No More Learning

Certain intermediate spaces may have been left [unexplored], but these
are as likely to be occupied by sea, as uninhabited lands. The object of
the geographer is to describe known countries; those which are unknown
he passes over equally with those beyond the limits of the inhabited
earth. It will therefore be sufficient for describing the contour of the
island we have been speaking of, if we join by a right line the utmost
points which, up to this time, have been explored by voyagers along the
coast on either side.

6. Let it be supposed that this island is contained in one of the above
quadrilaterals; we must obtain its apparent magnitude by subtracting our
hemisphere from the whole extent of the earth, from this take the half,
and from this again the quadrilateral, in which we state our earth to be
situated. We may judge also by analogy of the figure of the whole earth,
by supposing that it accords with those parts with which we are
acquainted. Now as the portion of the northern hemisphere, between the
equator and the parallel next the [north] pole, resembles a vertebre or
joint of the back-bone in shape, and as the circle which passes through
the pole divides at the same time the hemisphere and the vertebre into
two halves, thus forming the quadrilateral; it is clear that this
quadrilateral to which the Atlantic is adjacent, is but the half of the
vertebre; while at the same time the inhabited earth, which is an island
in this, and shaped like a chlamys or soldier’s cloak, occupies less
than the half of the quadrilateral. This is evident from geometry,
also[710] from the extent of the surrounding sea, which covers the
extremities of the continents on either side, compressing them into a
smaller figure, and thirdly, by the greatest length and breadth [of the
earth itself]. The length being 70,000 stadia, enclosed almost entirely
by a sea, impossible to navigate owing to its wildness and vast extent,
and the breadth 30,000 stadia, bounded by regions rendered uninhabitable
on account either of their intense heat or cold. That portion of the
quadrilateral which is unfitted for habitation on account of the heat,
contains in breadth 8800 stadia, and in its greatest length 126,000
stadia, which is equal to one half of the equator, and larger than one
half the inhabited earth; and what is left is still more.

7. These calculations are nearly synonymous with those furnished by
Hipparchus, who tells us, that supposing the size of the globe as stated
by Eratosthenes to be correct, we can then subtract from it the extent
of the inhabited earth, since in noting the celestial appearances [as
they are seen] in different countries, it is not of much importance
whether we make use of this measure, or that furnished by later writers.
Now as the whole circle of the equator according to Eratosthenes
contains 252,000 stadia, the quarter of this would be 63,000, that is,
the space from the equator to the pole contains fifteen of the sixty
divisions[711] into which the equator itself is divided. There are four
[divisions] between the equator and the summer tropic or parallel
passing through Syene. The distances for each locality are calculated by
the astronomical observations.

It is evident that Syene is under the tropic, from the fact that during
the summer solstice the gnomon at mid-day casts no shadow there. As for
the meridian of Syene, it follows very nearly the course of the Nile
from Meroe to Alexandria, a distance of about 10,000 stadia. Syene
itself is situated about midway between these places, consequently from
thence to Meroe is a distance of 5000 stadia. Advancing 3000 stadia
southward in a right line, we come to lands unfitted for habitation on
account of the heat. Consequently the parallel which bounds these
places, and which is the same as that of the Cinnamon Country, is to be
regarded as the boundary and commencement of the habitable earth on the
south. If, then, 3000 stadia be added to the 5000 between Syene and
Meroe, there will be altogether 8000 stadia [from Syene] to the
[southern] extremity of the habitable earth. But from Syene to the
equator there are 16,800 stadia, (for such is the amount of the
four-sixtieths, each sixtieth being equivalent to 4200 stadia,) and
consequently from the [southern] boundaries of the habitable earth to
the equator there are 8800 stadia, and from Alexandria 21,800. [712]
Again, every one is agreed that the voyage from Alexandria to Rhodes,
and thence by Caria and Ionia to the Troad, Byzantium, and the Dnieper,
is in a straight line with the course of the Nile. [713]

Taking therefore these distances, which have been ascertained by
voyages, we have only to find out how far beyond the Dnieper the land is
habitable, (being careful always to continue in the same straight line,)
and we shall arrive at a knowledge of the northern boundaries of our
earth.

Beyond the Dnieper dwell the Roxolani,[714] the last of the Scythians
with which we are acquainted; they are nevertheless more south than the
farthest nations[715] we know of beyond Britain. Beyond these Roxolani
the country is uninhabitable on account of the severity of the climate.
The Sauromatæ[716] who live around the Mæotis, and the other
Scythians[717] as far as the Scythians of the East, dwell farther south.

8. It is true that Pytheas of Marseilles affirms that the farthest
country north of the British islands is Thule; for which place he says
the summer tropic and the arctic circle is all one. But he records no
other particulars concerning it; [he does not say] whether Thule is an
island, or whether it continues habitable up to the point where the
summer tropic becomes one with the arctic circle. [718] For myself, I
fancy that the northern boundaries of the habitable earth are greatly
south of this. Modern writers tell us of nothing beyond Ierne, which
lies just north of Britain, where the people live miserably and like
savages on account of the severity of the cold. It is here in my opinion
the bounds of the habitable earth ought to be fixed.

If on the one hand the parallels of Byzantium and Marseilles are the
same, as Hipparchus asserts on the faith of Pytheas, (for he[719] says
that at Byzantium the gnomon indicates the same amount of shadow as
Pytheas gives for Marseilles,) and at the same time the parallel of the
Dnieper is distant from Byzantium about 3800 stadia, it follows, if we
take into consideration the distance between Marseilles and Britain,
that the circle which passes over the Dnieper traverses Britain as
well. [720] But the truth is that Pytheas, who so frequently misleads
people, deceives in this instance too.

It is generally admitted that a line drawn from the Pillars of Hercules,
and passing over the Strait [of Messina], Athens, and Rhodes, would lie
under the same parallel of latitude. [721] It is likewise admitted, that
the line in passing from the Pillars to the Strait of Sicily divides the
Mediterranean through the midst. [722] Navigators tell us that the
greatest distance from Keltica to Libya, starting from the bottom of the
Galatic Bay, is 5000 stadia, and that this is likewise the greatest
breadth of the Mediterranean. Consequently from the said line to the
bottom of the bay is 2500 stadia; but to Marseilles the distance is
rather less, in consequence of that city being more to the south than
the bottom of the bay. [723] But since from Rhodes to Byzantium is about
4900[724] stadia, it follows that Byzantium must be far north of
Marseilles. [725] The distance from this latter city to Britain is about
the same as from Byzantium to the Dnieper. [726] How far it may be from
Britain to the island of Ierne is not known. As to whether beyond it
there may still be habitable lands, it is not our business to inquire,
as we stated before. It is sufficient for our science to determine this
in the same manner that we did the southern boundaries. We there fixed
the bounds of the habitable earth at 3000 stadia south of Meroe (not
that these were its exact limits, but because they were sufficiently
near); so in this instance they should be placed about the same number
of stadia north of Britain, certainly not more than 4000. [727]

It would not serve any political purpose to be well acquainted with
these distant places and the people who inhabit them; especially if they
are islands whose inhabitants can neither injure us, nor yet benefit us
by their commerce. The Romans might easily have conquered Britain, but
they did not care to do so, as they perceived there was nothing to fear
from the inhabitants, (they not being powerful enough to attack us,) and
that they would gain nothing by occupying the land. Even now it appears
that we gain more by the customs they pay, than we could raise by
tribute, after deducting the wages of the soldiers necessary for
guarding the island and exacting the taxes. And the other islands
adjacent to this would be still more unproductive.

