299; abridged English
translation
"The Confession of the Flesh," trans.
Foucault-Psychiatric-Power-1973-74
In whose name?
To what advantage?
" "Power" therefore, and no longer "violence" as in the previous works.
As a result, there is a change in the paradigmatic figure around which the criticism of the Anglo-Saxon "anti-psychiatrists" was ordered, and which put the question of the "violence" exercised by society in general and psychiatry in particular at its core:55 the schizophrenic.
56
However, when we approach the psychiatric apparatus by reference to the mechanisms of power that organize it, it is the hysteric who, by laying the "trap" of the lie for a doctor like Charcot armed with the highest medical knowledge, paradigmatically portrays the militant underside of psychiatric power. 57 This is why, in Foucault's view, the hysteric deserves the title of the first "militant of anti-psychiatry," as he puts it in the lecture of 23 January 1974, since, by her "maneuvers," she challenges the doctor's role of "responsibility for producing the truth of illness within the hospital space. "5 Foucault can also declare in his contribution to a colloquium organized by Henri Ellenberger in May 1973: "The age of anti-psychiatry began when one suspected, and then, soon afterwards, was sure, that Charcot, the great master of mad- ness, the person who made it appear and disappear, was not the person who produced the truth of the illness, but the one who fabricated its artifice. "59
Now, this power to which the lectures are devoted has a double char- acteristic. In the final instance its point of application is bodies: their distribution in the asylum space, their ways of behaving, their needs,
? 362 PSYCHIA TRIC POWER
their pleasures; in short, it is a power "commanded by all the disposi tions of a kind of microphysics of bodies. " Moreover, the relations of power installed between the psychiatrist and his patient are fundamen- tally unstable, constituted by struggles and confrontations in which points of resistance are present at every moment. This is the case with these "counter maneuvers" by which the hysterics shake Charcot's power, escaping the categorizations to which he wanted to assign them, thereby giving a new impetus to the apparatus of medical power- knowledge on the basis of these resistances, to the point that, Foucault says, "a crisis" is opened up "that had to lead to anti-psychiatry. "60
4. 2. Knowledge and truth. As the lecture of 5 December 1973 recalls, "as a disciplinary system, the asylum is also a site for the formation of a certain type of discourse of truth. " Hence the analyses of the ways in which apparatuses of power and games of truth are articulated. This is the case for the "proto-psychiatric" modality, in which a game is orga- nized around the delirious conviction, within the regime of a "test" in which the doctor is posed as the ambiguous master of reality and truth, or, on the other hand, a game in which the question of truth no longer arises in the confrontation of doctor and patient, since it is now only posed within psychiatric power established as medical science. In this mode of analysis we can see that truth is called upon less as an intrinsic property of statements than at the level of its functionality, through the legitimation it provides for the discourses and practices on the basis of which psychiatric power organizes its exercise, and by the mode of exclusion it authorizes.
4. 3. Subjection (assujettissement). The therapist who approaches the individual to be treated from the outside, at the same time as he resorts to procedures that enable him to extract from this individual his inner subjectivity--questioning, anamnesis, etcetera--puts the subject in the position of having to interiorize the orders and norms imposed on him. In the lecture of 21 November 1973, the problem is also broached from the angle of the modes of subjection that make the subject appear as a complex and variable "function" of regimes of truth and discursive practices.
However, these lectures, which sought to give a sequel, on new bases, to Histoire de lafolie, will remain without future. For, in these years,
? circumstances are such as to give preference to participation in effective action, instead of, as Foucault says, the "scribbling of books. " Thus, from 1972 he recognized that "writing today a sequel to my Histoire de lafolie, which would continue up to the present, is for me without interest. On the other hand, a concrete political action in favor of prisoners seems to me to be highly meaningful. "61 However, at the same time, Foucault was preparing Discipline and Punish. Birth of the Prison.
Course Context 363
? 364 PSYCHIATRIC POWER
1. Michel Foucault, Histoire de la folie a I'dge dassique (Paris: Gallimard, 2ml edition, 1972) p. 541. This is omitted from the abridged English translation: Michel Foucault, Madness and Civilisation. A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason, trans. Richard Howard (New York: Random House, 1965 and London: Tavistock, 1967).
2. Michel Foucault, "Usage des plaisirs et techniques de soi," in Dits et Ecrits, 1954-1988, ed. D. Defert and F. Ewald, with the collaboration of J. Lagrange (Paris: Gallimard, 1994) vol. 4, p. 545; English translation, "Introduction," The Use of Pleasure. The History of Sexuality, vol. 2, trans. Robert Hurley (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985) p. 11.
3. Michel Foucault, Maladie mentale et Personnalite (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1954) and the modified version of this, Maladie mentale et Psychologie (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1962); English translation, Mental Illness and Psychology, trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Harper and Row, 1976).
4. Michel Foucault, "Preface" to Folie et Deraison. Histoire de lafolie a /'age dassique (Paris: Plon, 1961) p. vii (omitted from the French 1972 edition and from the English translation); reprinted in Dits et Ecrits, vol. 1, p. 192.
