Words go beyond themselves; and just as the old geography is done for, the high and the low [words] do not allow
diversion
either toward heaven or toward earth .
Sartre-Jean-Paul-What-is-literature¿-Introducing-Les-Temps-modernes-The-nationalization-of-literature-Black-orpheus
But even though oppression itself may be a mere
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fluke, the circumstances under which it exists vary according to history and geographic conditions: the black man is a victim of it because he is a black man and insofar as he is a colonized native or a deported African. And since he is oppressed within the confines of his race and because of it, he must first of all become conscious of his race. He must oblige those who have vainly tried throughout the centuries to reduce him to the status of a beast, to recognize that he is a man. On this point, there is no means of evasion, or of trickery, no "crossing line" that he can consider: a Jew--a white man among white men--can deny that he is a Jew, can declare himself a man among men. The Negro cannot deny that he is Negro, nor can he claim that he is part of some abstract colorless humanity: he is black. Thus he has his back up against the wall of authenticity: having been insulted and formerly enslaved, he picks up the word "nigger" which was thrown at him like a stone, he draws himself erect and proudly proclaims himself a black man, face to face with white men. The unity which will come eventually, bringing all oppressed
peoples together in the same struggle, must be preceded in the colonies by what I shall call the moment of separation or negativity: this antiracist racism is the only road that will lead to the abolition of racial differences. How could it be otherwise? Can black men count on a distant white proletariat--involved in its own struggles--before they are united and organized on their own soil? And furthermore, isn't there some need for a thorough work of analysis in order to realize the identity of the interests that underlie the obvious difference of condition? The white worker benefits somewhat from colonization, in spite of himself: low as his standard of living may be, it would be even lower if there were no colonization. In any case, he is less cynically exploited than the day laborer in Dakar or Saint-Louis. The technical equipment and industrialization of the European countries make it possible for measures of socialization to be immediately applicable there; but as seen from Senegal or the Congo, socialism seems more than
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anything else like a beautiful dream: before black peasants can discover that socialism is the necessary answer to their present local claims, they must learn to formulate these claims jointly; therefore, they must think of themselves as black men.
But this new self-discovery is different from that which Marxism tries to awaken in the white worker. In the European worker, class consciousness is based on the nature of profit and unearned increment, on the present conditions of the ownership of the instruments for work; in brief, it is based on the objective characteristics of the position of the proletariat. But since the selfish scorn that white men display for black men--and that has no equivalent in the attitude of the bourgeois toward the working class--is aimed at the deepest recesses of the heart, black men must oppose it with a more exact view of black subjectivity, consequently race consciousness is based first of all on the black soul, or, rather--since the term is often used in this anthology--on a certain quality common to the thoughts and conduct of Negroes which is called ne? gritude. There are only two ways to go about forming racial concepts: either one causes certain subjective characteristics to become objective, or else one tries to interiorize objectively revealed manners of conduct; thus the black man who asserts his ne? gritude by means of a revolutionary movement immedi- ately places himself in the position of having to meditate, either because he wishes to recognize in himself certain objectively established traits of the African civilizations, or because he hopes to discover the Essence of blackness in the well of his heart. Thus subjectivity reappears: the relation of the self with self; the source of all poetry, the very poe- try from which the worker had to disengage himself. The black man who asks his colored brothers to "find them- selves" is going to try to present to them an exemplary image of their ne? gritude and will look into his own soul to grasp it. He wants to be both a beacon and a mirror; the first revolutionary will be the harbinger of the black soul, the herald--half prophet and half follower--who will
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tear Blackness out of himself in order to offer it to the world; in brief, he will be a poet in the literal sense of vates. Furthermore, black poetry has nothing in common with heartfelt effusions: it is functional, it answers a need which is defined in precise terms. Leaf through an anthology of contemporary white poetry: you will find a hundred different subjects, depending upon the mood and interests of the poet, depending upon his position and his country. In the anthology which I am introducing to you here, there is only one subject that all the poets attempt to treat, more or less successfully. From Haiti to Cayenne, there is a single idea: reveal the black soul. Biack poetry is evangelic, it announces
good news: Blackness has been rediscovered.
However, this ne? gritude, which they wish to fish for in
their abyssal depths, does not fall under the soul's gaze all by itself: in the soul, nothing is gratuitous. The herald of the black soul has gone through white schools, in accordance with a brazen law which forbids the oppressed man to possess any arms except those he himself has stolen from the oppressor; it is through having had some contact with white culture that his blackness has passed from the immediacy of existence to the meditative state. But at the same time, he has more or less ceased to live his ne? gritude. In choosing to see what he is, he has become split, he no longer coincides with himself. And on the other hand, it is because he was already exiled from himself that he discovered this need to reveal himself. He therefore begins by exile. It is a double exile: the exile of his body offers a magnificent image of the exile of his heart; he is in Europe most of the time, in the cold, in the middle of gray crowds; he dreams of Port-au-Prince, of Haiti. But in Port-au-Prince he was already in exile; the slavers had torn his fathers out of Africa and dispersed them. And all of the
poems in this book--except those which were written in Africa--show us the same mystical geography. A hemisphere: in the foreground--forming the first of three concentric circles--extends the land of exile, colorless Europe; then comes the dazzling circle of the Islands and of
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childhood, which dance the roundelay around Africa; the last circle is Africa, the world's navel, pole of all black poetry--dazzling Africa, burnt, oily like a snake's skin, Africa of fire and rain, torrid and tufted; Africa--phantom flickering like a flame, between being and nothingness, more real than the "eternal boulevards with cops" but absent, beyond attainment, disintegrating Europe with its black but invisible rays; Africa, an imaginary continent. The extraordinary good luck of black poetry lies in the fact that the anxieties of the colonized native have their own grandiose and obvious symbols which need only to be gone into deeply and to be meditated upon: exile, slavery, the Africa-Europe couple and the great Manichaean division of the world into black and white. This ancestral bodily exile represents the other exile: the black soul is an Africa from which the Negro, in the midst of the cold buildings of white culture and technics, is exiled. And ever-present but concealed ne? gritude haunts him, rubs against him; he himself rubs up against its silky wing; it palpitates
and is spread throughout him like his searching memory and his loftiest demands, like his shrouded, betrayed child- hood, and like the childhood of his race and the call of the earth, like the swarming of insects and the indivisible sim- plicity of Nature, like the pure legacy of his ancestors, and like the Ethics that ought to unify his truncated life. But if he turns around to look squarely at his ne? gritude, it vanishes in smoke; the walls of white culture--its silence, its words, its mores--rise up between it and him:
Give me back my black dolls, so that I may play with them My instinct's simple games
that I may remain in the shadow of its laws
cover up my courage
my audacity
feel me as me
me renewed through what I was yesterday
yesterday
without complexity
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yesterday
when the uprooting hour came . . .
they have ransacked the space that was mine
However, the walls of this culture prison must be broken down; it will be necessary to return to Africa some day: thus the themes of return to the native country and of re-descent into the glaring hell of the black soul are indissolubly mixed up in the vates of ne? gritude. A quest is involved here, a systematic stripping and anasce`se* accompanied by a continual effort of investigation. And I shall call this poetry "Orphic" because the Negro's tireless descent into himself makes me think of Orpheus going to claim Eurydice from Pluto. Thus, through an exceptional stroke of poetic good luck, it is by letting himself fall into trances, by rolling on the ground like a possessed man tormented by himself, by singing of his angers, his regrets, or his hates, by exhibiting his wounds, his life torn between "civilization" and his old black substratum; in short, by becoming most lyrical, that the black poet is most certain of creating a great collective poetry. By speaking only of himself, he speaks for all Negroes; it is when he seems smothered by the serpents of our culture that he is the most revolutionary, for he then undertakes to ruin systematically the European knowledge he has acquired, and this spiritual destruction symbolizes the great future taking-up of arms by which black men will destroy their chains. A single example will suffice to clarify this last remark.
In the twentieth century, most ethnic minorities have passionately endeavored to resuscitate their national languages while struggling for their independence. To be able to say that one is Irish or Hungarian, one must belong to a collectivity which has the benefit of a broad economic and political autonomy; but to be Irish, one must also think Irishy which means above all: think in Irish. The specific traits of a Society correspond exactly to the untranslatable
* The ascetic's movement of interiorization. --Translator.
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locutions of its language. The fact that the prophets of ne? gritude are forced to write their gospel in French means that there is a certain risk of dangerously slowing down the efforts of black men to reject our tutelage. Having been dispersed to the four corners of the earth by the slave trade, black men have no common language; in order to incite the oppressed to unite, they must necessarily rely on the words of the oppressor's language. And French is the language that will furnish the black poet with the largest audience, at least within the limits of French colonization. It is in this goose-pimply language--pale and cold like our skies, and which Mallarme? said was "the neutral language
par excellence, since our spirit demands an attenuation of variegation and of all excessively brilliant color"--in this language which is half dead for them, that Damas, Diop, Laleau, Rabe? arivelo are going to pour the fire of their skies and of their hearts; it is through this language alone that they can communicate; like the sixteenth-century scholars who understood each other only in Latin, black men can meet only on that trap-covered ground that the white man has prepared for them. The colonist has arranged to be the eternal mediator between the colonized; he is there--always there--even when he is absent, even in the most secret meetings. And since words are ideas, when the Negro declares in French that he rejects French culture, he accepts with one hand what he rejects with the other; he sets up the enemy's thinking-apparatus in himself, like a crusher. This would not matter: except that this syntax and vocabulary--forged thousands of miles away in another epoch to answer other needs and to designate other objects--are unsuitable to furnish him with the means of speaking about himself, his own anxieties, his own hopes. The French language and French thought are analytic. What would happen if the black spirit were above all synthetic? The rather ugly term "ne? gritude" is one of the few black contributions to our dictionary. But after all, if this "ne? gritude" is a definable or at least a describable concept, it must subsume other more elementary concepts
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which correspond to the immediate fundamental ideas directly involved with Negro consciousness. But where are the words to describe them? How well one understands the Haitian poet's complaint:
This obsessing heart which does not correspond To my language, or to my customs,
And on which encroach, like a clinging-root, Borrowed feelings and the customs
Of Europe, feel this suffering
And this despair--equal to no other--
Of ever taming with words from France This heart which came to me from Senegal.