9. If, then, to the distance between Rhodes and the Dnieper be added
four thousand stadia north of the latter place, the whole would come to
12,700 stadia; and since from Rhodes to the southern limit of the
habitable earth there are 16,600 stadia, its total breadth from north to
south would be under 30,000 stadia. [728] Its length from west to east is
stated at 70,000 stadia, the distance being measured from the
extremities of Iberia to those of India, partly over the land and partly
across the sea. That this length is contained within the quadrilateral
aforesaid, is proved by the proportion borne by these parallels to the
equator. Thus the length of the habitable earth is above twice its
breadth. It has been compared in figure to a chlamys, or soldier’s
cloak, because if every part be carefully examined, it will be found
that its breadth is greatly diminished towards the extremities,
especially in the west.

10. We have now been tracing upon a spherical surface the region which
we state to be occupied by the habitable earth; and whoever would
represent the real earth as near as possible by artificial means, should
make a globe like that of Crates, and upon this describe the
quadrilateral within which his chart of geography is to be placed. For
this purpose, however, a large globe is necessary, since the section
mentioned, though but a very small portion of the entire sphere, must be
capable of properly containing all the regions of the habitable earth,
and presenting an accurate view of them to all those who wish to consult
it. Any one who is able will certainly do well to obtain such a globe.
But it should have a diameter of not less than ten feet: those who
cannot obtain a globe of this size, or one nearly as large, had better
draw their chart on a plane-surface, of not less than seven feet. Draw
straight lines, some parallel, for the parallels [of latitude], and
others at right angles to these; we may easily imagine how the eye can
transfer the figure and extent [of these lines] from a plane-surface to
one that is spherical. What we have just observed of the circles in
general, may be said with equal truth touching the oblique circles. On
the globe it is true that the meridians of each country passing the pole
have a tendency to unite in a single point, nevertheless on the
plane-surface of the map, there would be no advantage if the right lines
alone which should represent the meridians were drawn slightly to
converge. The necessity for such a proceeding would scarcely ever be
really felt. Even on our globe itself[729] the tendency of those
meridians (which are transferred to the map as right lines) to converge
is not much, nor any thing near so obvious as their circular tendency.

11. In what follows we shall suppose the chart drawn on a plane-surface;
and our descriptions shall consist of what we ourselves have observed in
our travels by land and sea, and of what we conceive to be credible in
the statements and writings of others. For ourselves, in a westerly
direction we have travelled from Armenia to that part of Tyrrhenia[730]
which is over against Sardinia; and southward, from the Euxine to the
frontiers of Ethiopia. [731] Of all the writers on Geography, not one can
be mentioned who has travelled over a wider extent of the countries
described than we have. Some may have gone farther to the west, but then
they have never been so far east as we have; again, others may have been
farther east, but not so far west; and the same with respect to north
and south. However, in the main, both we and they have availed ourselves
of the reports of others, from which to describe the form, the size, and
the other peculiarities of the country, what they are and how many, in
the same way that the mind forms its conceptions from the information of
the senses. The figure, colour, and size of an apple, its scent, feel to
the touch, and its flavour, are particulars communicated by the senses,
from which the mind forms its conception of an apple. So in large
figures, the senses observe the various parts, while the mind combines
into one conception what is thus seen. And in like manner, men eager
after knowledge, trusting to those who have been to various places, and
to [the descriptions of] travellers in this or that country, gather into
one sketch a view of the whole habitable earth.

In the same way, the generals perform every thing, nevertheless, they
are not present every where, but most of their success depends on
others, since they are obliged to trust to messengers, and issue their
commands in accordance with the reports of others. To pretend that those
only can know who have themselves seen, is to deprive hearing of all
confidence, which, after all, is a better servant of knowledge than
sight itself.

12. Writers of the present day can describe with more certainty [than
formerly] the Britons, the Germans, and the dwellers on either side of
the Danube, the Getæ,[732] the Tyrigetæ, the Bastarnæ,[733] the tribes
dwelling by the Caucasus, such as the Albanians and Iberians. [734] We
are besides possessed of a description of Hyrcania[735] and Bactriana in
the Histories of Parthia written by such men as Apollodorus of
Artemita,[736] who have detailed the boundaries [of those countries]
with greater accuracy than other geographers.

The entrance of a Roman army into Arabia Felix under the command of my
friend and companion Ælius Gallus,[737] and the traffic of the
Alexandrian merchants whose vessels pass up the Nile and Arabian
Gulf[738] to India, have rendered us much better acquainted with these
countries than our predecessors were. I was with Gallus at the time he
was prefect of Egypt, and accompanied him as far as Syene and the
frontiers of Ethiopia, and I found that about one hundred and twenty
ships sail from Myos-hormos[739] to India, although, in the time of the
Ptolemies, scarcely any one would venture on this voyage and the
commerce with the Indies.

13. Our first and most imperative duty[740] then, both in respect to
science and to the necessities of the man of business, is to undertake
to lay down the projection of the different countries on the chart in as
clear a style as possible, and to signify at the same time the relation
and proportion they bear to the whole earth. For such is the
geographer’s peculiar province. It belongs to another science to give an
exact description of the whole earth, and of the entire vertebre of
either zone, and as to whether the vertebre in the opposite quarter of
the earth is inhabited. That such is the case is most probable, but not
that it is inhabited by the same race of men as dwell with us. And it
must therefore be regarded as another habitable earth. We however have
only to describe our own.

14. In its figure the habitable earth resembles a chlamys, or soldier’s
cloak, the greatest breadth of which would be indicated by a line drawn
in the direction of the Nile, commencing from the parallel of the
Cinnamon Country, and the Island of the Egyptian Exiles, and terminating
at the parallel of Ierna; and its length by a line drawn from the west
at right angles to the former, passing by the Pillars of Hercules and
the Strait of Sicily to Rhodes and the Gulf of Issus,[741] then
proceeding along the chain of the Taurus, which divides Asia, and
terminating in the Eastern Ocean,[742] between India and the Scythians
dwelling beyond Bactriana.