5. "Course summary," above, p. 345-
6. That is, its specificity in relation to both earlier and later studies of the history of
psychiatry. See in particular, E. H. Ackerknecht, A Short History of Psychiatry (New York:
Hafner, 1968).
7. Thus, Foucault's "Introduction" to L. Bmswanger, Le Reve et I'Existence, trans. J. Verdeaux
(Paris: Desclee de Brouwer, 1954) denounces the tendency of psychiatrists to consider "the illness as an 'objective process,' and the patient as an inert thing in which the process takes place" p. 104. Reprinted in Dits et Ecrits, vol. 1, p. 109; English translation, "Dream, Imagination and Existence. An Introduction to Ludwig Binswanger's Dream and Existence" trans. Forrest Williams, in M. Foucault and Ludwig Binswanger, Dream and Existence, trans. Forrest Williams and Jacob Needleman, ed. Keith Hoeller, Special Issue from Review of Existential Psychology and Psychiatry, vol. XIX, no. 1,1984 85, p. 66.
8. "La verite et les formes juridiques" Dits et Ecrits, vol. 2, p. 644; English translation, "Truth and Juridical Forms" trans. Robert Hurley, The Essential Works of Michel Foucault 1954-1984, Vol. 3: Power, ed. James D. Faubion, trans. Robert Hurley and others (New York: The New
Press, 2 0 0 0 ) . See also the interview with Foucault on Radio France, 8 October 1972, "Punir ou guenr": "I think this historical analysis is politically important inasmuch as it is necessary to locate exactly what one is struggling against. "
9- "If the medical personage could isolate madness, it was not because he knew it, but because he mastered it; and what lor positivism would be an image of objectivity was only the other side of this domination" Histoire de lafolie, p. 525; Madness and Civilisation, p. 272.
10. "Entretien avec Michel Foucault" Dits el Ecrils, vol. 3, p. 146; English translation, "Truth and Power" trans. Colin Gordon, Essential Works of Foucault, 3, p. 117.
11. "Theories et institutions penales" Dits el Ecrits, vol. 2, p. 390; English translation, "Penal Theories and Institutions" trans. Robert Hurley, The Essential Works of Michel Foucault, 1954-1984, vol. 1: Ethics: subjectivity and truth, ed. Paul Rabinow, trans. Robert Hurley and others (New York: The New Press, 1997) p. 17.
12. Michel Foucault, Les Anormaux. Cours au College de France, 1974-1975, ed. V. Marchetti and A. Saomoni (Paris: Gallimard/Seuil, 1999) pp. 16 20 and pp. 143-144; English translation, Abnormal. Lectures at the College de France 1974-1975, ed. Valerio Marchetti and Antonella Salomoni, English series ed. Arnold I. Davidson, trans. Graham Burchell (New York: Picador, 2003) pp. 16-21 and pp. 154 156.
13. "Les rapports de pouvoir passent a l'interieur des corps" Dits et Ecrits, vol. 3, p. 229-
14. "Entretien avec Michel Foucault" p. 140; "Truth and Power" p. 111.
15. See above, "Course Summary. "
16. L. Bonnafe, "Sources du desalienisme" in Desaliener? Folie(s) et Societe(s) (Toulouse: Presses universitaires du Mirail/Privat, 1991) p. 221.
17. Esprit, 20th year, December 1952, "Misere de la psychiatric La vie asilaire. Attitudes de la societe (Textes de malades, de medecins, d'un infirmier, denoncanl la vie asilaire chroni- cisante, la surpopulation, le reglement modele de 1838). " Foucault refers to this "remarkable number of Esprit" in Maladie mentale et Personnalite, p. 109, n. 1.
? 18. An allusion to the cases of arbitrary confinement, the most famous cases of which arc those
of General Gngorenko, arrested in February 1964 under the charge of anti Soviet activi- ties and confined in the Serbski Institute in Moscow, and Vladimir Borissov, confined in the special psychiatric hospital of Leningrad--for the liberation of whom a campaign was led by Victor Fainberg, supported by some intellectuals including David Cooper and Michel Foucault. See, "Enlermement, psychiatrie, prison" Dits et Ecrits, vol. 3, pp. 332 360. There was also the confinement ol the dissident Wladimir Boukovski in autumn 1971. See W. Boukovski, Une nouvc/le maladie mentale en URSS: /'opposition (Paris: Le Seuil, 1971).
19- T. Laine, "Une psychiatrie differente pour le malaise a vivre," La Nouvelle Critique, no. 59, December 1972; reprinted in the Editions de la Nouvelle Critique, April 1973, pp. 23 36.
20. "Entretien avec Michel Foucault (Conversazione con Michel Foucault)" Dits et Ecrits, vol. 4, p. 61; English translation, "Interview with Michel Foucault" trans. Robert Hurley, Essential Works of Foucault, 3, p. 260 [English translation slightly amended; G. B. j.
