No More Learning

The entire race which now goes by the name of Gallic, or
Galatic,[1480] is warlike, passionate, and always ready for fighting,
but otherwise simple and not malicious. If irritated, they rush in
crowds to the conflict, openly and without any circumspection; and thus
are easily vanquished by those who employ stratagem. For any one may
exasperate them when, where, and under whatever pretext he pleases; he
will [CAS. 196] always find them ready for danger, with nothing to
support them except their violence and daring. Nevertheless they may be
easily persuaded to devote themselves to any thing useful, and have thus
engaged both in science and letters. Their power consists both in the
size of their bodies and also in their numbers. Their frankness and
simplicity lead them easily to assemble in masses, each one feeling
indignant at what appears injustice to his neighbour. At the present
time indeed they are all at peace, being in subjection and living under
the command of the Romans, who have subdued them; but we have described
their customs as we understand they existed in former times, and as they
still exist amongst the Germans. These two nations, both by nature and
in their form of government, are similar and related to each other.
Their countries border on each other, being separated by the river
Rhine, and are for the most part similar. Germany, however, is more to
the north, if we compare together the southern and northern parts of the
two countries respectively. Thus it is that they can so easily change
their abode. They march in crowds in one collected army, or rather
remove with all their families, whenever they are ejected by a more
powerful force. They were subdued by the Romans much more easily than
the Iberians; for they began to wage war with these latter first, and
ceased last, having in the mean time conquered the whole of the nations
situated between the Rhine and the mountains of the Pyrenees. For these
fighting in crowds and vast numbers, were overthrown in crowds, whereas
the Iberians kept themselves in reserve, and broke up the war into a
series of petty engagements, showing themselves in different bands,
sometimes here, sometimes there, like banditti. All the Gauls are
warriors by nature, but they fight better on horseback than on foot, and
the flower of the Roman cavalry is drawn from their number. The most
valiant of them dwell towards the north and next the ocean.

3. Of these they say that the Belgæ are the bravest. They are divided
into fifteen nations, and dwell near the ocean between the Rhine and the
Loire, and have therefore sustained themselves single-handed against the
incursions of the Germans, the Cimbri,[1481] and the Teutons. The
bravest of the Belgæ are the Bellovaci,[1482] and after them the
Suessiones. The amount of their population may be estimated by the fact
that formerly there were said to be 300,000 Belgæ capable of bearing
arms. [1483] The numbers of the Helvetii, the Arverni, and their allies,
have already been mentioned. All this is a proof both of the amount of
the population [of Gaul], and, as before remarked, of the fecundity of
their women, and the ease with which they rear their children. The Gauls
wear the sagum, let their hair grow, and wear short breeches. Instead of
tunics they wear a slashed garment with sleeves descending a little
below the hips. [1484] The wool [of their sheep] is coarse, but long;
from it they weave the thick saga called laines. However, in the
northern parts the Romans rear flocks of sheep which they cover with
skins, and which produce very fine wool. The equipment [of the Gauls] is
in keeping with the size of their bodies; they have a long sword hanging
at their right side, a long shield, and lances in proportion, together
with a madaris somewhat resembling a javelin; some of them also use bows
and slings; they have also a piece of wood resembling a pilum, which
they hurl not out of a thong, but from their hand, and to a farther
distance than an arrow. They principally make use of it in shooting
birds. To the present day most of them lie on the ground, and take their
meals seated on straw. They subsist principally on milk and all kinds of
flesh, especially that of swine, which they eat both fresh and salted.
Their swine live in the fields, and surpass in height, strength, and
swiftness. To persons unaccustomed to approach them they are almost as
dangerous as wolves. The people dwell in great houses arched,
constructed of planks and wicker, and covered with a heavy thatched
roof. They have sheep and swine in such abundance, that they supply saga
and salted pork in plenty, not only to Rome but to most parts of Italy.
Their governments were for the most part aristocratic; formerly they
chose a governor every year, and a military leader was likewise elected
by the multitude. [1485] At the present day they are mostly under
[CAS. 197] subjection to the Romans. They have a peculiar custom in their
assemblies. If any one makes an uproar or interrupts the person
speaking, an attendant advances with a drawn sword, and commands him
with menace to be silent; if he persists, the attendant does the same
thing a second and third time; and finally, [if he will not obey,] cuts
off from his sagum so large a piece as to render the remainder useless.
The labours of the two sexes are distributed in a manner the reverse of
what they are with us, but this is a common thing with numerous other
barbarians.