It is not true, however, that the black man expresses himself in a "foreign" language, since he is taught French from childhood and since he is perfectly at ease when he thinks in the terms of a technician, of a scholar, or of a politician. Rather, one must speak about the slight but patent difference that separates what he says from what he would like to say, whenever he speaks about himself. It seems to him that a Northern Spirit steals his ideas from him, bends them slightly to mean more or less what he wanted; that white words drink his thoughts as sand drinks blood. If he suddenly gorges himself, if he pulls himself together and takes a step backward, there are the sounds lying prostrate in front of him--strange: half signs and half things. He will not speak his ne? gritude with precise, efficacious words which hit the target every time. He will not speak his ne? gritude in prose. As everyone knows, every
poetic experience has its origin in this feeling of frustration that one has when confronted with a language that is supposed to be a means of direct communication.
The reaction of the speaker frustrated by prose is in effect what Bataille calls the holocaust of words. As long as we can believe that a preestablished harmony governs the relation- ship between a word and Being, we use words without seeing them, with blind trust; they are sensory organs, mouths, hands, windows open on the world. As soon as we experience a first frustration, this chattering falls beyond us;
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we see the whole system, it is no more than an upset, out-of-order mechanism whose arms are still flailing to INDICATE EXISTENCE in emptiness; in one fell swoop we pass judgment on the foolish business of naming things; we understand that language is in essence prose, and that prose is in essence failure; Being stands erect in front of us like a tower of silence, and if we still want to catch it, we can do so only through silence: "evoke, in an intentional shadow, the object tu by allusive words, never direct, reducing themselves to the same silence. "1 No one has better stated that poetry is an incantatory attempt to suggest Being in and by the vibratory disappearance of the word: by insisting on his verbal impotence, by making words mad, the poet makes us suspect that beyond this chaos which cancels itself out, there are silent densities; since we cannot keep quiet, we must make silence with language. From Mallarme? to the Surrealists, the final goal of French poetry seems to me to have been this autodestruction of language. A poem is a dark room where words are knocking themselves about, quite mad. Collisions in the air: they ignite each other with their fire and fall down in flames.
It is in this perspective that we must situate the efforts of the "black evangelists/' They answer the colonist's ruse with a similar but inverse ruse: since the oppressor is present in the very language that they speak, they will speak this language in order to destroy it. The contemporary European poet tries to dehumanize words in order to give them back to nature; the black herald is going to de-Frenchify them; he will crush them, break their usual associations, he will violently couple them
with little steps of caterpillar rain
with little steps like mouthfiils of milk
with little steps like ball-bearings
with little steps like seismic shocks 2 Yams in the soil stride like gaps of stars . . .
Only when they have regurgitated their whiteness does he adopt them, making of this ruined language a solemn,
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sacred super-langauge, Poetry. Only through Poetry can the black men of Tenanarive and of Cayenne, the black men of Port-au-Prince and of Saint-Louis, communicate with each other in private. And since French lacks terms and concepts to define ne? gritude, since ne? gritude is silence, these poets will use "allusive words, never direct, reducing themselves to the same silence'' in order to evoke it. Short-circuits of language: behind the flaming fall of words, we glimpse a great black mute idol. It is not only the black man's self-portrayal that seems poetic to me; it is also his personal way of utilizing the means of expression at his disposal. His position incites him to do it: even before he thinks of writing poetry, in him the light of white words is refracted, polarized, and altered. This is nowhere more manifest than in his use of two connected terms, "white" and "black," that cover both the great cosmic division of day and night
and the human conflict between the native and the colonist. But it is a connection based on a hierarchical system: by giving the Negro this term, the teacher also gives him a hundred language habits which consecrate the white man's rights over the black man. The Negro will learn to say "white like snow" to indicate innocence, to speak of the blackness of a look, of a soul, of a deed. As soon as he opens his mouth, he accuses himself, unless he persists in upset- ting the hierarchy. And if he upsets it in French, he is already poetizing: can you imagine the strange savor that an expression like "the blackness of innocence" or "the darkness of virtue" would have for us? That is the savor which we taste on every page of this book, when, for example, we read:
Your round, shining, black satin breasts . . . this white smile
of eyes
in the face's shadow
awaken in me this evening
deaf rhythms . . .
which intoxicate, there in Guine? e, our sisters
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black and naked
and inspire in me
this evening
black twilights heavy with sensual anxiety for
the soul of the black country where the ancients are sleeping
lives and speaks
this evening
in uneasy strength, along the small of your back . . .
Throughout this poem, black is color; better still, light. Its soft diffuse radiance dissolves our habits; the black country where the ancients are sleeping is not a dark hell: it is a land of sun and fire. Then again, in another connection, the superiority of white over black does not express only the superiority that the colonist claims to have over the native: more profoundly, it expresses a universal adoration of day as well as our night terrors, which also are universal. In this sense, these black men are reestablishing the hiararchy they have just upset. They don't want to be poets of night, poets of vain revolt and despair: they give the promise of dawn; they greet
the transparent dawn of a new day.
At last, the black man discovers, through the pen, his baleful sense of foreboding:
Nigger black like misery
one of them, and then another, cries out:
Deliver me from my blood's night . . .
Thus the word black is found to contain all Evil and all Good; it covers up almost unbearable tension between two contradictory classifications: solar hierarchy and racial hier- archy. It gains thereby an extraordinary poetry, like
? 306 I Black Orpheus
self-destructive objects from the hands of Duchamp and the Surrealists; there is a secret blackness in white, a secret whiteness in black, a vivid flickering of Being and of Nonbeing which is perhaps nowhere expressed as well as in this poem of Ce? saire's:
My tall wounded statue, a stone in its fore- head; my great inattentive dayfleshwith pitiless spots, my great night flesh with day spots.
The poet will go even further. He writes:
Our beautiful faces like the true operative power of negation.
Behind this abstract eloquence evoking Lautre? amont is seen an extremely bold and subtle attempt to give some sense to black skin and to realize the poetic synthesis of the two faces of night. When David Diop says that the Negro is "black like misery," he makes black represent deprivation of light. But Ce? saire develops and goes into this image more deeply: night is no longer absence, it is refusal. Black is not color, it is the destruction of this borrowed clarity which falls from the white sun. The revolutionary Negro is negation because he wishes to be complete nudity: in order to build his Truth, he must first destroy others' Truth. Black faces--these night memories which haunt our days-- embody the dark work of Negativity which patiently gnaws at concepts. Thus, by a reversal which curiously recalls that of the humiliated Negro--insulted and called "dirty nig-
ger" when he asserts his rights--it is the privative aspect of darkness that establishes its value. Liberty is the color of night.
Destructions, autos-da-fe of language, magic symbolism, ambivalence of concepts: all the negative aspects of modern poetry are here. But it is not a matter of some gratuitous game. The black man's position, his original "rending," the
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alienation that a foreign way of thinking imposes on him, all oblige him to reconquer his existential unity as a Negro--or, if you prefer, the original purity of his plan-- through a gradual asce`se, beyond the language stage. Ne? gritude--like liberty--is a point of departure and an ultimate goal: it is a matter of making ne? gritude pass from the immediate to the mediate, a matter of thematicizing it. The black man must therefore find death in white culture in order to be reborn with a black soul, like the Platonic philosopher whose body embraces death in order to be reborn in truth. This dialectical and mystical return to origins necessarily implies a method. But this method is not presented as a set of rules to be used in directing the spirit. Rather, it becomes onewith whoever applies it; it is the dialectical law of successive transformations which lead the Negro to coincidence with himself in ne? gritude. It is not a matter of his knowing, or of his ecstatically tearing himself away from himself, but rather of both discovering and becoming what he is.