21. "Michel Foucault. Les reponses du philosophe" Dits et Ecrits, vol. 2, p. 813-
22. In April 1970 a journal o( the extreme left had already appeared which sought to struggle
against "class psychiatry," Cahiers pour lafolie, a special issue of which, Cles pour Henri Colin, June 1973, was devoted to the security unit for difficult patients ol the Villejuif psychiatric
hospital. The journal Marge devoted its April May 1970 issue to this "rottenness ofpsychiatry. " In November 1973 a pamphlet appeared entitled: Psychiatrie: la peur change de camp, and in December 1973 number O of Psychiatrie el Lutle de classe appeared which put itself forward as "a site of theoretical development for the formation ol slogans promoting a revolutionary con sciousness ol 'social' workers in connection with the battle of the working class" (p. 1). On the role of the "young psychiatrists" see "Entretien avec Michel Foucault" Dits el Ecrits, vol. 4, p. 60; "Interview with Michel Foucault," Essential Works oj Foucault, 3, pp. 259 260.
23. Des infirmiers psychiatriques prennent la parole (Paris: Capedith, 1974).
24. M. Burton and R. Gentis, La psychiatrie doit etrefaite/defaitepar lous (Paris: Maspero, 1973).
25. "Le monde est un grand asile" Dits et Ecrits, vol. 2, p. 433.
26. Maladie menlale el Psychologie, p. 2; Mental Illness and Psychology, p. 2.
27. Histoire de lafolie, p. 40 (omitted from the English translation).
28. "Le jeu de Michel Foucault" Dits et Ecrits, vol. 3, p.
299; abridged English translation "The Confession of the Flesh," trans. Colin Gordon, in M. Foucault, Power/Knowledge. Selected Interviews and Other Writings 1972-1977, ed. Colin Gordon, trans. Colin Gordon and others (Brighton: Harvester Press, 1980) p. 194. In an unpublished interview with Paul Patton and Colin Gordon of 3 April 1978, Foucault says: "What I study is an architecture. "
29. See above, lecture of 7 November 1973, pp. 14-15.
30. Histoire de lafolie, p. 26; Madness and Civilisation, p. 16.
31. See above, lecture of 6 February 1974, p. 308, where Foucault marks the difference between his problematic and that ol the Anglo-Saxon and Italian anti psychiatry movements that, taking as their target the "violence" exercised by society in general and psychiatry in particular, model themselves on the paradigmatic figure of the "schizophrenic" who, refus- ing to constitute an alienated "lalse self" subservient to social demands, tears off the masks of this everyday violence, and thanks to which, as R. D. Laing says, "the light began to break through the cracks in our all too-closed minds"; R. D. Laing, The Politics of Experience and the Bird of Paradise (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1967) p. 107; French translation, La Politique de Vexperience. Essai sur I'alienation et I'Oiseau de Paradis, trans. Cl. Elsen (Paris: Stock, 1969), p. 89. See the works of David Cooper: (1) Psychiatry and Antipsychiatry (London: Tavistock Publications, 1967); French translation, Psychiatrie et Anti-psychiatrie,
trans. M. Braudeau (Paris: Le Seuil, 1970); ( 2 ) with R. D. Laing, Reason and Violence (London: Tavistock Publications, 1964); French translation, Raison et Violence. Dix ans de la philosophic de Sartre (1950-1960), trans. J. -P. Cottereau, Avant propos by
J. -P. Sartre (Paris: Payot, 1972). See also F. Basaglia and others, "L'Istituzione negata. Rapporto da un ospedale psichiatrico," in Nuovo Politecnico, vol. 19, Turin, 1968; French translation, F. Basaglia, ed. , L'Institution en negation. Rapport su I'hopital psychiatrique de Gon'^ia, trans. I. Bonalumi (Paris: Le Seuil, 1970).
32. "Pouvoir et savoir" Dits et Ecrits, vol. 3, p. 414.
33- L. Bonnafe, "Le milieu hospitalier au point de vue psychotherapique, ou Theorie et
pratique de I'hopital psychiatrique," La Raison, no. 17,1958, p. 7.
Course Context 365
? 366 PSYCHIATRIC POWER
34- L. Bonnaie, "De la doctrine post-esquirolienne. I. Problemes generaux," Information psychialrique, vol. 1, no. 4, April 1960, p. 423. The reference is to J. E. D. Esquirol, "Memoires, statistiques et hygieniques sur la folie. Preambule," in Des maladies mentaks,
considerees sous les rapports medical, hygienique et medico-legal (Paris: J. B. Bailliere, 1838),
vol. 2, p. 398.
35- L. Bonnafe, "Conclusions des journees psychiatriques de mars 1945," Information
36.
37.
38.
39. 40. 41.
psychialrique, 22ml year, no. 2, October 1945, p. 19.
L. Bonnafe, "De la doctrine post esquirolienne, II. Examples appliques," Information
psychialrique, vol. 1, no. 5, May 1960, p. 580: "The pivot of the service is no longer the asylum, but the town, at the heart of the territory in which the psychiatrist's Junction is exercised, extended to the protection of mental health. "
[aj H. Torrubia, "Analyse et interpretation du transfert en therapeutique institutionelle," Revue de psychotherapie institutionelle, vol. 1, 1965, pp. 83 90. [bj J. Oury, [t| "Dialectique du fantasme, du transfert et du passage a l'acte dans la psychotherapie institutionelle," Cercle d'eludes psychiatriques (Paris: Laboratoire Specia, 1968); [n] "Psychotherapie institutionelle: transfert et espace du dire" Information psychiatrique, vol. 59, no. 3, March 1983, pp. 413-423. | c | J. Ayme, Ph. Rappard, H. Torrubia, "Therapeutique institutionelle," Encyclopedic medico-psychiatrique. Psychiatrie, vol. 3, October 1964, col. 37 930, G. 10, pp. 1-12. On the La Borde clinic, see the special issue of the review Recherches, no. 21, March April 1976: Histoires de La Borde. Dix ans de psychotherapie institutionelle a la clinique de Cour-Cheverny, complement, p. 19.