We must therefore fancy to ourselves a parallelogram, and within it a
chlamys-shaped figure, described in such a manner that the length of the
one figure may correspond to the length and size of the other, and
likewise breadth to breadth. The habitable earth will therefore be
represented by this kind of chlamys. We have before said that its
breadth is marked out by parallels bounding its sides, and separating on
either side the portions that are habitable from those that are not. On
the north [these parallels] pass over Ierna,[743] and on the side of the
torrid zone over the Cinnamon Country. These lines being produced east
and west to the opposite extremities of the habitable earth, form, when
joined by the perpendiculars falling from their extremities, a kind of
parallelogram. That within this the habitable earth is contained is
evident, since neither its greatest breadth nor length project beyond.
That in configuration it resembles a chlamys is also clear, from the
fact that at either end of its length, the extremities taper to a
point. [744] Owing to the encroachments of the sea, it also loses
something in breadth. This we know from those who have sailed round its
eastern and western points. They inform us that the island called
Taprobana[745] is much to the south of India, but that it is
nevertheless inhabited, and is situated opposite to the island of the
Egyptians and the Cinnamon Country, as the temperature of their
atmospheres is similar. On the other side the country about the
embouchure of the Hyrcanian Sea[746] is farther north than the farthest
Scythians who dwell beyond India, and Ierna still more so. It is
likewise stated of the country beyond the Pillars of Hercules, that the
most western point of the habitable earth is the promontory of the
Iberians named the Sacred Promontory. [747] It lies nearly in a line with
Gades, the Pillars of Hercules, the Strait of Sicily, and Rhodes;[748]
for they say that the horologes accord, as also the periodical winds,
and the duration of the longest nights and days, which consist of
fourteen and a half equinoctial hours. From the coast of Gades and
Iberia . . . is said to have been formerly observed. [749]

Posidonius relates, that from the top of a high house in a town about
400 stadia distant from the places mentioned, he perceived a star which
he believed to be Canopus, both in consequence of the testimony of those
who having proceeded a little to the south of Iberia affirmed that they
could perceive it, and also of the tradition preserved at Cnidus; for
the observatory of Eudoxus, from whence he is reported to have viewed
Canopus, is not much higher than these houses; and Cnidus is under the
same parallel as Rhodes, which is likewise that of Gades and its
sea-coast.

15. Sailing thence, Libya lies to the south. Its most western portions
project a little beyond Gades; it afterwards forms a narrow promontory
receding towards the east and south, and becoming slightly broader, till
it touches upon the western Ethiopians, who are the last[750] of the
nations situated below Carthage, and adjoin the parallel of the Cinnamon
Country. They, on the contrary, who sail from the Sacred
Promontory,[751] towards the Artabri,[752] journey northwards, having
Lusitania[753] on the right hand. The remaining portion forms an obtuse
angle towards the east as far as the extremities of the Pyrenees which
terminate at the ocean. Northward and opposite to this are the western
coasts of Britain. Northward and opposite to the Artabri are the islands
denominated Cassiterides,[754] situated in the high seas, but under
nearly the same latitude as Britain. From this it appears to what a
degree the extremities of the habitable earth are narrowed by the
surrounding sea.

16. Such being the configuration of the whole earth, it will be
convenient to take two straight lines, cutting each other at right
angles, and running the one through its greatest length, and the other
through its breadth. The former of these lines will represent one of the
parallels, and the latter one of the meridians. [755] Afterwards we must
imagine other lines parallel to either of these respectively, and
dividing both the land and sea with which we are acquainted. By this
means the form of the habitable earth will appear more clearly to be
such as we have described it; likewise the extent of the various lines,
whether traced through its length or breadth, and the latitudes [of
places], will also be more clearly distinguished, whether north or
south, as also [the longitudes] whether east or west. However, these
right lines should be drawn through places that are known. Two have
already been thus fixed upon, I mean the two middle [lines] running
through its length and breadth, which have been already explained, and
by means of these the others may easily be determined. These lines will
serve us as marks to distinguish countries situated under the same
parallel, and otherwise to determine different positions both in respect
to the other portions of the earth, and also of the celestial
appearances.

17. The ocean it is which principally divides the earth into various
countries, and moulds its form. It creates bays, seas, straits,
isthmuses, peninsulas, and capes; while rivers and mountains serve to
the same purpose. It is by these means that continents, nations, and the
position of cities are capable of being clearly distinguished, together
with those various other details of which a chorographical chart is
full. Amongst these latter are the multitude of islands scattered
throughout the seas, and along every coast; each of them distinguished
by some good or bad quality, by certain advantages or disadvantages, due
either to nature or to art.

The natural advantages [of a place] should always be mentioned, since
they are permanent. Advantages which are adventitious are liable to
change, although the majority of those which have continued for any
length of time should not be passed over, nor even those which, although
but recent, have yet acquired some note and celebrity. For those which
continue, come to be regarded by posterity not as works of art, but as
the natural advantages of the place; these therefore it is evident we
must notice. True it is, that to many a city we may apply the reflection
of Demosthenes[756] on Olynthus and its neighbouring towns: “So
completely have they vanished, that no one who should now visit their
sites could say that they had ever been inhabited! ”

Still we are gratified by visiting these and similar localities, being
desirous of beholding the traces of such celebrated places, and the
tombs of famous men. In like manner we should record laws and forms of
government no longer in existence, since these are serviceable to have
in mind, equally with the remembrance of actions, whether for the sake
of imitating or avoiding the like.

18. Continuing our former sketch, we now state that the earth which we
inhabit contains numerous gulfs, formed by the exterior sea or ocean
which surrounds it. Of these there are four principal. The northern,
called the Caspian, by others designated the Hyrcanian Sea, the Persian
and Arabian Gulfs, formed by the [Southern] Sea, the one being nearly
opposite to the Caspian, the other to the Euxine; the fourth, which in
size is much more considerable than the others, is called the Internal
and Our Sea. [757] It commences in the west at the Strait of the Pillars
of Hercules, and continues in an easterly direction, but with varying
breadth. Farther in, it becomes divided, and terminates in two gulfs;
that on the left being called the Euxine Sea, while the other consists
of the seas of Egypt, Pamphylia, and Issus. All these gulfs formed by
the exterior sea, have a narrow entrance; those of the Arabian Gulf,
however, and the Pillars of Hercules are smaller than the rest. [758] The
land which surrounds these, as before remarked, consists of three
divisions. Of these, the configuration of Europe is the most irregular.
Libya, on the contrary, is the most regular; while Asia holds a middle
place between the two. In all of these continents, the regularity or
irregularity of form relates merely to the interior coasts; the
exterior, with the exception of the gulfs before mentioned, is
unindented, and, as I have stated, resembles a chlamys in its form; any
slight differences being of course overlooked, as in large matters what
is insignificant passes for nothing. Since in geographical descriptions
we not only aim at portraying the configuration and extent of various
places, but also their common boundaries, we will remark here, as we
have done before, that the coasts of the Internal Sea[759] present a
greater variety in their appearance than those of the Exterior [Ocean];
the former is also much better known, its climate is more temperate, and
more civilized cities and nations are here than there. We are also
anxious to be informed where the form of government, the arts, and
whatever else ministers to intelligence, produce the greatest results.
Interest will always lead us to where the relations of commerce and
society are most easily established, and these are advantages to be
found where government is administered, or rather where it is well
administered. In each of these particulars, as before remarked, Our
Sea[760] possesses great advantages, and here therefore we will begin
our description.