4. Amongst [the Gauls] there are generally three divisions of men
especially reverenced, the Bards, the Vates, and the Druids. The Bards
composed and chanted hymns; the Vates occupied themselves with the
sacrifices and the study of nature; while the Druids joined to the study
of nature that of moral philosophy. The belief in the justice [of the
Druids] is so great that the decision both of public and private
disputes is referred to them; and they have before now, by their
decision, prevented armies from engaging when drawn up in battle-array
against each other. All cases of murder are particularly referred to
them. When there is plenty of these they imagine there will likewise be
a plentiful harvest. Both these and the others[1486] assert that the
soul is indestructible, and likewise the world, but that sometimes fire
and sometimes water have prevailed in making great changes. [1487]

5. To their simplicity and vehemence, the Gauls join much folly,
arrogance, and love of ornament. They wear golden collars round their
necks, and bracelets on their arms and wrists, and those who are of any
dignity have garments dyed and worked with gold. This lightness of
character makes them intolerable when they conquer, and throws them into
consternation when worsted. In addition to their folly, they have a
barbarous and absurd custom, common however with many nations of the
north, of suspending the heads of their enemies from their horses’ necks
on their return from battle, and when they have arrived nailing them as
a spectacle to their gates. Posidonius says he witnessed this in many
different places, and was at first shocked, but became familiar with it
in time on account of its frequency. The heads of any illustrious
persons they embalm with cedar, exhibit them to strangers, and would not
sell them for their weight in gold. [1488] However, the Romans put a stop
to these customs, as well as to their modes of sacrifice and divination,
which were quite opposite to those sanctioned by our laws. They would
strike a man devoted as an offering in his back with a sword, and divine
from his convulsive throes. Without the Druids they never sacrifice. It
is said they have other modes of sacrificing their human victims; that
they pierce some of them with arrows, and crucify others in their
temples; and that they prepare a colossus of hay and wood, into which
they put cattle, beasts of all kinds, and men, and then set fire to it.

6. They say that in the ocean, not far from the coast, there is a small
island lying opposite to the outlet of the river Loire, inhabited by
Samnite women who are Bacchantes, and conciliate and appease that god by
mysteries and sacrifices. No man is permitted to land on the island; and
when the women desire to have intercourse with the other sex, they cross
the sea, and afterwards return again. They have a custom of once a year
unroofing the whole of the temple, and roofing it again the same day
before sunset, each one bringing some of the materials. If any one lets
her burden fall, she is torn in pieces by the others, and her limbs
carried round the temple with wild shouts, which they never cease until
their rage is exhausted. [They say] it always happens that some one
drops her burden, and is thus sacrificed.

But what Artemidorus tells us concerning the crows, partakes still more
of fiction. He narrates that on the coast, washed by the ocean, there is
a harbour named the Port of Two Crows, and that here two crows may be
seen with their right wings white. Those who have any dispute come here,
and each one having placed a plank for himself on a lofty eminence,
sprinkles crumbs thereupon; the birds fly to these, eat up the one and
scatter the other, and he whose crumbs are scattered gains the cause.
This narration has decidedly too much the air of fiction. What he
narrates concerning Ceres and Proserpine is more credible. He says that
there is an island near Britain in which they perform sacrifices to
[CAS. 199] these goddesses after the same fashion that they do in
Samothrace. The following is also credible, that a tree grows in Keltica
similar to a fig, which produces a fruit resembling a Corinthian
capital, and which, being cut, exudes a poisonous juice which they use
for poisoning their arrows. It is well known that all the Kelts are fond
of disputes; and that amongst them pæderasty is not considered shameful.
Ephorus extends the size of Keltica too far, including within it most of
what we now designate as Iberia, as far as Gades. He states that the
people are great admirers of the Greeks, and relates many particulars
concerning them not applicable to their present state. This is one:—That
they take great care not to become fat or big-bellied, and that if any
young man exceeds the measure of a certain girdle, he is punished. [1489]

Such is our account of Keltica beyond the Alps. [1490]




CHAPTER V.