F. Tosquelles, "La problematique du pouvoir dans les collectifs de soins psychiatriques," La Nef 281'1year,no. 42,January March,1971:L'Antipsychiatrie,p. 98.
He stated this in an intervention at the University ol Vincennes on 5 February 1971: "Personally, I do not accept the label anti-psychiatrist. " (Personal notes; J. L. )
On the Italian movement, see: [a| F. Basaglia, [1] ed. , Che cos'e la psichiatria? (Turin: Einaudi, 1973); French translation, Qu'esl<e qu la psychiatrie? trans. R. Maggiori (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1977); [ii | "L'Istituzione negata. Rapporto da un ospedale psichiatrico"; Vlnslilution en negation. Rapport su Vhopital psychiatrique de Gori^ia; fiii] "Le rapport de Trieste," in Pratiques de lafolie. Pratiques etfolie (Paris: Ed. Solin, 1981) pp. 5 7 0 . On this current, see also: [ b | G. Jervis, "II Mito dell'Antipsichiatna," Quaderni Piacentini, no. 60 61, October 1976; French translation, Le Mythe de I'antipsychiatrie," trans. B. de Freminville (Paris: ? d. Solin, 1977). [c| R. Castel, "Le ville natale de 'Marco Cavallo,' embleme de I'antipsychiatrie," Critique, no. 435 436, August-September 1983, pp. 628-636. More generally, on anti-psychiatry movements in Europe, see [dj Reseau. Alternative a la
psychiatrie. Collectif international (Paris: Union generale d'Edition, 1977).
F. Basaglia, "L'assistance psychiatrique comme probleme anti-institutionnel: une
experience italienne," Information psychiatrique, vol. 47, no. 2, February 1971: "The tolerant institution, the other face of the violent institution, continues to perform its original func tion without changing its strategic and structural meaning, or the games ol power on which it is based. "
F. Basaglia, "Les institutions de la violence," in Vinstitution en negation, p. 137.
The works of English anti-psychiatry began to be translated and known in France follow- ing a colloquium organized in 1967 in Paris by the Federation des groupes d'Etudes et de Recherches institutionnelles (FGERI), to which Cooper and Laing were invited. See [aj
R. Castel, La Gestion des risques. De Vantipsychiatrie a Vapres-psychanalyse, 1 ? "Grandeurs et servitudes contestaires" (Paris: Ed. de Minuit, 1981) pp. 19 33. fb] J. Postel and D. F. Allen, "History and anti-psychiatry in France" in M. Micale and R. Porter, eds. Discovering the History of Psychiatry (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994) pp. 384 414. [c) Recherches special issue Enfance alienee, vol. 2, December 1968 in which there are contributions from D. Cooper, "Alienation mentale et alienation sociale" pp. 48-50, and
R. Laing, "Metanoia. Some experiences at Kingsley Hall" pp. 51-57.
"A more radical questioning led some of us to put forward conceptions and procedures that seem to be absolutely opposed to traditional conceptions and procedures, and which can in fact be considered as the germ of an anti-psychiatry" David Cooper, Psychiatrie et Anti-
psychialrie, p. 9. (This passage does not appear in the original English, Psychiatry and Anti-Psychiatry. }
42.
43- 44.
45-
? 46. 47.
R. D. Laing, The Politics of Experience, pp. 105 6; La politique de ['experience, p. 88.
Report on the activity of the Philadelphia Association (1965-1967), quoted in the article by G. Baillon, "Introduction a l'antipsychiatrie," La Nef, 28lh year, no. 42, January May 1971: L'Anti-Psychiatrie, p. 23. This is why, in his contribution, "Histoire de la folie et antipsychi atrie," to the colloquium at Montreal organized by H. Ellenberger on 9 May 1973: "Faul
d interner les psychiatres? "--to which he refers in "Michel Foucault: An Interview by Stephen Riggins" Essential Works of Foucault, vol. 1, pp. 131-132; French translation, "Une interview de Michel Foucault par Stephen Riggins" trans. F. Durand-Bogaert, Dits et Ecrits, vol. 4, pp. 536 537--he could say: "In the form of anti-psychiatry practiced by Laing and Cooper, it is a question of the de medicalization of the space in which madness is pro- duced. Consequently, it is an anti psychiatry in which the power relationship is reduced to zero. This de medicalization implies not only an institutional reorganization of psychiatric establishments; it is undoubtedly more than a simple epistemological break; the question should perhaps be posed more in terms of an ethnological break than o( a political revolution. Maybe it is not just our economic system, or even our present form of rationalism, but the whole of our immense social rationality as it has been woven historically since the Greeks that reluses today to recognize, at the very heart of our society, an experience of madness that may be a test of truth not under the control oi medical power" (typescript p.