19. This gulf,[761] as before stated, commences at the Strait of the
Pillars; this at its narrowest part is said to be 70 stadia. Having
sailed down a distance of 120 stadia, the shores widen considerably,
especially to the left, and you behold a vast sea, bounded on the right
by the shore of Libya as far as Carthage, and on the opposite side by
those of Iberia and Keltica as far as Narbonne and Marseilles, thence by
the Ligurian,[762] and finally by the Italian coast to the Strait of
Sicily. The eastern side of this sea is formed by Sicily and the straits
on either side of it. That next Italy being 7 stadia [in breadth], and
that next Carthage 1500 stadia. The line drawn from the Pillars to the
lesser strait of 7 stadia, forms part of the line to Rhodes and the
Taurus, and intersects the sea under discussion about its middle; this
line is said to be 12,000 stadia, which is accordingly the length of the
sea. Its greatest breadth is about 5000 stadia, and extends from the
Galatic Gulf, between Marseilles and Narbonne, to the opposite coast of
Libya.

The portion of the sea which washes Libya is called the Libyan Sea;
that surrounding the land opposite is designated by the respective names
of the Iberian, the Ligurian,[763] and the Sardinian Seas, while the
remaining portion as far as Sicily is named the Tyrrhenian Sea. [764] All
along the coast between the Tyrrhenian and Ligurian Seas, there are
numerous islands, the largest of which are Sardinia and Cyrnus,[765]
always excepting Sicily, which is larger and more fertile than any of
our islands. The remainder are much smaller. Of this number are, in the
high sea, Pandataria[766] and Pontia,[767] and close to the shore
Æthalia,[768] Planasia,[769] Pithecussa,[770] Prochyta,[771]
Capriæ,[772] Leucosia,[773] and many others. On the other[774] side of
the Ligurian shore, and along the rest of the coast as far as the
Pillars, there are but few islands; the Gymnasiæ[775] and Ebusus[776]
are of this number. There are likewise but few islands along the coasts
of Libya and Sicily. We may mention however Cossura,[777] Ægimurus,[778]
and the Lipari Islands, likewise called the Islands of Æolus.

20. After Sicily and the straits on either side of it,[779] there are
other seas, for instance, that opposite the Syrtes and the
Cyrenaic,[780] the Syrtes themselves, and the sea formerly called the
Ausonian, but which, as it flows into and forms part of the Sea of
Sicily, is now included under the latter name. The sea opposite to the
Syrtes and the Cyrenaic is called the Libyan Sea; it extends as far as
the Sea of Egypt.

The Lesser Syrtes[781] is about 1600 stadia in circumference. On either
side of its mouth lie the islands of Meninx[782] and Kerkina. [783] The
Greater Syrtes[784] is (according to Eratosthenes) 5000 stadia in
circuit, and in depth 1800, from the Hesperides[785] to Automala,[786]
and the frontier which separates the Cyrenaic from the rest of Libya.
According to others, its circumference is only 4000 stadia, its depth
1500 stadia, and the breadth at its mouth the same.

The Sea of Sicily washes Italy, from the Strait of Rhegium[787] to
Locris,[788] and also the eastern coast of Sicily from Messene[789] to
Syracuse[790] and Pachynus. [791] On the eastern side it reaches to the
promontories of Crete, surrounds the greater part of Peloponnesus, and
fills the Gulf of Corinth. [792] On the north it advances to the Iapygian
Promontory,[793] the mouth of the Ionian Gulf,[794] the southern parts
of Epirus,[795] as far as the Ambracic Gulf,[796] and the continuation
of the coast which forms the Corinthian Gulf, near the Peloponnesus.

The Ionian Gulf forms part of what we now call the Adriatic. [797]
Illyria forms its right side, and Italy as far as the recess where
Aquileia is situated, the left.

The Adriatic stretches north and west; it is long and narrow, being in
length about 6000 stadia, and its greatest breadth 1200. There are many
islands situated here opposite the coasts of Illyria, such as the
Absyrtides,[798] Cyrictica,[799] and the Libyrnides,[800] also
Issa,[801] Tragurium,[802] the Black Corcyra,[803] and Pharos. [804]
Opposite to Italy are the Islands of Diomede. [805] The Sea of Sicily is
said to be 4500 stadia from Pachynus to Crete, and the same distance to
Tænarus in Laconia. [806] From the extremities of Iapygia to the bottom
of the Gulf of Corinth the distance is less than 3000 stadia, while from
Iapygia to Libya it is more than 4000. In this sea are the Islands of
Corcyra[807] and Sybota,[808] opposite the coasts of Epirus; and beyond
these, opposite the Gulf of Corinth, Cephallenia,[809] Ithaca,
Zacynth,[810] and the Echinades. [811]

21. Next to the Sea of Sicily, are the Cretan, Saronic,[812] and Myrtoan
Seas, comprised between Crete, Argia,[813] and Attica. [814] Their
greatest breadth, measured from Attica, is 1200 stadia, and their length
not quite double the distance. Within are included the Islands of
Cythera,[815] Calauria,[816] Ægina,[817] Salamis,[818] and certain of
the Cyclades. [819] Adjacent to these are the Ægæan Sea,[820] the Gulf of
Melas,[821] the Hellespont,[822] the Icarian and Carpathian Seas,[823]
as far as Rhodes, Crete, Cnidus, and the commencement of Asia. [In these
seas] are the Cyclades, the Sporades, and the islands opposite Caria,
Ionia, and Æolia, as far as the Troad, namely, Cos,[824] Samos,[825]
Chios,[826] Lesbos,[827] and Tenedos;[828] likewise on the Grecian side
as far as Macedonia and the borders of Thrace, Eubœa,[829] Scyros,[830]
Peparethus,[831] Lemnos,[832] Thasos,[833] Imbros,[834]
Samothracia,[835] and numerous others, of which it is our intention to
speak in detail. The length of this sea is about 4000 stadia, or rather
more,[836] its breadth about 2000. [837] It is surrounded by the coast
of Asia above mentioned, and by those of Greece from Sunium[838]
northwards to the Thermaic Gulf[839] and the Gulfs of Macedonia,[840]
and as far as the Thracian Chersonesus. [841]

