
1 The best account of the campaign of Panipat is in Sarkar's Fall of the
Mughul Empire, vol. II, which is based on the most recent researches and
supersedes earlier narratives.
27


## p. 418 (#456) ############################################

418
RISE OF THE MARATHA EMPIRE (1707-1761)
Gwalior, to the banks of the Chambal, which was reached on 4 June.
As it moved northwards, reinforcements poured in. Malhar Rao
Holkar, Jankoji Sindia, Damaji Gaikwar, Yashwant Rao Powar,
with other Maratha chiefs and innumerable swarms of vagabond
Pindaris, flocked to the royal standard, till the total exceeded 300,009,
of whom about one-fourth were fighting men, with 200 cannon. It was
not merely an army, but a crusade, united to drive the Afghan
invaders from the sacred soil of India. But now rifts began to appear.
The Rajputs, offended at the high-handed conduct of Sindia and
Holkar, held aloof. At the Chambal, Suraj Mal, the Jat chief of
Bharatpur, rode in with his force, and a council of war was held
Suraj Mal, a veteran fighter, earnestly advised the Bhao Sahib to
park his baggage and artillery at Bharatpur, and then to start guerrilla
operations in the traditional Maratha fashion against the Abdali's
flank and rear: by this means, he said, and by avoiding a pitched
battle they would compel him very quickly to retreat. Holkar and
Sindia heartily concurred, but the Bhao Sahib contemptuously
rejected the sage advice of these experienced warriors, as "the chatter
of goatherds and zamindars”. 1 The taunt deeply wounded the pride
of the Maratha generals, and the old jealousy of the rule of the
Chitpavan broke out afresh. “If this Brahman wins", they said, "he
will send his couriers to collect the revenues of Hindustan, and we
shall have to wash his loin-cloths. It is better that he should meet
with a defeat, or else what consideration shall we be allowed? ” Suraj
Mal determined to slip away from the doomed force at the first
suitable opportunity.
The Marathas were outside Delhi by the end of July, and the fort
was captured without much difficulty on 2 August. Here also the
Bhao Sahib's conduct gave great offence. In order to pay his troops,
he stripped off the silver from the ceiling of the great hall of audience,
and plundered tombs and shrines which Persian and Afghan had
respected. A rumour was even spread abroad that he intended to
place Vishvas Rao on the Mughul throne. Dismayed at this behaviour,
Suraj Mal and his Jats quietly decamped: the loss of these seasoned
troops was a serious matter, but the Bhao Sahib affected to make
light of it, saying that nothing better could be expected of mere
landholders. The Marathas spent the rainy season encamped in and
around Delhi, while the Abdali was in quarters at Anupshahr in the
Bulandshahr district; both parties being busily engaged in intriguing,
through their agents, for the support of Shuja'-ud-daula, the Nawab
Vazir, who had succeeded his uncle Safdar Jang in 1754 and at first
remained neutral. Proposals were also made by the Bhao Sahib that
1 Sarkar, op. cit. pp. 258 sqq. , doubts the arrogance of the Bhao Sahib. But
Nana Farnavis, who was present, says: "His Highness had latterly become
proud and arrogant, and had lost his usual wisdom”, to which he mainly attri-
butes the disaster.
3 Siyar-ul-Mutaakhkhirin, ITI, 385.


## p. 419 (#457) ############################################

START OF THE CAMPAIGN
419
the Abdali should be given large territories north of the Sutlej on
condition that he withdrew, but they fell through, chiefly on account
of the opposition of Najib Khan the Rohilla, who had good cause to
hate the Marathas for ravaging Rohilkhand and wanted them to
retire for good and all behind the line of the Chambal. Shuja'-ud-
daula reluctantly decided to join his co-religionists.
The rains were now over; the Dasahra festival was at hand, and
both sides prepared to take the field. The Bhao Sahib moved up-
stream, leaving Naro Shankar with about 7000 Marathas to garrison
Delhi. The Abdali was on the other side of the river: his army was
slightly superior in numbers to that of his opponents, and the
Durranis were men of great bodily strength, mounted on swift
Turki horses. ? About seventy-eight miles north of Delhi lay the
fortified post of Kunjpura, well-stocked with money and provisions,
of which the Marathas were in sore need, and commanding an
important ford over the Jumna. It was held by Nijabat Khan with
10,000 picked Rohillas, and on 17 October the Bhao Sahib determined
to attack it. It was taken by storm after a fierce bombardment by
Ibrahim Khan's heavy guns, and the garrison was put to the sword
on the pretext that Nijabat Khan had been responsible for the death
of Dattaji Sindia at Badaun Ghat. The Jumna was still in full flood
and impassable, and Ahmad Shah was forced to look on helplessly
while his troops were cut to pieces. The bad discipline and the
notorious love of plunder of the Marathas now proved their undoing.
While they were engaged in ransacking Kunjpura for treasure and
celebrating the Dasahra feast, they failed to keep the enemy on the
further bank under observation. Ahmad Shah cleverly slipped away
and marched down stream. With the help of Shuja'-ud-daula, he
-
found a ford at Baghpat, about twenty-five miles north of Delhi, and
in spite of the flood, in two days he pushed his whole army across
at all costs, losing numbers of men in the process. By this masterly
stroke he placed himself between his opponents and their base. This
was on 25 October. The Marathas came up soon after and were
repulsed with loss: had they arrived a little while earlier, they would
have had the Afghans at their mercy. Now that it was too late, the
Marathas attacked, but were driven off with loss, and fell back
fighting on the little town of Panipat, about sixty miles north of
Delhi. Holkar once more begged the Bhao Sahib to resume the old
guerrilla tactics of the Marathas, but Ibrahim Khan Gardi threatened
to turn his guns upon his own side if they deserted him. The Bhao
1 In 1760 it fell on October 19th.
2 Sarkar, op. cit. , II, 289, gives the forces actually engaged as Afghans, 60,000;
Marathas, 45,000, exlcuding irregular troops and followers. Kasi Raj gives the
numbers as follows: Afghans, 41,800 cavalry, 38,000 infantry: total 79,800.
Marathas, 55,000 cavalry, 15,000 infantry, 15,000 Pindaris : total 85,000. Both
sides had immense numbers of camp-followers,


## p. 420 (#458) ############################################

420 RISE OF THE MARATHA EMPIRE (1707-1761)
Sahib therefore threw himself into Panipat, where with the help of
Ibrahim Khan he proceeded to "dig himself in " in approved European
fashion, throwing up a broad rampart with a ditch in front of it and
mounting his cannon at regular intervals.