However, when we approach the psychiatric apparatus by reference to the mechanisms of power that organize it, it is the hysteric who, by laying the "trap" of the lie for a doctor like Charcot armed with the highest medical knowledge, paradigmatically portrays the militant underside of psychiatric power. 57 This is why, in Foucault's view, the hysteric deserves the title of the first "militant of anti-psychiatry," as he puts it in the lecture of 23 January 1974, since, by her "maneuvers," she challenges the doctor's role of "responsibility for producing the truth of illness within the hospital space. "5 Foucault can also declare in his contribution to a colloquium organized by Henri Ellenberger in May 1973: "The age of anti-psychiatry began when one suspected, and then, soon afterwards, was sure, that Charcot, the great master of mad- ness, the person who made it appear and disappear, was not the person who produced the truth of the illness, but the one who fabricated its artifice. "59
Now, this power to which the lectures are devoted has a double char- acteristic. In the final instance its point of application is bodies: their distribution in the asylum space, their ways of behaving, their needs,
? 362 PSYCHIA TRIC POWER
their pleasures; in short, it is a power "commanded by all the disposi tions of a kind of microphysics of bodies. " Moreover, the relations of power installed between the psychiatrist and his patient are fundamen- tally unstable, constituted by struggles and confrontations in which points of resistance are present at every moment. This is the case with these "counter maneuvers" by which the hysterics shake Charcot's power, escaping the categorizations to which he wanted to assign them, thereby giving a new impetus to the apparatus of medical power- knowledge on the basis of these resistances, to the point that, Foucault says, "a crisis" is opened up "that had to lead to anti-psychiatry. "60
4. 2. Knowledge and truth. As the lecture of 5 December 1973 recalls, "as a disciplinary system, the asylum is also a site for the formation of a certain type of discourse of truth. " Hence the analyses of the ways in which apparatuses of power and games of truth are articulated. This is the case for the "proto-psychiatric" modality, in which a game is orga- nized around the delirious conviction, within the regime of a "test" in which the doctor is posed as the ambiguous master of reality and truth, or, on the other hand, a game in which the question of truth no longer arises in the confrontation of doctor and patient, since it is now only posed within psychiatric power established as medical science. In this mode of analysis we can see that truth is called upon less as an intrinsic property of statements than at the level of its functionality, through the legitimation it provides for the discourses and practices on the basis of which psychiatric power organizes its exercise, and by the mode of exclusion it authorizes.
4. 3. Subjection (assujettissement). The therapist who approaches the individual to be treated from the outside, at the same time as he resorts to procedures that enable him to extract from this individual his inner subjectivity--questioning, anamnesis, etcetera--puts the subject in the position of having to interiorize the orders and norms imposed on him. In the lecture of 21 November 1973, the problem is also broached from the angle of the modes of subjection that make the subject appear as a complex and variable "function" of regimes of truth and discursive practices.
However, these lectures, which sought to give a sequel, on new bases, to Histoire de lafolie, will remain without future. For, in these years,
? circumstances are such as to give preference to participation in effective action, instead of, as Foucault says, the "scribbling of books. " Thus, from 1972 he recognized that "writing today a sequel to my Histoire de lafolie, which would continue up to the present, is for me without interest. On the other hand, a concrete political action in favor of prisoners seems to me to be highly meaningful. "61 However, at the same time, Foucault was preparing Discipline and Punish. Birth of the Prison.
Course Context 363
? 364 PSYCHIATRIC POWER
1. Michel Foucault, Histoire de la folie a I'dge dassique (Paris: Gallimard, 2ml edition, 1972) p. 541. This is omitted from the abridged English translation: Michel Foucault, Madness and Civilisation. A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason, trans. Richard Howard (New York: Random House, 1965 and London: Tavistock, 1967).
2. Michel Foucault, "Usage des plaisirs et techniques de soi," in Dits et Ecrits, 1954-1988, ed. D. Defert and F. Ewald, with the collaboration of J. Lagrange (Paris: Gallimard, 1994) vol. 4, p. 545; English translation, "Introduction," The Use of Pleasure. The History of Sexuality, vol. 2, trans. Robert Hurley (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985) p. 11.
3. Michel Foucault, Maladie mentale et Personnalite (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1954) and the modified version of this, Maladie mentale et Psychologie (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1962); English translation, Mental Illness and Psychology, trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Harper and Row, 1976).
4. Michel Foucault, "Preface" to Folie et Deraison. Histoire de lafolie a /'age dassique (Paris: Plon, 1961) p. vii (omitted from the French 1972 edition and from the English translation); reprinted in Dits et Ecrits, vol. 1, p. 192.
5. "Course summary," above, p. 345-
6. That is, its specificity in relation to both earlier and later studies of the history of
psychiatry. See in particular, E. H. Ackerknecht, A Short History of Psychiatry (New York:
Hafner, 1968).