There are two convergent means of arriving at this primordial simplicity of existence: one is objective, the other subjective. The poets in our anthology sometimes use one, sometimes the other, and sometimes both of them together. In effect, there exists an objective ne? gritude that is expressed by the mores, arts, chants, and dances of the African populaces. As a spiritual exercise, the poet will prescribe allowing himself to be fascinated by primitive rhythms, letting his thoughts run in traditional forms of black poetry. Many of the poems included here are called tam-tams, because they borrow from the nighttime tambou- rine players a percussive rhythm which is sometimes sharp and regular, sometimes torrential and bounding. The poetic act, then, is a dance of the soul; the poet turns round and round like a dervish until he faints; he has established his ancestors' time in himself, he feels it flowing with its peculiar violent pulls; he hopes to "find" himself in this rhythmic pulsation; I shall say that he tries to make himself "possessed" by his people's ne? gritude; he hopes that the
? 3<D8 I Black Orpheus
echoes of his tam-tam will come to awaken timeless instincts sleeping within him. Upon leafing through this collection, one will get the impression that the tam-tam tends to become & genre of black poetry, just as the sonnet or the ode was a genre of our poetry. Others, like Rabemanan- jara, will be inspired by royal proclamations. Still others will draw from the popular well of the Haintenys. The calm center of this maelstrom of rhythms, chants, shouts, is the poetry of Birago Diop, in all its majestic simplicity: it alone is at rest because it comes directly from Griot narratives and oral tradition. Almost all the other attempts have something contorted, taut, and desperate about them because they aim at becoming a part of folkloric poetry rather than emanating from it. But however far he may be from "the black country where ancestors sleep," the black man is closer than we are to the great period when, as Mallarme? says, "the word creates Gods. " It is partically impossible for our poets to resume some closeness with popular traditons: ten centuries of scholarly poetry separate them from such traditions. Furthermore, folkloric inspiration is drying up: at the very best, we could only imitate its simplicity from a distance.
The black men of Africa, on the contrary, are still in the great period of mythical fecundity, and French-language black poets are not just using their myths as a form of diversion as we use our epic poems:* they allow themselves to be spellbound by them so that the end of the incantation, ne? gritude--magnificently evoked--may surge forth. This is why I call this method of "objective poetry" magic, or charm.
Ce? saire, on the contrary, chose to backtrack into himself. Since this Eurydice will disappear in smoke if Black Orpheus turns around to look back on her, he will descend the royal road of his soul with his back turned on the bottom of the grotto; he will descend below words and meanings-- "in order to think of you, I have placed all words on the
* Sartre uses the word chansons for what I have translated as "epic poems. " He is referring, of course, to the medieval French epic poems, the chansons de geste. --Translator.
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mountain-of-pity"--below daily activities and the plan of "re? pe? tition/' even below the first barrier reefs of revolt, with his back turned and his eyes closed, in order finally to touch with his feet the black water of dreams and desire and to let himself drown in it. * Desire and dream will rise up snarling like a tidal wave; they will make words dance like flotsam and throw them pell-mell, shattered, on the shore.
Words go beyond themselves; and just as the old geography is done for, the high and the low [words] do not allow diversion either toward heaven or toward earth . . . On the contrary, they operate on a strangelyflexiblerange at one level: on the gaseous Level of an organism both solid and liquid, black and white day and night. t
One recognizes the old surrealistic method (automatic writing, like mysticism, is a method: it presupposes an apprenticeship, exercises, a start along the way). One must dive under the superficial crust of reality, of common sense, of reasoning reason, in order to touch the very bottom of the soul and awaken the timeless forces of desire: desire which makes of man a refusal of everything and a love of everything: desire, the radical negation of natural laws and of the possible, a call to miracles; desire which, by its mad cosmic energy, plunges man back into the seething breast of Nature and, at the same time, lifts him above Nature through the affirmation of his Right to be unsatisfied. Furthermore, Ce? saire is not the first Negro to take this road. Before him, Etienne Le? ro had founded Le? gitime De? fense.
* Sartre seems to have confused his images here, since Orpheus was instructed not to look back while he was ascending from Hades, after he had retrieved Eurydice from Pluto. --Translator.
t The French notion of "automatic writing" was so completely untrans- latable that I have tried simply to give an English approximation of its sense. For those who care to consult the original French text, it runs as follows: "Les mots se de? passent, c'est bien vers un ciel et une terre que le haut et le bas ne permettent pas de distraire, c'en est fait aussi de la vieille ge? ographie . . . Au contraire, un e? tagement curieusement respirable s'ope`re re? el mais au niveau. Au Niveau gazeux de l'organisme solide et liquide, blanc et noir jour et nuit. "--Translator.
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"Le? gitime De? fense" says Senghor, "was more a cultural movement than a review. Starting from the Marxist analysis of the society of the "Islands," it discovered, in the Antilles, descendants of African Negro slaves, who had been kept in the dulling condition of the proletarian for three centuries. It affirmed that only surrealism could deliver him from his taboos and express him in his entireness. "
However, if one compares Le? ro with Ce? saire, one cannot help being struck by their dissimilarities, and this compar- ison may allow us to measure the abyss that prevents a black revolutionary from utilizing white surrealism. Le? ro was the precursor; he invented the exploitation of surrealism as a "miraculous weapon" and an instrument for reconnaissance, a sort of radar with which one probes the depths of the abyss. But his poems are student exercises, they are mere imitations: they do not go beyond themselves; rather, they close in on each other:
The ancient heads of hair
Glue to the branchesfloorsof empty seas
Where your body is only a memory
Where Spring trims its nails
Helix of your smile thrown far away
On the houses we will have nothing to do with . . .
"The helix of your smile," "the spring which trims its nails": we recognize in these the preciousness and gratuitous- ness of surrealistic imagery, the eternal process that consists of throwing a bridge between two extremely unrelated or separated terms and hoping--without really believing--that this "throw of the dice" will uncover some hidden aspect of Being. It does not seem to me that, either in this poem or in the others, Le? ro demands the liberation of the black man: at the very most he lays claim to a categorical liberation of the imagination. In the completely abstract game, no combina- tion of words evokes Africa even remotely. If these poems were taken out of the anthology and the name of their author hidden, I would defy anyone at all, white or black, not to attribute them to a European contributor to La Re? volution
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surre? aliste or Le Minotaure. The purpose of Surrealism is to rediscover--beyond race and condition, beyond class, behind the fire of language--dazzling silent darknesses which are no longer opposed to anything, not even to day, because day and night and all opposites are blended in them and suppressed; consequently, one might speak of the impassiveness and the impersonality of the Surrealist poem, just as there is a Parnassian impassiveness and impersonal- ity.
A poem by Ce? saire, on the contrary, bursts and wheels around like a rocket; suns turning and exploding into new suns come out of it: it is a perpetual going-beyond. It is not a question of the poem's becoming part of the calm unity of opposites, but rather of making one of the opposites in the "black-white" couple expand like a phallus in its opposition to the other. The density of these words thrown into the air like stones from a volcano is found in ne? gritude, which is defined as being against Europe and colonization. What Ce? saire destroys is not all culture but rather white culture; what he brings to light is not desire for everything but rather the revolutionary aspirations of the oppressed Negro; what he touches in his very depths is not the spirit but a certain specific, concrete form of humanity. With this in mind, one can speak here about engaged and even directed automatic writing, not because there is any meditative intervention but because the words and images perpetually translate the same torrid obsession. The white Surrealist finds within himself the trigger; Ce? saire finds within himself the fixed inflexibility of demands and feeling. Le? ro's words are feebly organized around vague
general themes through expansion and a relaxing of logical ties; Ce? sair's words are pressed against each other and cemented by his furious passion. Between the most daring comparisons and between the most widely separated terms runs a secret thread of hate and hope. For example, compare "the helix of your smile thrown far away"--which is the product of a free play of the imagination as well as an invitation to reverie--with
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and the radium mines buried in the abyss of my innocence will jump by grains
into the feeding-trough of birds
and the stars' stere
will be the common name of firewood
gathered from the alluvium of the singing veins of night
in which the "disjecta membra" of the vocabulary are so organized as to allow the supposition that there is a black "Art Poe? tique. " Or read:
Our beautiful faces like the true operative power of negation.
Also read:
Seas lousy with islands cracking in the roses' fingers flame-thrower and my lightning-struck body intact.