22. Here too is the strait, seven stadia in length, which is between
Sestos[842] and Abydos,[843] and through which the Ægæan and Hellespont
communicate with another sea to the north, named the Propontis,[844] and
this again with another called the Euxine. This latter is, so to speak,
a double sea, for towards its middle are two projecting promontories,
one to the north, on the side of Europe, and the other opposite from the
coast of Asia, which leave only a narrow passage between them, and thus
form two great seas. The European promontory is named Criu-metopon;[845]
that of Asia, Carambis. [846] They are distant from each other about 2500
stadia. [847] The length of the western portion of this sea[848] from
Byzantium to the outlets of the Dnieper is 3800 stadia, its breadth
2000. Here is situated the Island of Leuca. [849] The eastern portion is
oblong and terminates in the narrow recess in which Dioscurias is
situated. In length it is 5000 stadia, or rather more, and in breadth
about 3000. The entire circumference of the Euxine is about 25,000
stadia.
Some have compared the shape of its circumference to a Scythian
bow when bent, the string representing the southern portions of the
Euxine, (viz. the coast, from its mouth to the recess in which
Dioscurias is situated; for, with the exception of Carambis, the
sinuosities of the shore are but trifling, so that it may be justly
compared to a straight line,) and the remainder [of the circumference
representing] the wood of the bow with its double curve, the uppermost
very much rounded, the lower more in a straight line. So this sea forms
two gulfs, the western much more rounded than the other.

23. To the north of the eastern Gulf of the Pontus, is the Lake Mæotis,
whose perimeter is 9000 stadia or rather more. It communicates with the
Euxine by means of the Cimmerian Bosphorus,[850] and the Euxine with the
Propontis[851] by the Thracian Bosphorus, for such is the name given to
the Strait of Byzantium, which is four stadia in breadth. The length of
the Propontis from the Troad to Byzantium is stated to be 1500 stadia.
Its breadth is about the same. It is in this sea that the Island of the
Cyziceni[852] is situated, with the other islands around it.

24. Such and so great is the extent of the Ægæan Sea towards the
north. [853] Again, starting from Rhodes, the [Mediterranean] forms the
seas of Egypt, Pamphylia, and Issus, extending in an easterly direction
from Cilicia to Issus, a distance of 5000 stadia, along the coasts of
Lycia, Pamphylia, and the whole of Cilicia. From thence Syria, Phœnicia,
and Egypt surround the sea to the south and west as far as Alexandria.
The Island of Cyprus is situated in the Gulfs of Issus and Pamphylia,
close to the Sea of Egypt. The passage between Rhodes and Alexandria
from north [to south] is about 4000 stadia;[854] sailing round the
coasts it is double this distance. Eratosthenes informs us that,
although the above is the distance according to some mariners, others
avow distinctly that it amounts to 5000 stadia; while he himself, from
observations of the shadows indicated by the gnomon, calculates it at
3750.

That part of the Mediterranean Sea which washes the coasts of Cilicia
and Pamphylia together with the right side of the Euxine, the Propontis,
and the sea-coast beyond this as far as Pamphylia, form a kind of
extensive Chersonesus, the isthmus of which is also large, and reaches
from the sea near Tarsus[855] to the city of Amisus,[856] and thence to
the Themiscyran[857] plain of the Amazons. In fact the whole region
within this line as far as Caria and Ionia, and the nations dwelling on
this side the Halys,[858] is entirely surrounded by the Ægæan and the
aforementioned parts of the Mediterranean and Euxine Seas. [859] This is
what we call Asia properly,[860] although the whole continent bears the
same name.

25. To speak shortly, the southernmost point of Our Sea is the recess of
the Greater Syrtes;[861] next to this Alexandria in Egypt, and the
mouths of the Nile; while the most northerly is the mouth of the
Dnieper, or if the Mæotis be considered to belong to the Euxine, (and it
certainly does appear to form a part of it,) the mouth of the Don. The
Strait at the Pillars is the most westerly point, and the most easterly
is the said recess, in which Dioscurias[862] is situated; and not, as
Eratosthenes falsely states, the Gulf of Issus,[863] which is under the
same meridian as Amisus[864] and Themiscyra, and, if you will have it
so, Sidene as far as Pharnacia. [865] Proceeding thence in an easterly
direction to Dioscurias, the distance by sea is above 3000 stadia, as
will be seen more plainly in my detailed account of those countries.
Such then is the Mediterranean.

26. We must now describe the countries which surround it; and here we
will begin from the same point, whence we commenced our description of
the sea itself.

Entering the Strait at the Pillars, Libya, as far as the river Nile, is
on the right hand, and to the left, on the other side of the Strait, is
Europe, as far as the Don. Asia bounds both these continents. We will
commence with Europe, both because its figure is more varied, and also
because it is the quarter most favourable to the mental and social
ennoblement of man, and produces a greater portion of comforts than the
other continents.

Now the whole of Europe is habitable with the exception of a small part,
which cannot be dwelt in, on account of the severity of the cold, and
which borders on the Hamaxœci,[866] who dwell by the Don, Mæotis, and
Dnieper. The wintry and mountainous parts of the habitable earth would
seem to afford by nature but a miserable means of existence;
nevertheless, by good management, places scarcely inhabited by any but
robbers, may be got into condition. Thus the Greeks, though dwelling
amidst rocks and mountains, live in comfort, owing to their economy in
government and the arts, and all the other appliances of life. Thus too
the Romans, after subduing numerous nations who were leading a savage
life, either induced by the rockiness of their countries, or want of
ports, or severity of the cold, or for other reasons scarcely habitable,
have taught the arts of commerce to many who were formerly in total
ignorance, and spread civilization amongst the most savage. Where the
climate is equable and mild, nature herself does much towards the
production of these advantages. As in such favoured regions every thing
inclines to peace, so those which are sterile generate bravery and a
disposition to war. These two races receive mutual advantages from each
other, the one aiding by their arms, the other by their husbandry, arts,
and institutions. Harm must result to both when failing to act in
concert, but the advantage will lie on the side of those accustomed to
arms, except in instances where they are overpowered by multitudes. This
continent is very much favoured in this respect, being interspersed
with plains and mountains, so that every where the foundations of
husbandry, civilization, and hardihood lie side by side. The number of
those who cultivate the arts of peace, is, however, the most numerous,
which preponderance over the whole is mainly due to the influence of the
government, first of the Greeks, and afterwards of the Macedonians and
Romans.