7. Thus, Foucault's "Introduction" to L. Bmswanger, Le Reve et I'Existence, trans. J. Verdeaux
(Paris: Desclee de Brouwer, 1954) denounces the tendency of psychiatrists to consider "the illness as an 'objective process,' and the patient as an inert thing in which the process takes place" p. 104. Reprinted in Dits et Ecrits, vol. 1, p. 109; English translation, "Dream, Imagination and Existence. An Introduction to Ludwig Binswanger's Dream and Existence" trans. Forrest Williams, in M. Foucault and Ludwig Binswanger, Dream and Existence, trans. Forrest Williams and Jacob Needleman, ed. Keith Hoeller, Special Issue from Review of Existential Psychology and Psychiatry, vol. XIX, no. 1,1984 85, p. 66.
8. "La verite et les formes juridiques" Dits et Ecrits, vol. 2, p. 644; English translation, "Truth and Juridical Forms" trans. Robert Hurley, The Essential Works of Michel Foucault 1954-1984, Vol. 3: Power, ed. James D. Faubion, trans. Robert Hurley and others (New York: The New
Press, 2 0 0 0 ) . See also the interview with Foucault on Radio France, 8 October 1972, "Punir ou guenr": "I think this historical analysis is politically important inasmuch as it is necessary to locate exactly what one is struggling against. "
9- "If the medical personage could isolate madness, it was not because he knew it, but because he mastered it; and what lor positivism would be an image of objectivity was only the other side of this domination" Histoire de lafolie, p. 525; Madness and Civilisation, p. 272.
10. "Entretien avec Michel Foucault" Dits el Ecrils, vol. 3, p. 146; English translation, "Truth and Power" trans. Colin Gordon, Essential Works of Foucault, 3, p. 117.
11. "Theories et institutions penales" Dits el Ecrits, vol. 2, p. 390; English translation, "Penal Theories and Institutions" trans. Robert Hurley, The Essential Works of Michel Foucault, 1954-1984, vol. 1: Ethics: subjectivity and truth, ed. Paul Rabinow, trans. Robert Hurley and others (New York: The New Press, 1997) p. 17.
12. Michel Foucault, Les Anormaux. Cours au College de France, 1974-1975, ed. V. Marchetti and A. Saomoni (Paris: Gallimard/Seuil, 1999) pp. 16 20 and pp. 143-144; English translation, Abnormal. Lectures at the College de France 1974-1975, ed. Valerio Marchetti and Antonella Salomoni, English series ed. Arnold I. Davidson, trans. Graham Burchell (New York: Picador, 2003) pp. 16-21 and pp. 154 156.
13. "Les rapports de pouvoir passent a l'interieur des corps" Dits et Ecrits, vol. 3, p. 229-
14. "Entretien avec Michel Foucault" p. 140; "Truth and Power" p. 111.
15. See above, "Course Summary. "
16. L. Bonnafe, "Sources du desalienisme" in Desaliener? Folie(s) et Societe(s) (Toulouse: Presses universitaires du Mirail/Privat, 1991) p. 221.
17. Esprit, 20th year, December 1952, "Misere de la psychiatric La vie asilaire. Attitudes de la societe (Textes de malades, de medecins, d'un infirmier, denoncanl la vie asilaire chroni- cisante, la surpopulation, le reglement modele de 1838). " Foucault refers to this "remarkable number of Esprit" in Maladie mentale et Personnalite, p. 109, n. 1.
? 18. An allusion to the cases of arbitrary confinement, the most famous cases of which arc those
of General Gngorenko, arrested in February 1964 under the charge of anti Soviet activi- ties and confined in the Serbski Institute in Moscow, and Vladimir Borissov, confined in the special psychiatric hospital of Leningrad--for the liberation of whom a campaign was led by Victor Fainberg, supported by some intellectuals including David Cooper and Michel Foucault. See, "Enlermement, psychiatrie, prison" Dits et Ecrits, vol. 3, pp. 332 360. There was also the confinement ol the dissident Wladimir Boukovski in autumn 1971. See W. Boukovski, Une nouvc/le maladie mentale en URSS: /'opposition (Paris: Le Seuil, 1971).
19- T. Laine, "Une psychiatrie differente pour le malaise a vivre," La Nouvelle Critique, no. 59, December 1972; reprinted in the Editions de la Nouvelle Critique, April 1973, pp. 23 36.
20. "Entretien avec Michel Foucault (Conversazione con Michel Foucault)" Dits et Ecrits, vol. 4, p. 61; English translation, "Interview with Michel Foucault" trans. Robert Hurley, Essential Works of Foucault, 3, p. 260 [English translation slightly amended; G. B. j.
21. "Michel Foucault. Les reponses du philosophe" Dits et Ecrits, vol. 2, p. 813-
22. In April 1970 a journal o( the extreme left had already appeared which sought to struggle
against "class psychiatry," Cahiers pour lafolie, a special issue of which, Cles pour Henri Colin, June 1973, was devoted to the security unit for difficult patients ol the Villejuif psychiatric
hospital. The journal Marge devoted its April May 1970 issue to this "rottenness ofpsychiatry. " In November 1973 a pamphlet appeared entitled: Psychiatrie: la peur change de camp, and in December 1973 number O of Psychiatrie el Lutle de classe appeared which put itself forward as "a site of theoretical development for the formation ol slogans promoting a revolutionary con sciousness ol 'social' workers in connection with the battle of the working class" (p. 1). On the role of the "young psychiatrists" see "Entretien avec Michel Foucault" Dits el Ecrits, vol. 4, p. 60; "Interview with Michel Foucault," Essential Works oj Foucault, 3, pp. 259 260.