BRITAIN.


1. Britain is triangular in form; its longest side lies parallel to
Keltica, in length neither exceeding nor falling short of it; for each
of them extends as much as 4300 or 4400 stadia: the side of Keltica
extending from the mouths of the Rhine to the northern extremities of
the Pyrenees towards Aquitaine; and that of Britain, which commences at
Kent, its most eastern point, opposite the mouths of the Rhine,
extending to the western extremity of the island, which lies over
against Aquitaine and the Pyrenees. This is the shortest line from the
Pyrenees to the Rhine; the longest is said to be 5000 stadia; but it is
likely that there is some convergency of the river towards the mountain
from a strictly parallel position, there being an inclination of either
toward the other at the extremities next the ocean.

2. There are four passages commonly used from the continent to the
island, namely, from the mouths of the rivers Rhine, Seine, Loire, and
Garonne; but to such as set sail from the parts about the Rhine, the
passage is not exactly from its mouths, but from the Morini,[1491] who
border on the Menapii,[1492] among whom also is situated Itium,[1493]
which divus Cæsar used as his naval station when about to pass over to
the island: he set sail by night, and arrived the next day about the
fourth hour,[1494] having completed a passage of 320 stadia, and he
found the corn in the fields. The greatest portion of the island is
level and woody, although many tracts are hilly. It produces corn,
cattle, gold, silver, and iron, which things are brought thence, and
also skins, and slaves, and dogs sagacious in hunting; the Kelts use
these, as well as their native dogs, for the purposes of war. The men
are taller than the Kelts, with hair less yellow; they are slighter in
their persons. As an instance of their height, we ourselves saw at Rome
some youths who were taller than the tallest there by as much as half a
foot, but their legs were bowed, and in other respects they were not
symmetrical in conformation. Their manners are in part like those of the
Kelts, though in part more simple and barbarous; insomuch that some of
them, though possessing plenty of milk, have not skill enough to make
cheese, and are totally unacquainted with horticulture and other matters
of husbandry. There are several states amongst them. In their wars they
make use of chariots for the most part, as do some of the Kelts. Forests
are their cities; for having enclosed an ample space [CAS. 200] with
felled trees, they make themselves huts therein, and lodge their cattle,
though not for any long continuance. Their atmosphere is more subject to
rain than to snow; even in their clear days the mist continues for a
considerable time, insomuch that throughout the whole day the sun is
only visible for three or four hours about noon; and this must be the
case also amongst the Morini, and the Menapii, and among all the
neighbouring people.

3. Divus Cæsar twice passed over to the island, but quickly returned,
having effected nothing of consequence, nor proceeded far into the
country, as well on account of some commotions in Keltica, both among
his own soldiers and among the barbarians, as because of the loss of
many of his ships at the time of the full moon, when both the ebb and
flow of the tides were greatly increased. [1495] Nevertheless he gained
two or three victories over the Britons, although he had transported
thither only two legions of his army, and brought away hostages and
slaves and much other booty. At the present time, however, some of the
princes there have, by their embassies and solicitations, obtained the
friendship of Augustus Cæsar, dedicated their offerings in the Capitol,
and brought the whole island into intimate union with the Romans. They
pay but moderate duties both on the imports and exports from Keltica;
which are ivory bracelets and necklaces, amber, vessels of glass, and
small wares; so that the island scarcely needs a garrison, for at the
least it would require one legion and some cavalry to enforce tribute
from them; and the total expenditure for the army would be equal to the
revenue collected; for if a tribute were levied, of necessity the
imposts must be diminished, and at the same time some danger would be
incurred if force were to be employed.