Europe has thus within itself resources both for war [and peace]. It is
amply supplied with warriors, and also with men fitted for the labours
of agriculture, and the life of the towns. It is likewise distinguished
for producing in perfection those fruits of the earth necessary to life,
and all the useful metals. Perfumes and precious stones must be imported
from abroad, but as far as the comfort of life is concerned, the want or
the possession of these can make no difference. The country likewise
abounds in cattle, while of wild beasts the number is but small. Such is
the general nature of this continent.

27. We will now describe separately the various countries into which it
is divided. The first of these on the west is Iberia, which resembles
the hide of an ox [spread out]; the eastern portions, which correspond
to the neck, adjoining the neighbouring country of Gaul. The two
countries are divided on this side by the chain of mountains called the
Pyrenees; on all its other sides it is surrounded by sea; on the south,
as far as the Pillars, by Our Sea; and thence to the northern extremity
of the Pyrenees by the Atlantic. The greatest length of this country is
about 6000 stadia, its breadth 5000. [867]

28. East of this is Keltica, which extends as far as the Rhine. Its
northern side is washed by the entire of the British Channel, for this
island lies opposite and parallel to it throughout, extending as much as
5000 stadia in length. Its eastern side is bounded by the river Rhine,
whose stream runs parallel with the Pyrenees; and its southern side
commencing from the Rhine, [is bounded] partly by the Alps, and partly
by Our Sea; where what is called the Galatic Gulf[868] runs in, and on
this are situated the far-famed cities of Marseilles and Narbonne. Right
opposite to the Gulf on the other side of the land, lies another Gulf,
called by the same name, Galatic,[869] looking towards the north and
Britain. It is here that the breadth of Keltica is the narrowest, being
contracted into an isthmus less than 3000 stadia, but more than 2000.
Within this region there is a mountain ridge, named Mount Cemmenus,[870]
which runs nearly at right angles to the Pyrenees, and terminates in the
central plains of Keltica. [871] The Alps, which are a very lofty range
of mountains, form a curved line, the convex side of which is turned
towards the plains of Keltica, mentioned before, and Mount Cemmenus, and
the concave towards Liguria[872] and Italy.

The Alps are inhabited by numerous nations, but all Keltic with the
exception of the Ligurians, and these, though of a different race,
closely resemble them in their manner of life. They inhabit that portion
of the Alps which is next the Apennines, and also a part of the
Apennines themselves. This latter mountain ridge traverses the whole
length of Italy from north to south, and terminates at the Strait of
Sicily.

29. The first parts of Italy are the plains situated under the Alps, as
far as the recess of the Adriatic and the neighbouring places. [873] The
parts beyond form a narrow and long slip, resembling a peninsula,
traversed, as I have said, throughout its length by the Apennines; its
length is 7000 stadia, but its breadth is very unequal. The seas which
form the peninsula of Italy are, the Tyrrhenian, which commences from
the Ligurian, the Ausonian, and the Adriatic. [874]

30. After Italy and Keltica, the remainder of Europe extends towards the
east, and is divided into two by the Danube. This river flows from west
to east, and discharges itself into the Euxine Sea, leaving on its left
the entire of Germany commencing from the Rhine, as well as the whole of
the Getæ, the Tyrigetæ, the Bastarnæ, and the Sauromatæ, as far as the
river Don, and the Lake Mæotis,[875] on its right being the whole of
Thrace and Illyria,[876] and in fine the rest of Greece.

Fronting Europe lie the islands which we have mentioned. Without the
Pillars, Gadeira,[877] the Cassiterides,[878] and the Britannic Isles.
Within the Pillars are the Gymnesian Islands,[879] the other little
islands of the Phœnicians,[880] the Marseillais, and the Ligurians;
those fronting Italy as far as the islands of Æolus and Sicily, and the
whole of those[881] along Epirus and Greece, as far as Macedonia and the
Thracian Chersonesus.

31. From the Don and the Mæotis[882] commences [Asia] on this side the
Taurus; beyond these is [Asia] beyond the Taurus. For since this
continent is divided into two by the chain of the Taurus, which extends
from the extremities of Pamphylia to the shores of the Eastern Sea,[883]
inhabited by the Indians and neighbouring Scythians, the Greeks
naturally called that part of the continent situated north of these
mountains [Asia] on this side the Taurus, and that on the south [Asia]
beyond the Taurus. Consequently the parts adjacent to the Mæotis and Don
are on this side the Taurus. The first of these is the territory between
the Caspian Sea and the Euxine, bounded on one side[884] by the Don, the
Exterior Ocean,[885] and the Sea of Hyrcania; on the other[886] by the
Isthmus where it is narrowest from the recess of the Euxine to the
Caspian.

Secondly, but still on this side the Taurus, are the countries above the
Sea of Hyrcania as far as the Indians and Scythians, who dwell along
the said sea[887] and Mount Imaus. These countries are possessed on the
one side by the Mæotæ,[888] and the people dwelling between the Sea of
Hyrcania and the Euxine as far as the Caucasus, the Iberians[889] and
Albanians,[890] viz. the Sauromatians, Scythians,[891] Achæans, Zygi,
and Heniochi: on the other side beyond the Sea of Hyrcania,[892] by the
Scythians,[893] Hyrcanians, Parthians, Bactrians, Sogdians, and the
other nations of India farther towards the north. To the south, partly
by the Sea of Hyrcania, and partly by the whole isthmus which separates
this sea from the Euxine, is situated the greater part of Armenia,
Colchis,[894] the whole of Cappadocia[895] as far as the Euxine, and the
Tibaranic nations. [896] Further [west] is the country designated on this
side the Halys,[897] containing on the side of the Euxine and Propontis
the Paphlagonians, Bithynians, Mysians, and Phrygia on the Hellespont,
which comprehends the Troad; and on the side of the Ægæan and adjacent
seas Æolia, Ionia, Caria, and Lycia. Inland is the Phrygia which
contains that portion of Gallo-Græcia styled Galatia, Phrygia
Epictetus,[898] the Lycaonians, and the Lydians.