23. Des infirmiers psychiatriques prennent la parole (Paris: Capedith, 1974).
24. M. Burton and R. Gentis, La psychiatrie doit etrefaite/defaitepar lous (Paris: Maspero, 1973).
25. "Le monde est un grand asile" Dits et Ecrits, vol. 2, p. 433.
26. Maladie menlale el Psychologie, p. 2; Mental Illness and Psychology, p. 2.
27. Histoire de lafolie, p. 40 (omitted from the English translation).
28. "Le jeu de Michel Foucault" Dits et Ecrits, vol. 3, p.
299; abridged English translation "The Confession of the Flesh," trans. Colin Gordon, in M. Foucault, Power/Knowledge. Selected Interviews and Other Writings 1972-1977, ed. Colin Gordon, trans. Colin Gordon and others (Brighton: Harvester Press, 1980) p. 194. In an unpublished interview with Paul Patton and Colin Gordon of 3 April 1978, Foucault says: "What I study is an architecture. "
29. See above, lecture of 7 November 1973, pp. 14-15.
30. Histoire de lafolie, p. 26; Madness and Civilisation, p. 16.
31. See above, lecture of 6 February 1974, p. 308, where Foucault marks the difference between his problematic and that ol the Anglo-Saxon and Italian anti psychiatry movements that, taking as their target the "violence" exercised by society in general and psychiatry in particular, model themselves on the paradigmatic figure of the "schizophrenic" who, refus- ing to constitute an alienated "lalse self" subservient to social demands, tears off the masks of this everyday violence, and thanks to which, as R. D. Laing says, "the light began to break through the cracks in our all too-closed minds"; R. D. Laing, The Politics of Experience and the Bird of Paradise (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1967) p. 107; French translation, La Politique de Vexperience. Essai sur I'alienation et I'Oiseau de Paradis, trans. Cl. Elsen (Paris: Stock, 1969), p. 89. See the works of David Cooper: (1) Psychiatry and Antipsychiatry (London: Tavistock Publications, 1967); French translation, Psychiatrie et Anti-psychiatrie,
trans. M. Braudeau (Paris: Le Seuil, 1970); ( 2 ) with R. D. Laing, Reason and Violence (London: Tavistock Publications, 1964); French translation, Raison et Violence. Dix ans de la philosophic de Sartre (1950-1960), trans. J. -P. Cottereau, Avant propos by
J. -P. Sartre (Paris: Payot, 1972). See also F. Basaglia and others, "L'Istituzione negata. Rapporto da un ospedale psichiatrico," in Nuovo Politecnico, vol. 19, Turin, 1968; French translation, F. Basaglia, ed. , L'Institution en negation. Rapport su I'hopital psychiatrique de Gon'^ia, trans. I. Bonalumi (Paris: Le Seuil, 1970).
32. "Pouvoir et savoir" Dits et Ecrits, vol. 3, p. 414.
33- L. Bonnafe, "Le milieu hospitalier au point de vue psychotherapique, ou Theorie et
pratique de I'hopital psychiatrique," La Raison, no. 17,1958, p. 7.
Course Context 365
? 366 PSYCHIATRIC POWER
34- L. Bonnaie, "De la doctrine post-esquirolienne. I. Problemes generaux," Information psychialrique, vol. 1, no. 4, April 1960, p. 423. The reference is to J. E. D. Esquirol, "Memoires, statistiques et hygieniques sur la folie. Preambule," in Des maladies mentaks,
considerees sous les rapports medical, hygienique et medico-legal (Paris: J. B. Bailliere, 1838),
vol. 2, p. 398.
35- L. Bonnafe, "Conclusions des journees psychiatriques de mars 1945," Information
36.
37.
38.
39. 40. 41.
psychialrique, 22ml year, no. 2, October 1945, p. 19.
L. Bonnafe, "De la doctrine post esquirolienne, II. Examples appliques," Information
psychialrique, vol. 1, no. 5, May 1960, p. 580: "The pivot of the service is no longer the asylum, but the town, at the heart of the territory in which the psychiatrist's Junction is exercised, extended to the protection of mental health. "
[aj H. Torrubia, "Analyse et interpretation du transfert en therapeutique institutionelle," Revue de psychotherapie institutionelle, vol. 1, 1965, pp. 83 90. [bj J. Oury, [t| "Dialectique du fantasme, du transfert et du passage a l'acte dans la psychotherapie institutionelle," Cercle d'eludes psychiatriques (Paris: Laboratoire Specia, 1968); [n] "Psychotherapie institutionelle: transfert et espace du dire" Information psychiatrique, vol. 59, no. 3, March 1983, pp. 413-423. | c | J. Ayme, Ph. Rappard, H. Torrubia, "Therapeutique institutionelle," Encyclopedic medico-psychiatrique. Psychiatrie, vol. 3, October 1964, col. 37 930, G. 10, pp. 1-12. On the La Borde clinic, see the special issue of the review Recherches, no. 21, March April 1976: Histoires de La Borde. Dix ans de psychotherapie institutionelle a la clinique de Cour-Cheverny, complement, p. 19.