4. There are also other small islands around Britain; but one, of great
extent, Ierna,[1496] lying parallel to it towards the north, long or
rather, wide; concerning which we have nothing certain to relate,
further than that its inhabitants are more savage than the Britons,
feeding on human flesh, and enormous eaters, and deeming it commendable
to devour their deceased fathers,[1497] as well as openly[1498] to have
commerce not only with other women, but also with their own mothers and
sisters. [1499] But this we relate perhaps without very competent
authority; although to eat human flesh is said to be a Scythian custom;
and during the severities of a siege, even the Kelts, the Iberians, and
many others, are reported to have done the like. [1500]

5. The account of Thule is still more uncertain, on account of its
secluded situation; for they consider it to be the northernmost of all
lands of which the names are known. The falsity of what Pytheas has
related concerning this and neighbouring places, is proved by what he
has asserted of well-known countries. For if, as we have shown, his
description of these is in the main incorrect, what he says of far
distant countries is still more likely to be false. [1501] Nevertheless,
as far as astronomy and the mathematics are concerned, he appears to
have reasoned correctly, that people bordering on the frozen [CAS. 201]
zone would be destitute of cultivated fruits, and almost deprived of the
domestic animals; that their food would consist of millet, herbs,
fruits, and roots; and that where there was corn and honey they would
make drink of these. That having no bright sun, they would thresh their
corn, and store it in vast granaries, threshing-floors being useless on
account of the rain and want of sun.




CHAPTER VI.

THE ALPS.


1. Having described Keltica beyond the Alps,[1502] and the nations who
inhabit the country, we must now speak of the Alps themselves and their
inhabitants, and afterwards of the whole of Italy; observing in our
description such arrangement as the nature of the country shall point
out.

The Alps do not commence at Monœci Portus,[1503] as some have asserted,
but from the region whence the Apennines take their rise about Genoa, a
mercantile city of the Ligurians, and at the marshes named Sabatorum
Vada;[1504] for the Apennines take their rise near Genoa, and the Alps
near Sabatorum Vada. The distance between Genoa and the Sabatorum Vada
is about 260 stadia. About 370 stadia farther on is the little city of
Albingaunum,[1505] inhabited by Ligurians who are called Ingauni. From
thence to the Monœci Portus is 480 stadia. In the interval between is
the very considerable city of Albium Intemelium,[1506] inhabited by the
Intemelii. These names are sufficient to prove that the Alps commence at
the Sabatorum Vada. For the Alps were formerly called Albia and
Alpionia,[1507] and at the present day the high mountain in the country
of the Iapodes,[1508] next to Ocra and the Alps, is named Albius,
showing that the Alps extend so far.

2. Now since the Ligurians were divided into Ingauni and Intemelii, it was
natural that their maritime colonies should be distinguished, one by the
name of Albium Intemelium, Alpine as it were, and the other by the more
concise form Albingaunum. [1509] To these two tribes of Ligurians already
mentioned, Polybius adds those of the Oxybii and Deciates. [1510] The
whole coast from Monœci Portus to Tyrrhenia is continuous, and without
harbours excepting some small roads and anchorages. Above it rise the
rugged precipices of the Alpine range, leaving but a narrow passage
along the sea. This district, but particularly the mountains, is
inhabited by Ligurians, principally subsisting on the produce of their
herds, and milk, and a drink made of barley. There is plenty of wood
here for the construction of ships; the trees grow to a vast size, some
of them having been found eight feet in diameter. Much of the wood is
veined, and not inferior to cedar-wood for cabinet work. This wood,
together with the produce of their cattle, hides, and honey, they
transport to the mart of Genoa, receiving in exchange for them the oil
and wine of Italy; for the little [wine] which their country produces is
harsh and tastes of pitch. Here are bred the horses and mules known as
ginni, and here too are wrought the Ligurian tunics and saga. In their
country likewise there is plenty of lingurium, called by some
electrum. [1511] They use but few cavalry in war; their infantry are
good, and excellent slingers. Some have thought that their brazen
shields prove these people to be of Grecian origin.