32. Next these on this side the Taurus are the mountaineers of
Paropamisus, and various tribes of Parthians, Medes, Armenians,
Cilicians, with “the Lycaonians,”[899] and Pisidians. [900] After these
mountaineers come the people dwelling beyond the Taurus. First amongst
these is India, a nation greater and more flourishing than any other;
they extend as far as the Eastern Sea[901] and the southern part of the
Atlantic. In the most southerly part of this sea opposite to India is
situated the island of Taprobana,[902] which is not less than Britain.
Beyond India to the west, and leaving the mountains [of the Taurus] on
the right, is a vast region, miserably inhabited, on account of the
sterility of its soil, by men of different races, who are absolutely in
a savage state. They are named Arians, and extend from the mountains to
Gedrosia and Carmania. [903] Beyond these towards the sea are the
Persians,[904] the Susians,[905] and the Babylonians,[906] situated
along the Persian Gulf, besides several smaller neighbouring states. On
the side of the mountains and amidst the mountains are the Parthians,
the Medes, the Armenians, and the nations adjoining these, together with
Mesopotamia. [907] Beyond Mesopotamia are the countries on this side the
Euphrates; viz. the whole of Arabia Felix, bounded by the entire Arabian
and Persian Gulfs, together with the country of the Scenitæ and
Phylarchi, who are situated along the Euphrates and in Syria. Beyond the
Arabian Gulf and as far as the Nile dwell the Ethiopians[908] and
Arabians,[909] and next these the Egyptians, Syrians, and
Cilicians,[910] both those styled Trachiotæ and others besides, and last
of all the Pamphylians. [911]

33. After Asia comes Libya, which adjoins Egypt and Ethiopia. The coast
next us, from Alexandria almost to the Pillars, is in a straight line,
with the exception of the Syrtes, the sinuosities of some moderately
sized bays, and the projection of the promontories by which they are
formed. The side next the ocean from Ethiopia up to a certain point is
almost parallel to the former; but after this the southern portions
become narrowed into a sharp peak, extending a little beyond the Pillars
of Hercules, and giving to the country something the figure of a
trapezium. Its appearance, both by the accounts of other writers, and
also the description given to ourselves by Cnæus Piso, who was governor
of this province, is that of a panther’s skin, being dotted over with
habitations surrounded by parched and desert land: these habitations the
Egyptians call Auases. [912] This continent offers besides several other
peculiarities, which may be said to divide it into three distinct
portions. Most of the coast next us is very fertile, more especially
about the Cyrenaic and the parts about Carthage, as far as Maurusia and
the Pillars of Hercules. [913] Next the ocean it is likewise tolerably
fitted for the habitation of man; but not so the centre of the country,
which produces silphium;[914] this for the most part is barren, rugged,
and sandy; and the same is the case with regard to the whole of Asia
lying under the same right line which traverses Ethiopia, the
Troglodytic,[915] Arabia, and the part of Gedrosia occupied by the
Ichthyophagi. [916] The people inhabiting Libya are for the most part
unknown to us, as it has rarely been entered, either by armies or
adventurers. But few of its inhabitants from the farther parts come
amongst us, and their accounts are both incomplete and not to be relied
on. The sum of what they say is as follows. Those which are most
southern are called Ethiopians. [917] North of these the principal
nations are the Garamantes, the Pharusians, and the Nigritæ. [918] Still
farther north are the Gætuli. Close to the sea, and adjoining it next
Egypt, and as far as the Cyrenaic, dwell the Marmaridæ. [919] Above[920]
the Cyrenaic and the Syrtes[921] are the Psylli and Nasamones,[922] and
certain of the Gætuli; and after them the Asbystæ[923] and Byzacii,[924]
as far as Carthage. Carthage is vast. Adjoining it are the Numidæ;[925]
of these people the tribes best known to us are called the Masylies and
the Masæsylii. The most westerly are the Maurusians. [926] The whole
land, from Carthage to the Pillars of Hercules, is fertile. Nevertheless
it abounds in wild beasts no less than the interior; and it does not
seem improbable that the cause why the name of Nomades,[927] or
Wanderers, was bestowed on certain of these people originated in their
not being able anciently to devote themselves to husbandry on account of
the wild beasts. At the present day, when they are well skilled in
hunting, and are besides assisted by the Romans in their rage for the
spectacle of fights with beasts, they are both masters of the beasts and
of husbandry. This finishes what we have to say on the continents.

34. It now remains for us to speak of the climata. [928] Of these too we
shall give but a general description, commencing with those lines which
we have denominated elementary, namely, those which determine the
greatest length and breadth of the [habitable earth], but especially its
breadth.

To enter fully into this subject is the duty of astronomers. This has
been done by Hipparchus, who has noted down (as he says) the differences
of the heavenly appearances for every degree of that quarter of the
globe in which our habitable earth is situated, namely, from the equator
to the north pole.

What is beyond our habitable earth it is not however the business of the
geographer to consider. Nor yet even in regard to the various parts of
the habitable earth must too minute and numerous differences be noticed,
since to the man of the world they are perplexing; it will suffice to
give the most striking and simple of the statements of Hipparchus.
Assuming, as he does himself after the assertion of Eratosthenes, that
the circumference of the earth is 252,000 stadia, the differences of the
[celestial] phenomena will not be great for each [degree] within the
limits between which the habitable earth is contained. Supposing we cut
the grand circle of the earth into 360 divisions, each of these
divisions will consist of 700 stadia. This is the calculation adopted by
[Hipparchus] to fix the distances, which [as we said] should be taken
under the before-mentioned meridian of Meroe. He commences at the
regions situated under the equator, and stopping from time to time at
every 700 stadia along the whole length of the meridian above mentioned,
proceeds to describe the celestial phenomena as they appear from each.
But the equator is not the place for us to start from. For even if there
be there a habitable region, as some suppose, it forms a habitable earth
to itself, a narrow slip enclosed by the regions uninhabitable on
account of the heat; and can be no part of our habitable earth. Now the
geographer should attend to none but our own habitable earth, which is
confined by certain boundaries; on the south by the parallel which
passes over the Cinnamon Country;[929] on the north by that which passes
over Ierna. [930] But keeping in mind the scheme of our geography, we
have no occasion to mark all the places comprehended within this
distance, nor yet all the celestial phenomena. We must however
commence, as Hipparchus does, with the southern regions.

35. He tells us that the people who dwell under the parallel of the
Cinnamon Country, which he places at 3000 stadia south of Meroe,[931]
and 8800 [north] of the equator, live nearly at equal distances between
the equator and the summer tropic which passes by Syene; for Syene is
5000 stadia [north] of Meroe. They are the first[932] for whom the whole
[constellation] of the Lesser Bear is comprised within the Artic Circle,
and to whom it is always visible. For the bright and most southern star,
at the tip of the tail, is here contained within the Arctic Circle, and
appears to touch the horizon.

The Arabian Gulf lies eastward parallel to the said meridian. Its
egress[933] into the Exterior Ocean is [in the same latitude as] the
Cinnamon Country, the place where anciently they used to hunt the
elephants. The parallel of the Cinnamon Country on the one side[934]
passes a little south of Taprobana, or perhaps over its southern
extremity; and on the other side[935] over the most southern parts of
Libya. [936]

36. At Meroe and Ptolemais[937] in the Troglodytic the longest day
consists of thirteen equinoctial hours. These cities are at nearly equal
distances between the equator and Alexandria, the preponderance on the
side of the equator being only 1800 stadia. The parallel of Meroe passes
on one side[938] over unknown countries, and on the other[939] over the
extremities of India. [940] At Syene, and at Berenice, which is situated
on the Arabian Gulf and in the Troglodytic, at the summer solstice the
sun is vertical, and the longest day consists of thirteen equinoctial
hours and a half, and the whole of the Greater Bear appears within the
Arctic Circle, with the exception of his thighs, the tip of his tail,
and one of the stars composing his body. The parallel of Syene traverses
on one side[941] the portion of Gedrosia occupied by the Ichthyophagi,
and India; and on the other side[942] the countries situated south of
Cyrene by rather less than 5000 stadia.