Here we find the apotheosis of the fleas of black misery jumping in the water's hair, islands in a stream of light, cracking under the fingers of the celestial delouser: dawn with rose-colored fingers, the dawn of Greek and Mediterranean culture--snatched from the sacrosanct Homeric poems by a black thief--whose enslaved princess's fingernails are sud- denly controlled by a Toussaint L'Ouverture in order to crack the triumphant parasites of the black sea; the dawn, which suddenly rebels and is metamorphosed, which opens fire like that savage weapon of white men, the flame-thrower, the weapon of scientists, the weapon of executioners, strikes the tall black Titan with its white fire, and he arises intact and eternal in order to begin the assault on Europe and heaven. In Ce? saire, the great Surrealist tradition is realized, it takes on its definitive meaning and is destroyed: Surrealism--that European movement--is taken from the Europeans by a black man who turns it against them and gives it a rigorously defined function. I have pointed out elsewhere how the whole of the proletariat completely shut itself off from the destruc- tive poetry of Reason: in Europe, Surrealism languishes and pales, rejected by those who could have given it a transfusion
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of their own blood. But at the very moment when it is losing contact with the Revolution, it is, in the Antilles, grafted onto another branch of the universal Revolution; it develops into an enormous somber flower. Ce? saire's originality lies in his having directed his powerful, concentrated anxiety as a Negro, as one oppressed, as a militant individual, into this world of the most destructive, free, and metaphysical poetry at the moment when Eluard and Aragon were failing to give political content to their verse. And finally, negritude-object is snatched from Ce? saire like a cry of pain, of love, and of hate. Here again he follows the Surrealist tradition of objective poetry. Ce? saire's words do not describe ne? gritude, they do not designate it, they do not copy it from the outside like a painter with a model: they create it; they compose it under our very eyes. Henceforth it is a thing which can be observed and learned; the subjective method which he has chosen joins the objective method we spoke about earlier: he ejects the black soul from himself at the very moment when others are trying to interiorize it; the final result is the same in both cases. Ne? gritude is the far-away tam-tam in the streets of Dakar at night; voodoo shouts from some Haitian cellar window, sliding along level with the roadway; the Congolese mask; but it is also this poem by Ce? saire, this slobbery, bloody peom full of phlegm, twisting in the dust like a cut-up worm. This
double spasm of absorption and excretion beats out the rhythm of the black heart on every page of this collection. What then, at present, is this ne? gritude, sole anxiety of these poets, sole subject of this book? It must first be stated that a white man could hardly speak about it suitably, since
he has no inner experience of it and since European languages lack words to describe it. I ought then to let the reader encounter it in the pages of this collection and draw his own conclusions about it. But this introduction would be incomplete if, after having indicated that the quest for the Black Grail represented--both in its original intention and in its methods--the most authentic synthesis of revo- lutionary aspirations and poetic anxiety, I did not show that this complex notion is essentially pure Poetry. I shall
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therefore limit myself to examining these poems objectively as a cluster of testimonies and to pointing out some of their principal themes. Senghor says, "What makes the ne? gritude of a poem is less its theme than its style, the emotional warmth which gives life to words, which transmutes the word into the Word. " It could not be more explicitly stated that ne? gritude is neither a state nor a definite ensemble of vices and virtues or of intellectual and moral qualities, but rather a certain affective attitude toward the world. Since the beginning of this century, psychology has renounced its great scholastic distinctions. We no longer believe that the "facts" of the soul are divided into volitions or actions, knowledge or perceptions, sentiments or blind passiveness. We know that a feeling is a definite way of establishing our rapport with the world around us, that it involves a certain comprehension of this universe. It is a tension of the soul, a choice of oneself and of another, a way of going beyond the raw facts of experience; in short, a plan quite like the
voluntary act. To use Heidegger's language, ne? gritude is the Negro's being-in-the-world.
Furthermore, here is what Ce? saire tells us about it.
My ne? gritude is not a stone with its deafnessflungout against the clamor of the day
My ne? gritude is not a dead speck of water on the dead eye of the earth
my ne? gritude is neither a tower nor a cathedral
it plunges into the red flesh of the ground
it plunges into the ardent flesh of the sky
it perforates the opaque pressure of its righteous patience.
Ne? gritude is portrayed in these beautiful lines of verse more as an act than as a frame of mind. But this act is an inner determination; it is not a question of taking the goods of this world in one's hands and transforming them; it is a question of existing in the middle of the world. The relation with the universe remains an adaptation. But this adaptation is not technical. For the white man, to possess is to transform. To be sure, the white worker uses instruments which he does
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not possess. But at least his techniques are his own: if it is true that the personnel responsible for the major inventions of European industry comes mainly from the middle classes, at least the trades of carpenter, cabinetmaker, potter, seem to the white workers to be a true heritage, despite the fact that the orientation of great capitalist production tends to remove their "joy in work" from them. But it is not enough to say that the black worker uses instruments which are lent to him: techniques are also lent to him.
Ce? saire refers to his black brothers as
Those who have invented neither powder nor compass those who have never tamed either steam or electricity those who have not explored the seas and the sky . . .
But this haughty claim of nontechnicalness reverses the situation: what could pass as a deficiency becomes & positive source of wealth. A technical rapport with Nature reveals Nature as simple quantity, inertia, exteriority: Nature dies. By his haughty refusal to be homo faber, the Negro gives it life again. As if the passiveness of one of the members of the "man-nature" couple necessarily produced the others activ- ity. Actually, ne? gritude is not passiveness, since it "perfo- rates the flesh of the sky and of the earth": it is "patience," and patience appears like an active imitation of passiveness. The Negro's act is first of all an act on himself. The black man stands erect and immobilizes himself like a bird- charmer, and things come to perch on the branches of this fake tree. A magic inveigling of the world--through silence and rest--is involved here: the white man, by acting first of all on Nature, loses himself when he loses Nature; the Negro, by acting first of all on himself, claims to win Nature while winning himself.
Seized, they abandon themselves to the essence of every thing ignorant of the surfaces but seized by the movement of every
thing
heedless of counting, but playing the world's game truly the elder sons of the world
porous to all the breaths of the world . . .
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flesh of the world'sfleshpalpitating from the very movement of
the world.
Upon reading this, one can hardly help thinking of the famous distinction between intelligence and intuition es- tablished by Bergson. Ce? saire rightly calls us
Omniscient and nai? ve conquerors . . .
Because of his tools, the white man knows all. But he only scratches the surface of things; he is unaware of the duration of things, unaware of life. Ne? gritude, on the contrary, is comprehension through instinctive congeni- ality. The black man's secret is that the sources of his existence and the roots of Being are identical.
If one wanted to give a sociological interpretation of this metaphysic, one would say that an agriculturist poetry is here opposed to an engineer prose. Actually, it is not true that the black man has no techniques: the rapport between any human group and the exterior world is always technical in one way or another. And inversely, I shall say that Ce? saire is imprecise: Saint Exupe? ry's airplane folding the earth below like a carpet is a means of disclosure. However, the black man is first of all a peasant; agricultural technique is "righteous patience"; it trusts in life; it waits. To plant is to impregnate the earth; after that, you must remain motion- less and watch: "each atom of silence is a chance for ripe fruit," each instant brings forth a hundred times more than man gave, whereas the worker finds in the manufactured product only as much as he put into it; man grows along with his wheat: from minute to minute he goes beyond himself and becomes more golden; he intervenes in his watchful wait before the fragile swelling belly, only to
protect. Ripe wheat is a microcosm because the cooperation of sun, wind, and rains was needed for it to grow; a blade of wheat is both the most natural thing and the most improbable chance. Techniques have contaminated the white peasant, but the black peasant remains the great male of the earth, the world's sperm. His existence is great
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vegetal patience; his work is the yearly repetition of holy coitus. Creating and nourished because he creates. To till, to plant, to eat, is to make love with Nature. The sexual pantheism of these poets is undoubtedly what will impress us first of all: it is in this that they join the dances and the phallic rites of the Negro-Africans.
Oho! Congo lying in your bed of forests, queen of tamed Africa May the phalli of the mountains carry your banner high
For, through my head, through my tongue, through my belly,
you are a woman,
writes Senghor. Also:
and so I shall mount again the soft belly of the dunes and the gleaming thighs of the day . . .
and Rabe? arivelo:
the earth's blood, the stone's sweat and the sperm of the world
and Laleau:
The conical drum laments under the sky
And it is the very soul of the black man
Sultry spasms of men in rut, lover's sticky sobs Outraging the calm of the evening.
Here, we are far from Bergson's chaste asexual intuition. It is no longer a matter of being congenial with life, but rather of being in love with all its forms. For the white technician, God is first of all an engineer. Jupiter orders chaos and prescribes its laws; the Christian God conceives the world through his understanding and brings it into being through his will: the relation between the created and the creator is never carnal, except for a few mystics whom the Church looks upon with a great deal of suspicion. Even so, erotic mysticism has nothing in common with fecundity: it is the completely passive wait for a sterile penetration. We are steeped in alluvium: statuettes come from the hands of
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the divine sculptor. If the manufactured objects surrounding us could worship their ancestors, they would undoubtedly adore us as we adore the All-powerful. For our black poets, on the contrary, Being comes out of Nothingness like a penis becoming erect; Creation is an enormous perpetual delivery; the world is flesh and the son of flesh; on the sea and in the sky, on the dunes, on the rocks, in the wind, the Negro finds the softness of human skin; he rubs himself against the sand's belly, against the sky's loins: he is "flesh of the flesh of this world"; he is "porous to all its breaths," to all its pollens; he is both Nature's female and its male; and when he makes love with a woman of his race, the sexual act seems to him to be the celebration of the Mystery of Being. This spermatic religion is like the tension of a soul balancing between two complementary tendencies: the dynamic feeling of being an erect phallus, and that more deaf, more patient, more feminine one of being a growing plant. Thus, ne? gritude is basically a sort of
androgyny.
There you are
Upright and naked
alluvium you are and remember yourself as having been but in reality you are the child of this parturient shadow feeding on lunar lactogen*
then you slowly take the form of a bole
on this low wall jumped over by the dreams of flowers and the perfume of summer at rest.
To feel, to believe that roots are pushing your feet
and running and twisting like thirsty serpents
toward some subterranean spring . . .
(Rabe? arivelo)
And Ce? saire:
Wornout mother, leafless mother, you are a. flamboyant and now wear only husks. You are a calabash tree
* "Lactogen" is a neologism in the French text as well. --Translator.
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This profound unity of vegetal and sexual symbols is certainly the greatest originality of black poetry, especially in a period when, as Michel Carrouges has shown, most of the images used by white poets tend to mineralize the human being. Ce? saire, on the contrary, "vegetalizes," "animalizes" sea, sky, and stones. More precisely, his poetry is a perpetual coupling of men and women who had been metamorphosed into animals, vegetables, stones, with stones, plants, and beasts metamorphosed into men. Thus the black man attests to a natural Eros; he reveals and incarnates it; to find a point of comparison in European poetry, one must go back to Lucretius, the peasant poet who celebrated Venus, the mother goddess, when Rome was not yet much more than a large agricultural market. In our time, only Lawrence seems to me to have had a cosmic feeling for sexuality.