F. Tosquelles, "La problematique du pouvoir dans les collectifs de soins psychiatriques," La Nef 281'1year,no. 42,January March,1971:L'Antipsychiatrie,p. 98.
He stated this in an intervention at the University ol Vincennes on 5 February 1971: "Personally, I do not accept the label anti-psychiatrist. " (Personal notes; J. L. )
On the Italian movement, see: [a| F. Basaglia, [1] ed. , Che cos'e la psichiatria? (Turin: Einaudi, 1973); French translation, Qu'esl<e qu la psychiatrie? trans. R. Maggiori (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1977); [ii | "L'Istituzione negata. Rapporto da un ospedale psichiatrico"; Vlnslilution en negation. Rapport su Vhopital psychiatrique de Gori^ia; fiii] "Le rapport de Trieste," in Pratiques de lafolie. Pratiques etfolie (Paris: Ed. Solin, 1981) pp. 5 7 0 . On this current, see also: [ b | G. Jervis, "II Mito dell'Antipsichiatna," Quaderni Piacentini, no. 60 61, October 1976; French translation, Le Mythe de I'antipsychiatrie," trans. B. de Freminville (Paris: ? d. Solin, 1977). [c| R. Castel, "Le ville natale de 'Marco Cavallo,' embleme de I'antipsychiatrie," Critique, no. 435 436, August-September 1983, pp. 628-636. More generally, on anti-psychiatry movements in Europe, see [dj Reseau. Alternative a la
psychiatrie. Collectif international (Paris: Union generale d'Edition, 1977).
F. Basaglia, "L'assistance psychiatrique comme probleme anti-institutionnel: une
experience italienne," Information psychiatrique, vol. 47, no. 2, February 1971: "The tolerant institution, the other face of the violent institution, continues to perform its original func tion without changing its strategic and structural meaning, or the games ol power on which it is based. "
F. Basaglia, "Les institutions de la violence," in Vinstitution en negation, p. 137.
The works of English anti-psychiatry began to be translated and known in France follow- ing a colloquium organized in 1967 in Paris by the Federation des groupes d'Etudes et de Recherches institutionnelles (FGERI), to which Cooper and Laing were invited. See [aj
R. Castel, La Gestion des risques. De Vantipsychiatrie a Vapres-psychanalyse, 1 ? "Grandeurs et servitudes contestaires" (Paris: Ed. de Minuit, 1981) pp. 19 33. fb] J. Postel and D. F. Allen, "History and anti-psychiatry in France" in M. Micale and R. Porter, eds. Discovering the History of Psychiatry (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994) pp. 384 414. [c) Recherches special issue Enfance alienee, vol. 2, December 1968 in which there are contributions from D. Cooper, "Alienation mentale et alienation sociale" pp. 48-50, and
R. Laing, "Metanoia. Some experiences at Kingsley Hall" pp. 51-57.
"A more radical questioning led some of us to put forward conceptions and procedures that seem to be absolutely opposed to traditional conceptions and procedures, and which can in fact be considered as the germ of an anti-psychiatry" David Cooper, Psychiatrie et Anti-
psychialrie, p. 9. (This passage does not appear in the original English, Psychiatry and Anti-Psychiatry. }
42.
43- 44.
45-
? 46. 47.
R. D. Laing, The Politics of Experience, pp. 105 6; La politique de ['experience, p. 88.
Report on the activity of the Philadelphia Association (1965-1967), quoted in the article by G. Baillon, "Introduction a l'antipsychiatrie," La Nef, 28lh year, no. 42, January May 1971: L'Anti-Psychiatrie, p. 23. This is why, in his contribution, "Histoire de la folie et antipsychi atrie," to the colloquium at Montreal organized by H. Ellenberger on 9 May 1973: "Faul
d interner les psychiatres? "--to which he refers in "Michel Foucault: An Interview by Stephen Riggins" Essential Works of Foucault, vol. 1, pp. 131-132; French translation, "Une interview de Michel Foucault par Stephen Riggins" trans. F. Durand-Bogaert, Dits et Ecrits, vol. 4, pp. 536 537--he could say: "In the form of anti-psychiatry practiced by Laing and Cooper, it is a question of the de medicalization of the space in which madness is pro- duced. Consequently, it is an anti psychiatry in which the power relationship is reduced to zero. This de medicalization implies not only an institutional reorganization of psychiatric establishments; it is undoubtedly more than a simple epistemological break; the question should perhaps be posed more in terms of an ethnological break than o( a political revolution. Maybe it is not just our economic system, or even our present form of rationalism, but the whole of our immense social rationality as it has been woven historically since the Greeks that reluses today to recognize, at the very heart of our society, an experience of madness that may be a test of truth not under the control oi medical power" (typescript p.