37. In all the countries situated between the tropic and the equatorial
circle, the shadows fall [alternately] on either side, north and south.
In those which are north of Syene and beyond the summer tropic the
shadows at mid-day fall to the north. The former are called amphiscii,
the latter heteroscii. There is also another method of determining what
places are under the tropic, which we spoke of in our observations on
the zones. The soil is sandy, arid, and produces nothing but silphium,
while more to the south the land is well irrigated and fertile.

38. In the countries situated about 400 stadia south of the parallel of
Alexandria and Cyrene, where the longest day consists of fourteen
equinoctial hours, Arcturus passes the zenith, slightly declining
towards the south. At Alexandria at the time of the equinox the
proportion which the gnomon bears to the shadow is as five to
seven. [943] Thus they are south of Carthage 1300 stadia, that is,
admitting that in Carthage at the time of the equinox the proportion
which the gnomon bears to the shadow is as eleven to seven. This
parallel on the one side[944] passes by Cyrene and the regions 900
stadia south of Carthage as far as the midst of Maurusia;[945] and on
the other side[946] through Egypt,[947] Cœlosyria, Upper Syria,
Babylonia, Susiana,[948] Persia,[949] Carmania,[950] Upper
Gedrosia,[951] and India.

39. At Ptolemais in Phœnicia,[952] and at Sidon[953] and Tyre,[954] the
longest day consists of fourteen hours and a quarter. These cities are
north of Alexandria by about 1600 stadia, and north of Carthage about
700. In the Peloponnesus, and about the middle of Rhodes, at
Xanthus[955] in Lycia, or a little to the south of this place, and at
400 stadia south of Syracuse,[956] the longest day consists of fourteen
and a half equinoctial hours. These places are distant from Alexandria
3640 stadia. . . . This parallel, according to Eratosthenes, passes
through Caria, Lycaonia, Cataonia, Media, the Caspian Gates, and India
next the Caucasus. [957]

40. In the parts of the Troad next Alexandria[958] in Amphipolis,[959]
Apollonia in Epirus,[960] the countries just south of Rome and north of
Neapolis, the longest day consists of fifteen hours. This parallel is
distant from that of Alexandria in Egypt 7000 stadia to the north, above
28,800 stadia north of the equator, and 3400 stadia from the parallel of
Rhodes; it is south of Byzantium, Nicæa,[961] and Marseilles 1500
stadia. The parallel of Lysimachia[962] is a little to the north, and
according to Eratosthenes passes through Mysia,[963] Paphlagonia,
Sinope,[964] Hyrcania,[965] and Bactra. [966]

41. About Byzantium the longest day consists of fifteen and a quarter
equinoctial hours; the proportion borne by the gnomon to the shadow at
the summer solstice, is as 120 to 42, minus one-fifth. These places are
distant[967] from the middle of Rhodes about 4900 stadia, and 30,300
from the equator. Sailing into the Euxine and advancing 1400 stadia to
the north, the longest day is found to consist of fifteen and a half
equinoctial hours. These places are equi-distant between the pole and
equatorial circle; the arctic circle is at their zenith, the star in the
neck of Cassiopeia is within this circle, the star forming the right
elbow of Perseus being a little more to the north.

42. In regions 3800 stadia north of Byzantium the longest day consists
of sixteen equinoctial hours; the constellation Cassiopeia being brought
within the arctic circle. These regions are situated around [the mouth
of] the Dnieper and the southern parts of the Mæotis, at a distance from
the equator of 34,100 stadia; and the northern part of the horizon
during almost all the summer nights is illuminated by the light of the
sun; a certain degree of light continuing from sunset to sunrise. For
the summer tropic is distant from the horizon only the half and the
twelfth part of a sign[968] [of the zodiac], and this therefore is the
greatest distance of the sun below the horizon at midnight. With us when
the sun is at this distance from the horizon before sunrise and after
sunset, the atmosphere is enlightened to the east and west respectively.
In the winter the sun when at the highest is nine cubits above the
horizon. [969] These places, according to Eratosthenes, are distant from
Meroe rather more than 23,000 stadia,[970] for he says that [from the
parallel of Meroe] to the Hellespont[971] there are 18,000 stadia, and
thence to the Dnieper 5000 more. In regions distant 6300 stadia from
Byzantium, and north of the Mæotis, the sun during the winter time is,
when highest, six cubits [above the horizon]. The longest day consists
of seventeen hours.

43. The countries beyond this which border upon the regions
uninhabitable on account of their cold, have no interest to the
geographer. He who desires to learn about them, and the celestial
phenomena which Hipparchus has described, but which we pass over as
being too much in detail for our present undertaking, must seek for them
in that author. The statements of Posidonius concerning the periscii,
the amphiscii, and the heteroscii are likewise too detailed. Still we
must touch on these points sufficiently to explain his view, and to
point out how far such matters are serviceable in geography, and how far
not. The terms made use of refer to the shadows cast from the sun. The
sun appears to the senses to describe a circle parallel to that of the
earth. [972] Of those people for whom each revolution of the earth
produces a day and a night, the sun being carried first over, then
under, the earth, some are denominated amphiscii, others heteroscii. The
amphiscii are the inhabitants of countries in which when a gnomon is
placed perpendicularly on a plane surface, the shadow which it casts at
mid-day, falls first to one side then to the other, as the sun illumines
first this side, then that. This however only occurs in places situated
between the tropics. The heteroscii are those amongst whom the shadow
always falls to the north, as with us; or to the south, as amongst
those who inhabit the other temperate zone. This occurs in all those
regions where the arctic circle is less than the tropic. Where however
it becomes the same as or greater than the tropic, this shows the
commencement of the periscii, who extend thence to the pole. In regions
where the sun remains above the horizon during an entire revolution of
the earth, the shadow must evidently have turned in a complete circle
round the gnomon. On this account he named them periscii. However they
have nought to do with geography, inasmuch as the regions are not
habitable on account of the cold, as we stated in our review of Pytheas.
Nor is there any use in determining the size of this uninhabitable
region, [it is enough to have established] that those countries, having
the tropic for their arctic circle, are situated beneath the circle
which is described by the pole of the zodiac[973] in the [diurnal]
revolution of the earth, and that the distance between the equator and
the tropic equals four-sixtieths of the great circle [of the earth].