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fluke, the circumstances under which it exists vary according to history and geographic conditions: the black man is a victim of it because he is a black man and insofar as he is a colonized native or a deported African. And since he is oppressed within the confines of his race and because of it, he must first of all become conscious of his race. He must oblige those who have vainly tried throughout the centuries to reduce him to the status of a beast, to recognize that he is a man. On this point, there is no means of evasion, or of trickery, no "crossing line" that he can consider: a Jew--a white man among white men--can deny that he is a Jew, can declare himself a man among men. The Negro cannot deny that he is Negro, nor can he claim that he is part of some abstract colorless humanity: he is black. Thus he has his back up against the wall of authenticity: having been insulted and formerly enslaved, he picks up the word "nigger" which was thrown at him like a stone, he draws himself erect and proudly proclaims himself a black man, face to face with white men. The unity which will come eventually, bringing all oppressed
peoples together in the same struggle, must be preceded in the colonies by what I shall call the moment of separation or negativity: this antiracist racism is the only road that will lead to the abolition of racial differences. How could it be otherwise? Can black men count on a distant white proletariat--involved in its own struggles--before they are united and organized on their own soil? And furthermore, isn't there some need for a thorough work of analysis in order to realize the identity of the interests that underlie the obvious difference of condition? The white worker benefits somewhat from colonization, in spite of himself: low as his standard of living may be, it would be even lower if there were no colonization. In any case, he is less cynically exploited than the day laborer in Dakar or Saint-Louis. The technical equipment and industrialization of the European countries make it possible for measures of socialization to be immediately applicable there; but as seen from Senegal or the Congo, socialism seems more than
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anything else like a beautiful dream: before black peasants can discover that socialism is the necessary answer to their present local claims, they must learn to formulate these claims jointly; therefore, they must think of themselves as black men.
But this new self-discovery is different from that which Marxism tries to awaken in the white worker. In the European worker, class consciousness is based on the nature of profit and unearned increment, on the present conditions of the ownership of the instruments for work; in brief, it is based on the objective characteristics of the position of the proletariat. But since the selfish scorn that white men display for black men--and that has no equivalent in the attitude of the bourgeois toward the working class--is aimed at the deepest recesses of the heart, black men must oppose it with a more exact view of black subjectivity, consequently race consciousness is based first of all on the black soul, or, rather--since the term is often used in this anthology--on a certain quality common to the thoughts and conduct of Negroes which is called ne? gritude. There are only two ways to go about forming racial concepts: either one causes certain subjective characteristics to become objective, or else one tries to interiorize objectively revealed manners of conduct; thus the black man who asserts his ne? gritude by means of a revolutionary movement immedi- ately places himself in the position of having to meditate, either because he wishes to recognize in himself certain objectively established traits of the African civilizations, or because he hopes to discover the Essence of blackness in the well of his heart. Thus subjectivity reappears: the relation of the self with self; the source of all poetry, the very poe- try from which the worker had to disengage himself. The black man who asks his colored brothers to "find them- selves" is going to try to present to them an exemplary image of their ne? gritude and will look into his own soul to grasp it. He wants to be both a beacon and a mirror; the first revolutionary will be the harbinger of the black soul, the herald--half prophet and half follower--who will
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tear Blackness out of himself in order to offer it to the world; in brief, he will be a poet in the literal sense of vates. Furthermore, black poetry has nothing in common with heartfelt effusions: it is functional, it answers a need which is defined in precise terms. Leaf through an anthology of contemporary white poetry: you will find a hundred different subjects, depending upon the mood and interests of the poet, depending upon his position and his country. In the anthology which I am introducing to you here, there is only one subject that all the poets attempt to treat, more or less successfully. From Haiti to Cayenne, there is a single idea: reveal the black soul. Biack poetry is evangelic, it announces
good news: Blackness has been rediscovered.
However, this ne? gritude, which they wish to fish for in
their abyssal depths, does not fall under the soul's gaze all by itself: in the soul, nothing is gratuitous. The herald of the black soul has gone through white schools, in accordance with a brazen law which forbids the oppressed man to possess any arms except those he himself has stolen from the oppressor; it is through having had some contact with white culture that his blackness has passed from the immediacy of existence to the meditative state. But at the same time, he has more or less ceased to live his ne? gritude. In choosing to see what he is, he has become split, he no longer coincides with himself. And on the other hand, it is because he was already exiled from himself that he discovered this need to reveal himself. He therefore begins by exile. It is a double exile: the exile of his body offers a magnificent image of the exile of his heart; he is in Europe most of the time, in the cold, in the middle of gray crowds; he dreams of Port-au-Prince, of Haiti. But in Port-au-Prince he was already in exile; the slavers had torn his fathers out of Africa and dispersed them. And all of the
poems in this book--except those which were written in Africa--show us the same mystical geography. A hemisphere: in the foreground--forming the first of three concentric circles--extends the land of exile, colorless Europe; then comes the dazzling circle of the Islands and of
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childhood, which dance the roundelay around Africa; the last circle is Africa, the world's navel, pole of all black poetry--dazzling Africa, burnt, oily like a snake's skin, Africa of fire and rain, torrid and tufted; Africa--phantom flickering like a flame, between being and nothingness, more real than the "eternal boulevards with cops" but absent, beyond attainment, disintegrating Europe with its black but invisible rays; Africa, an imaginary continent. The extraordinary good luck of black poetry lies in the fact that the anxieties of the colonized native have their own grandiose and obvious symbols which need only to be gone into deeply and to be meditated upon: exile, slavery, the Africa-Europe couple and the great Manichaean division of the world into black and white. This ancestral bodily exile represents the other exile: the black soul is an Africa from which the Negro, in the midst of the cold buildings of white culture and technics, is exiled. And ever-present but concealed ne? gritude haunts him, rubs against him; he himself rubs up against its silky wing; it palpitates
and is spread throughout him like his searching memory and his loftiest demands, like his shrouded, betrayed child- hood, and like the childhood of his race and the call of the earth, like the swarming of insects and the indivisible sim- plicity of Nature, like the pure legacy of his ancestors, and like the Ethics that ought to unify his truncated life. But if he turns around to look squarely at his ne? gritude, it vanishes in smoke; the walls of white culture--its silence, its words, its mores--rise up between it and him:
Give me back my black dolls, so that I may play with them My instinct's simple games
that I may remain in the shadow of its laws
cover up my courage
my audacity
feel me as me
me renewed through what I was yesterday
yesterday
without complexity
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yesterday
when the uprooting hour came . . .
they have ransacked the space that was mine
However, the walls of this culture prison must be broken down; it will be necessary to return to Africa some day: thus the themes of return to the native country and of re-descent into the glaring hell of the black soul are indissolubly mixed up in the vates of ne? gritude. A quest is involved here, a systematic stripping and anasce`se* accompanied by a continual effort of investigation. And I shall call this poetry "Orphic" because the Negro's tireless descent into himself makes me think of Orpheus going to claim Eurydice from Pluto. Thus, through an exceptional stroke of poetic good luck, it is by letting himself fall into trances, by rolling on the ground like a possessed man tormented by himself, by singing of his angers, his regrets, or his hates, by exhibiting his wounds, his life torn between "civilization" and his old black substratum; in short, by becoming most lyrical, that the black poet is most certain of creating a great collective poetry. By speaking only of himself, he speaks for all Negroes; it is when he seems smothered by the serpents of our culture that he is the most revolutionary, for he then undertakes to ruin systematically the European knowledge he has acquired, and this spiritual destruction symbolizes the great future taking-up of arms by which black men will destroy their chains. A single example will suffice to clarify this last remark.
In the twentieth century, most ethnic minorities have passionately endeavored to resuscitate their national languages while struggling for their independence. To be able to say that one is Irish or Hungarian, one must belong to a collectivity which has the benefit of a broad economic and political autonomy; but to be Irish, one must also think Irishy which means above all: think in Irish. The specific traits of a Society correspond exactly to the untranslatable
* The ascetic's movement of interiorization. --Translator.
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locutions of its language. The fact that the prophets of ne? gritude are forced to write their gospel in French means that there is a certain risk of dangerously slowing down the efforts of black men to reject our tutelage. Having been dispersed to the four corners of the earth by the slave trade, black men have no common language; in order to incite the oppressed to unite, they must necessarily rely on the words of the oppressor's language. And French is the language that will furnish the black poet with the largest audience, at least within the limits of French colonization. It is in this goose-pimply language--pale and cold like our skies, and which Mallarme? said was "the neutral language
par excellence, since our spirit demands an attenuation of variegation and of all excessively brilliant color"--in this language which is half dead for them, that Damas, Diop, Laleau, Rabe? arivelo are going to pour the fire of their skies and of their hearts; it is through this language alone that they can communicate; like the sixteenth-century scholars who understood each other only in Latin, black men can meet only on that trap-covered ground that the white man has prepared for them. The colonist has arranged to be the eternal mediator between the colonized; he is there--always there--even when he is absent, even in the most secret meetings. And since words are ideas, when the Negro declares in French that he rejects French culture, he accepts with one hand what he rejects with the other; he sets up the enemy's thinking-apparatus in himself, like a crusher. This would not matter: except that this syntax and vocabulary--forged thousands of miles away in another epoch to answer other needs and to designate other objects--are unsuitable to furnish him with the means of speaking about himself, his own anxieties, his own hopes. The French language and French thought are analytic. What would happen if the black spirit were above all synthetic? The rather ugly term "ne? gritude" is one of the few black contributions to our dictionary. But after all, if this "ne? gritude" is a definable or at least a describable concept, it must subsume other more elementary concepts
? 3<D2 I Black Orpheus
which correspond to the immediate fundamental ideas directly involved with Negro consciousness. But where are the words to describe them? How well one understands the Haitian poet's complaint:
This obsessing heart which does not correspond To my language, or to my customs,
And on which encroach, like a clinging-root, Borrowed feelings and the customs
Of Europe, feel this suffering
And this despair--equal to no other--
Of ever taming with words from France This heart which came to me from Senegal.
It is not true, however, that the black man expresses himself in a "foreign" language, since he is taught French from childhood and since he is perfectly at ease when he thinks in the terms of a technician, of a scholar, or of a politician. Rather, one must speak about the slight but patent difference that separates what he says from what he would like to say, whenever he speaks about himself. It seems to him that a Northern Spirit steals his ideas from him, bends them slightly to mean more or less what he wanted; that white words drink his thoughts as sand drinks blood. If he suddenly gorges himself, if he pulls himself together and takes a step backward, there are the sounds lying prostrate in front of him--strange: half signs and half things. He will not speak his ne? gritude with precise, efficacious words which hit the target every time. He will not speak his ne? gritude in prose. As everyone knows, every
poetic experience has its origin in this feeling of frustration that one has when confronted with a language that is supposed to be a means of direct communication.
The reaction of the speaker frustrated by prose is in effect what Bataille calls the holocaust of words. As long as we can believe that a preestablished harmony governs the relation- ship between a word and Being, we use words without seeing them, with blind trust; they are sensory organs, mouths, hands, windows open on the world. As soon as we experience a first frustration, this chattering falls beyond us;
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we see the whole system, it is no more than an upset, out-of-order mechanism whose arms are still flailing to INDICATE EXISTENCE in emptiness; in one fell swoop we pass judgment on the foolish business of naming things; we understand that language is in essence prose, and that prose is in essence failure; Being stands erect in front of us like a tower of silence, and if we still want to catch it, we can do so only through silence: "evoke, in an intentional shadow, the object tu by allusive words, never direct, reducing themselves to the same silence. "1 No one has better stated that poetry is an incantatory attempt to suggest Being in and by the vibratory disappearance of the word: by insisting on his verbal impotence, by making words mad, the poet makes us suspect that beyond this chaos which cancels itself out, there are silent densities; since we cannot keep quiet, we must make silence with language. From Mallarme? to the Surrealists, the final goal of French poetry seems to me to have been this autodestruction of language. A poem is a dark room where words are knocking themselves about, quite mad. Collisions in the air: they ignite each other with their fire and fall down in flames.
It is in this perspective that we must situate the efforts of the "black evangelists/' They answer the colonist's ruse with a similar but inverse ruse: since the oppressor is present in the very language that they speak, they will speak this language in order to destroy it. The contemporary European poet tries to dehumanize words in order to give them back to nature; the black herald is going to de-Frenchify them; he will crush them, break their usual associations, he will violently couple them
with little steps of caterpillar rain
with little steps like mouthfiils of milk
with little steps like ball-bearings
with little steps like seismic shocks 2 Yams in the soil stride like gaps of stars . . .
Only when they have regurgitated their whiteness does he adopt them, making of this ruined language a solemn,
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sacred super-langauge, Poetry. Only through Poetry can the black men of Tenanarive and of Cayenne, the black men of Port-au-Prince and of Saint-Louis, communicate with each other in private. And since French lacks terms and concepts to define ne? gritude, since ne? gritude is silence, these poets will use "allusive words, never direct, reducing themselves to the same silence'' in order to evoke it. Short-circuits of language: behind the flaming fall of words, we glimpse a great black mute idol. It is not only the black man's self-portrayal that seems poetic to me; it is also his personal way of utilizing the means of expression at his disposal. His position incites him to do it: even before he thinks of writing poetry, in him the light of white words is refracted, polarized, and altered. This is nowhere more manifest than in his use of two connected terms, "white" and "black," that cover both the great cosmic division of day and night
and the human conflict between the native and the colonist. But it is a connection based on a hierarchical system: by giving the Negro this term, the teacher also gives him a hundred language habits which consecrate the white man's rights over the black man. The Negro will learn to say "white like snow" to indicate innocence, to speak of the blackness of a look, of a soul, of a deed. As soon as he opens his mouth, he accuses himself, unless he persists in upset- ting the hierarchy. And if he upsets it in French, he is already poetizing: can you imagine the strange savor that an expression like "the blackness of innocence" or "the darkness of virtue" would have for us? That is the savor which we taste on every page of this book, when, for example, we read:
Your round, shining, black satin breasts . . . this white smile
of eyes
in the face's shadow
awaken in me this evening
deaf rhythms . . .
which intoxicate, there in Guine? e, our sisters
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black and naked
and inspire in me
this evening
black twilights heavy with sensual anxiety for
the soul of the black country where the ancients are sleeping
lives and speaks
this evening
in uneasy strength, along the small of your back . . .
Throughout this poem, black is color; better still, light. Its soft diffuse radiance dissolves our habits; the black country where the ancients are sleeping is not a dark hell: it is a land of sun and fire. Then again, in another connection, the superiority of white over black does not express only the superiority that the colonist claims to have over the native: more profoundly, it expresses a universal adoration of day as well as our night terrors, which also are universal. In this sense, these black men are reestablishing the hiararchy they have just upset. They don't want to be poets of night, poets of vain revolt and despair: they give the promise of dawn; they greet
the transparent dawn of a new day.
At last, the black man discovers, through the pen, his baleful sense of foreboding:
Nigger black like misery
one of them, and then another, cries out:
Deliver me from my blood's night . . .
Thus the word black is found to contain all Evil and all Good; it covers up almost unbearable tension between two contradictory classifications: solar hierarchy and racial hier- archy. It gains thereby an extraordinary poetry, like
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self-destructive objects from the hands of Duchamp and the Surrealists; there is a secret blackness in white, a secret whiteness in black, a vivid flickering of Being and of Nonbeing which is perhaps nowhere expressed as well as in this poem of Ce? saire's:
My tall wounded statue, a stone in its fore- head; my great inattentive dayfleshwith pitiless spots, my great night flesh with day spots.
The poet will go even further. He writes:
Our beautiful faces like the true operative power of negation.
Behind this abstract eloquence evoking Lautre? amont is seen an extremely bold and subtle attempt to give some sense to black skin and to realize the poetic synthesis of the two faces of night. When David Diop says that the Negro is "black like misery," he makes black represent deprivation of light. But Ce? saire develops and goes into this image more deeply: night is no longer absence, it is refusal. Black is not color, it is the destruction of this borrowed clarity which falls from the white sun. The revolutionary Negro is negation because he wishes to be complete nudity: in order to build his Truth, he must first destroy others' Truth. Black faces--these night memories which haunt our days-- embody the dark work of Negativity which patiently gnaws at concepts. Thus, by a reversal which curiously recalls that of the humiliated Negro--insulted and called "dirty nig-
ger" when he asserts his rights--it is the privative aspect of darkness that establishes its value. Liberty is the color of night.
Destructions, autos-da-fe of language, magic symbolism, ambivalence of concepts: all the negative aspects of modern poetry are here. But it is not a matter of some gratuitous game. The black man's position, his original "rending," the
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alienation that a foreign way of thinking imposes on him, all oblige him to reconquer his existential unity as a Negro--or, if you prefer, the original purity of his plan-- through a gradual asce`se, beyond the language stage. Ne? gritude--like liberty--is a point of departure and an ultimate goal: it is a matter of making ne? gritude pass from the immediate to the mediate, a matter of thematicizing it. The black man must therefore find death in white culture in order to be reborn with a black soul, like the Platonic philosopher whose body embraces death in order to be reborn in truth. This dialectical and mystical return to origins necessarily implies a method. But this method is not presented as a set of rules to be used in directing the spirit. Rather, it becomes onewith whoever applies it; it is the dialectical law of successive transformations which lead the Negro to coincidence with himself in ne? gritude. It is not a matter of his knowing, or of his ecstatically tearing himself away from himself, but rather of both discovering and becoming what he is.
There are two convergent means of arriving at this primordial simplicity of existence: one is objective, the other subjective. The poets in our anthology sometimes use one, sometimes the other, and sometimes both of them together. In effect, there exists an objective ne? gritude that is expressed by the mores, arts, chants, and dances of the African populaces. As a spiritual exercise, the poet will prescribe allowing himself to be fascinated by primitive rhythms, letting his thoughts run in traditional forms of black poetry. Many of the poems included here are called tam-tams, because they borrow from the nighttime tambou- rine players a percussive rhythm which is sometimes sharp and regular, sometimes torrential and bounding. The poetic act, then, is a dance of the soul; the poet turns round and round like a dervish until he faints; he has established his ancestors' time in himself, he feels it flowing with its peculiar violent pulls; he hopes to "find" himself in this rhythmic pulsation; I shall say that he tries to make himself "possessed" by his people's ne? gritude; he hopes that the
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echoes of his tam-tam will come to awaken timeless instincts sleeping within him. Upon leafing through this collection, one will get the impression that the tam-tam tends to become & genre of black poetry, just as the sonnet or the ode was a genre of our poetry. Others, like Rabemanan- jara, will be inspired by royal proclamations. Still others will draw from the popular well of the Haintenys. The calm center of this maelstrom of rhythms, chants, shouts, is the poetry of Birago Diop, in all its majestic simplicity: it alone is at rest because it comes directly from Griot narratives and oral tradition. Almost all the other attempts have something contorted, taut, and desperate about them because they aim at becoming a part of folkloric poetry rather than emanating from it. But however far he may be from "the black country where ancestors sleep," the black man is closer than we are to the great period when, as Mallarme? says, "the word creates Gods. " It is partically impossible for our poets to resume some closeness with popular traditons: ten centuries of scholarly poetry separate them from such traditions. Furthermore, folkloric inspiration is drying up: at the very best, we could only imitate its simplicity from a distance.
The black men of Africa, on the contrary, are still in the great period of mythical fecundity, and French-language black poets are not just using their myths as a form of diversion as we use our epic poems:* they allow themselves to be spellbound by them so that the end of the incantation, ne? gritude--magnificently evoked--may surge forth. This is why I call this method of "objective poetry" magic, or charm.
Ce? saire, on the contrary, chose to backtrack into himself. Since this Eurydice will disappear in smoke if Black Orpheus turns around to look back on her, he will descend the royal road of his soul with his back turned on the bottom of the grotto; he will descend below words and meanings-- "in order to think of you, I have placed all words on the
* Sartre uses the word chansons for what I have translated as "epic poems. " He is referring, of course, to the medieval French epic poems, the chansons de geste. --Translator.
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mountain-of-pity"--below daily activities and the plan of "re? pe? tition/' even below the first barrier reefs of revolt, with his back turned and his eyes closed, in order finally to touch with his feet the black water of dreams and desire and to let himself drown in it. * Desire and dream will rise up snarling like a tidal wave; they will make words dance like flotsam and throw them pell-mell, shattered, on the shore.
Words go beyond themselves; and just as the old geography is done for, the high and the low [words] do not allow diversion either toward heaven or toward earth . . . On the contrary, they operate on a strangelyflexiblerange at one level: on the gaseous Level of an organism both solid and liquid, black and white day and night. t
One recognizes the old surrealistic method (automatic writing, like mysticism, is a method: it presupposes an apprenticeship, exercises, a start along the way). One must dive under the superficial crust of reality, of common sense, of reasoning reason, in order to touch the very bottom of the soul and awaken the timeless forces of desire: desire which makes of man a refusal of everything and a love of everything: desire, the radical negation of natural laws and of the possible, a call to miracles; desire which, by its mad cosmic energy, plunges man back into the seething breast of Nature and, at the same time, lifts him above Nature through the affirmation of his Right to be unsatisfied. Furthermore, Ce? saire is not the first Negro to take this road. Before him, Etienne Le? ro had founded Le? gitime De? fense.
* Sartre seems to have confused his images here, since Orpheus was instructed not to look back while he was ascending from Hades, after he had retrieved Eurydice from Pluto. --Translator.
t The French notion of "automatic writing" was so completely untrans- latable that I have tried simply to give an English approximation of its sense. For those who care to consult the original French text, it runs as follows: "Les mots se de? passent, c'est bien vers un ciel et une terre que le haut et le bas ne permettent pas de distraire, c'en est fait aussi de la vieille ge? ographie . . . Au contraire, un e? tagement curieusement respirable s'ope`re re? el mais au niveau. Au Niveau gazeux de l'organisme solide et liquide, blanc et noir jour et nuit. "--Translator.
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"Le? gitime De? fense" says Senghor, "was more a cultural movement than a review. Starting from the Marxist analysis of the society of the "Islands," it discovered, in the Antilles, descendants of African Negro slaves, who had been kept in the dulling condition of the proletarian for three centuries. It affirmed that only surrealism could deliver him from his taboos and express him in his entireness. "
However, if one compares Le? ro with Ce? saire, one cannot help being struck by their dissimilarities, and this compar- ison may allow us to measure the abyss that prevents a black revolutionary from utilizing white surrealism. Le? ro was the precursor; he invented the exploitation of surrealism as a "miraculous weapon" and an instrument for reconnaissance, a sort of radar with which one probes the depths of the abyss. But his poems are student exercises, they are mere imitations: they do not go beyond themselves; rather, they close in on each other:
The ancient heads of hair
Glue to the branchesfloorsof empty seas
Where your body is only a memory
Where Spring trims its nails
Helix of your smile thrown far away
On the houses we will have nothing to do with . . .
"The helix of your smile," "the spring which trims its nails": we recognize in these the preciousness and gratuitous- ness of surrealistic imagery, the eternal process that consists of throwing a bridge between two extremely unrelated or separated terms and hoping--without really believing--that this "throw of the dice" will uncover some hidden aspect of Being. It does not seem to me that, either in this poem or in the others, Le? ro demands the liberation of the black man: at the very most he lays claim to a categorical liberation of the imagination. In the completely abstract game, no combina- tion of words evokes Africa even remotely. If these poems were taken out of the anthology and the name of their author hidden, I would defy anyone at all, white or black, not to attribute them to a European contributor to La Re? volution
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surre? aliste or Le Minotaure. The purpose of Surrealism is to rediscover--beyond race and condition, beyond class, behind the fire of language--dazzling silent darknesses which are no longer opposed to anything, not even to day, because day and night and all opposites are blended in them and suppressed; consequently, one might speak of the impassiveness and the impersonality of the Surrealist poem, just as there is a Parnassian impassiveness and impersonal- ity.
A poem by Ce? saire, on the contrary, bursts and wheels around like a rocket; suns turning and exploding into new suns come out of it: it is a perpetual going-beyond. It is not a question of the poem's becoming part of the calm unity of opposites, but rather of making one of the opposites in the "black-white" couple expand like a phallus in its opposition to the other. The density of these words thrown into the air like stones from a volcano is found in ne? gritude, which is defined as being against Europe and colonization. What Ce? saire destroys is not all culture but rather white culture; what he brings to light is not desire for everything but rather the revolutionary aspirations of the oppressed Negro; what he touches in his very depths is not the spirit but a certain specific, concrete form of humanity. With this in mind, one can speak here about engaged and even directed automatic writing, not because there is any meditative intervention but because the words and images perpetually translate the same torrid obsession. The white Surrealist finds within himself the trigger; Ce? saire finds within himself the fixed inflexibility of demands and feeling. Le? ro's words are feebly organized around vague
general themes through expansion and a relaxing of logical ties; Ce? sair's words are pressed against each other and cemented by his furious passion. Between the most daring comparisons and between the most widely separated terms runs a secret thread of hate and hope. For example, compare "the helix of your smile thrown far away"--which is the product of a free play of the imagination as well as an invitation to reverie--with
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and the radium mines buried in the abyss of my innocence will jump by grains
into the feeding-trough of birds
and the stars' stere
will be the common name of firewood
gathered from the alluvium of the singing veins of night
in which the "disjecta membra" of the vocabulary are so organized as to allow the supposition that there is a black "Art Poe? tique. " Or read:
Our beautiful faces like the true operative power of negation.
Also read:
Seas lousy with islands cracking in the roses' fingers flame-thrower and my lightning-struck body intact.
Here we find the apotheosis of the fleas of black misery jumping in the water's hair, islands in a stream of light, cracking under the fingers of the celestial delouser: dawn with rose-colored fingers, the dawn of Greek and Mediterranean culture--snatched from the sacrosanct Homeric poems by a black thief--whose enslaved princess's fingernails are sud- denly controlled by a Toussaint L'Ouverture in order to crack the triumphant parasites of the black sea; the dawn, which suddenly rebels and is metamorphosed, which opens fire like that savage weapon of white men, the flame-thrower, the weapon of scientists, the weapon of executioners, strikes the tall black Titan with its white fire, and he arises intact and eternal in order to begin the assault on Europe and heaven. In Ce? saire, the great Surrealist tradition is realized, it takes on its definitive meaning and is destroyed: Surrealism--that European movement--is taken from the Europeans by a black man who turns it against them and gives it a rigorously defined function. I have pointed out elsewhere how the whole of the proletariat completely shut itself off from the destruc- tive poetry of Reason: in Europe, Surrealism languishes and pales, rejected by those who could have given it a transfusion
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of their own blood. But at the very moment when it is losing contact with the Revolution, it is, in the Antilles, grafted onto another branch of the universal Revolution; it develops into an enormous somber flower. Ce? saire's originality lies in his having directed his powerful, concentrated anxiety as a Negro, as one oppressed, as a militant individual, into this world of the most destructive, free, and metaphysical poetry at the moment when Eluard and Aragon were failing to give political content to their verse. And finally, negritude-object is snatched from Ce? saire like a cry of pain, of love, and of hate. Here again he follows the Surrealist tradition of objective poetry. Ce? saire's words do not describe ne? gritude, they do not designate it, they do not copy it from the outside like a painter with a model: they create it; they compose it under our very eyes. Henceforth it is a thing which can be observed and learned; the subjective method which he has chosen joins the objective method we spoke about earlier: he ejects the black soul from himself at the very moment when others are trying to interiorize it; the final result is the same in both cases. Ne? gritude is the far-away tam-tam in the streets of Dakar at night; voodoo shouts from some Haitian cellar window, sliding along level with the roadway; the Congolese mask; but it is also this poem by Ce? saire, this slobbery, bloody peom full of phlegm, twisting in the dust like a cut-up worm. This
double spasm of absorption and excretion beats out the rhythm of the black heart on every page of this collection. What then, at present, is this ne? gritude, sole anxiety of these poets, sole subject of this book? It must first be stated that a white man could hardly speak about it suitably, since
he has no inner experience of it and since European languages lack words to describe it. I ought then to let the reader encounter it in the pages of this collection and draw his own conclusions about it. But this introduction would be incomplete if, after having indicated that the quest for the Black Grail represented--both in its original intention and in its methods--the most authentic synthesis of revo- lutionary aspirations and poetic anxiety, I did not show that this complex notion is essentially pure Poetry. I shall
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therefore limit myself to examining these poems objectively as a cluster of testimonies and to pointing out some of their principal themes. Senghor says, "What makes the ne? gritude of a poem is less its theme than its style, the emotional warmth which gives life to words, which transmutes the word into the Word. " It could not be more explicitly stated that ne? gritude is neither a state nor a definite ensemble of vices and virtues or of intellectual and moral qualities, but rather a certain affective attitude toward the world. Since the beginning of this century, psychology has renounced its great scholastic distinctions. We no longer believe that the "facts" of the soul are divided into volitions or actions, knowledge or perceptions, sentiments or blind passiveness. We know that a feeling is a definite way of establishing our rapport with the world around us, that it involves a certain comprehension of this universe. It is a tension of the soul, a choice of oneself and of another, a way of going beyond the raw facts of experience; in short, a plan quite like the
voluntary act. To use Heidegger's language, ne? gritude is the Negro's being-in-the-world.
Furthermore, here is what Ce? saire tells us about it.
My ne? gritude is not a stone with its deafnessflungout against the clamor of the day
My ne? gritude is not a dead speck of water on the dead eye of the earth
my ne? gritude is neither a tower nor a cathedral
it plunges into the red flesh of the ground
it plunges into the ardent flesh of the sky
it perforates the opaque pressure of its righteous patience.
Ne? gritude is portrayed in these beautiful lines of verse more as an act than as a frame of mind. But this act is an inner determination; it is not a question of taking the goods of this world in one's hands and transforming them; it is a question of existing in the middle of the world. The relation with the universe remains an adaptation. But this adaptation is not technical. For the white man, to possess is to transform. To be sure, the white worker uses instruments which he does
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not possess. But at least his techniques are his own: if it is true that the personnel responsible for the major inventions of European industry comes mainly from the middle classes, at least the trades of carpenter, cabinetmaker, potter, seem to the white workers to be a true heritage, despite the fact that the orientation of great capitalist production tends to remove their "joy in work" from them. But it is not enough to say that the black worker uses instruments which are lent to him: techniques are also lent to him.
Ce? saire refers to his black brothers as
Those who have invented neither powder nor compass those who have never tamed either steam or electricity those who have not explored the seas and the sky . . .
But this haughty claim of nontechnicalness reverses the situation: what could pass as a deficiency becomes & positive source of wealth. A technical rapport with Nature reveals Nature as simple quantity, inertia, exteriority: Nature dies. By his haughty refusal to be homo faber, the Negro gives it life again. As if the passiveness of one of the members of the "man-nature" couple necessarily produced the others activ- ity. Actually, ne? gritude is not passiveness, since it "perfo- rates the flesh of the sky and of the earth": it is "patience," and patience appears like an active imitation of passiveness. The Negro's act is first of all an act on himself. The black man stands erect and immobilizes himself like a bird- charmer, and things come to perch on the branches of this fake tree. A magic inveigling of the world--through silence and rest--is involved here: the white man, by acting first of all on Nature, loses himself when he loses Nature; the Negro, by acting first of all on himself, claims to win Nature while winning himself.
Seized, they abandon themselves to the essence of every thing ignorant of the surfaces but seized by the movement of every
thing
heedless of counting, but playing the world's game truly the elder sons of the world
porous to all the breaths of the world . . .
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flesh of the world'sfleshpalpitating from the very movement of
the world.
Upon reading this, one can hardly help thinking of the famous distinction between intelligence and intuition es- tablished by Bergson. Ce? saire rightly calls us
Omniscient and nai? ve conquerors . . .
Because of his tools, the white man knows all. But he only scratches the surface of things; he is unaware of the duration of things, unaware of life. Ne? gritude, on the contrary, is comprehension through instinctive congeni- ality. The black man's secret is that the sources of his existence and the roots of Being are identical.
If one wanted to give a sociological interpretation of this metaphysic, one would say that an agriculturist poetry is here opposed to an engineer prose. Actually, it is not true that the black man has no techniques: the rapport between any human group and the exterior world is always technical in one way or another. And inversely, I shall say that Ce? saire is imprecise: Saint Exupe? ry's airplane folding the earth below like a carpet is a means of disclosure. However, the black man is first of all a peasant; agricultural technique is "righteous patience"; it trusts in life; it waits. To plant is to impregnate the earth; after that, you must remain motion- less and watch: "each atom of silence is a chance for ripe fruit," each instant brings forth a hundred times more than man gave, whereas the worker finds in the manufactured product only as much as he put into it; man grows along with his wheat: from minute to minute he goes beyond himself and becomes more golden; he intervenes in his watchful wait before the fragile swelling belly, only to
protect. Ripe wheat is a microcosm because the cooperation of sun, wind, and rains was needed for it to grow; a blade of wheat is both the most natural thing and the most improbable chance. Techniques have contaminated the white peasant, but the black peasant remains the great male of the earth, the world's sperm. His existence is great
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vegetal patience; his work is the yearly repetition of holy coitus. Creating and nourished because he creates. To till, to plant, to eat, is to make love with Nature. The sexual pantheism of these poets is undoubtedly what will impress us first of all: it is in this that they join the dances and the phallic rites of the Negro-Africans.
Oho! Congo lying in your bed of forests, queen of tamed Africa May the phalli of the mountains carry your banner high
For, through my head, through my tongue, through my belly,
you are a woman,
writes Senghor. Also:
and so I shall mount again the soft belly of the dunes and the gleaming thighs of the day . . .
and Rabe? arivelo:
the earth's blood, the stone's sweat and the sperm of the world
and Laleau:
The conical drum laments under the sky
And it is the very soul of the black man
Sultry spasms of men in rut, lover's sticky sobs Outraging the calm of the evening.
Here, we are far from Bergson's chaste asexual intuition. It is no longer a matter of being congenial with life, but rather of being in love with all its forms. For the white technician, God is first of all an engineer. Jupiter orders chaos and prescribes its laws; the Christian God conceives the world through his understanding and brings it into being through his will: the relation between the created and the creator is never carnal, except for a few mystics whom the Church looks upon with a great deal of suspicion. Even so, erotic mysticism has nothing in common with fecundity: it is the completely passive wait for a sterile penetration. We are steeped in alluvium: statuettes come from the hands of
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the divine sculptor. If the manufactured objects surrounding us could worship their ancestors, they would undoubtedly adore us as we adore the All-powerful. For our black poets, on the contrary, Being comes out of Nothingness like a penis becoming erect; Creation is an enormous perpetual delivery; the world is flesh and the son of flesh; on the sea and in the sky, on the dunes, on the rocks, in the wind, the Negro finds the softness of human skin; he rubs himself against the sand's belly, against the sky's loins: he is "flesh of the flesh of this world"; he is "porous to all its breaths," to all its pollens; he is both Nature's female and its male; and when he makes love with a woman of his race, the sexual act seems to him to be the celebration of the Mystery of Being. This spermatic religion is like the tension of a soul balancing between two complementary tendencies: the dynamic feeling of being an erect phallus, and that more deaf, more patient, more feminine one of being a growing plant. Thus, ne? gritude is basically a sort of
androgyny.
There you are
Upright and naked
alluvium you are and remember yourself as having been but in reality you are the child of this parturient shadow feeding on lunar lactogen*
then you slowly take the form of a bole
on this low wall jumped over by the dreams of flowers and the perfume of summer at rest.
To feel, to believe that roots are pushing your feet
and running and twisting like thirsty serpents
toward some subterranean spring . . .
(Rabe? arivelo)
And Ce? saire:
Wornout mother, leafless mother, you are a. flamboyant and now wear only husks. You are a calabash tree
* "Lactogen" is a neologism in the French text as well. --Translator.
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This profound unity of vegetal and sexual symbols is certainly the greatest originality of black poetry, especially in a period when, as Michel Carrouges has shown, most of the images used by white poets tend to mineralize the human being. Ce? saire, on the contrary, "vegetalizes," "animalizes" sea, sky, and stones. More precisely, his poetry is a perpetual coupling of men and women who had been metamorphosed into animals, vegetables, stones, with stones, plants, and beasts metamorphosed into men. Thus the black man attests to a natural Eros; he reveals and incarnates it; to find a point of comparison in European poetry, one must go back to Lucretius, the peasant poet who celebrated Venus, the mother goddess, when Rome was not yet much more than a large agricultural market. In our time, only Lawrence seems to me to have had a cosmic feeling for sexuality.