3. The Monœci Portus is merely a roadstead, not capable of containing
either many or large vessels. Here is a temple dedicated to Hercules
Monœcus. [1512] The name seems to show it probable that the Massilian
voyages along the coast extended as far as here. Monœci Portus is
distant from Antipolis rather more than 200 stadia. The Salyes occupy
the region from thence to Marseilles, or a little farther; they
[CAS. 203] inhabit the Alps which lie above that city, and a portion of
the sea-coast, where they intermingle with the Greeks. The ancient
Greeks gave to the Salyes the name of Ligyes,[1513] and to the country
which was in the possession of the Marseillese, that of Ligystica. [1514]
The later Greeks named them Kelto-Ligyes,[1515] and assigned to them the
whole of the plains extending as far as Luerion[1516] and the Rhone.
They are divided into ten cantons, and are capable of raising troops not
only of infantry, but of cavalry also. These people were the first of
the Transalpine Kelts whom the Romans subdued after maintaining a
lengthened war against them and the Ligurians. They closed [against the
Romans] all the roads into Iberia along the sea-coast, and carried on a
system of pillage both by sea and land. Their strength so increased that
large armies were scarcely able to force a passage. And after a war of
eighty years, the Romans were hardly able to obtain a breadth of twelve
stadia for the purpose of making a public road. After this, however, the
Romans subdued the whole of them, and established among them a regular
form of government, and imposed a tribute. [1517]

4. After the Salyes, the Albienses, the Albiœci,[1518] and the Vocontii
inhabit the northern portion of the mountains. The Vocontii extend as
far as the Allobriges, and occupy vast valleys in the depths of the
mountains, not inferior to those inhabited by the Allobriges. Both the
Allobriges and Ligurians are subject to the pretors sent into the
Narbonnaise, but the Vocontii are governed by their own laws, as we have
said of the Volcæ of Nemausus. [1519] Of the Ligurians between the Var
and Genoa, those along the sea are considered Italians; while the
mountaineers are governed by a prefect of the equestrian order, as is
the case in regard to other nations wholly barbarous.

5. After the Vocontii, are the Iconii, the Tricorii, and the Medulli;
who inhabit the loftiest ridges of the mountains, for they say that some
of them have an almost perpendicular ascent of 100 stadia, and a similar
descent to the frontiers of Italy. In these highlands there is a great
lake; there are also two springs not far distant from each other; one of
these gives rise to the Durance, which flows like a torrent into the
Rhone, and to the Durias,[1520] which flows in an opposite direction;
for it mingles with the Po after having pursued its course through the
country of the Salassi[1521] into Cisalpine Keltica. From the other
source, but much lower down, rises the Po itself, large and rapid, which
as it advances becomes still vaster, and at the same time more gentle.
As it reaches the plains it increases in breadth, being augmented by
numerous [other rivers], and thus it becomes less impetuous in its
course, and its current is weakened. Having become the largest river in
Europe, with the exception of the Danube,[1522] it discharges itself
into the Adriatic Sea. The Medulli are situated considerably above the
confluence of the Isère and the Rhone.

6. On the opposite side of the mountains, sloping towards Italy, dwell
the Taurini,[1523] a Ligurian nation, together with certain other
Ligurians. What is called the land of Ideonnus[1524] and Cottius belongs
to these Ligurians. Beyond them and the Po are the Salassi; above whom
in the summits [of the Alps] are the Kentrones, the Catoriges, the
Veragri, the Nantuatæ,[1525] Lake Leman,[1526] traversed by the Rhone,
and the [CAS. 204] sources of that river. Not far from these are the
sources of the Rhine, and Mount Adulas,[1527] from whence the Rhine
flows towards the north; likewise the Adda,[1528] which flows in an
opposite direction, and discharges itself into Lake Larius,[1529] near
to Como. Lying above Como, which is situated at the roots of the Alps,
on one side are the Rhæti and Vennones towards the east,[1530] and on
the other the Lepontii, the Tridentini, the Stoni,[1531] and numerous
other small nations, poor and addicted to robbery, who in former times
possessed Italy. At the present time some of them have been destroyed,
and the others at length civilized, so that the passes over the
mountains through their territories, which were formerly few and
difficult, now run in every direction, secure from any danger of these
people, and as accessible as art can make them. For Augustus Cæsar not
only destroyed the robbers, but improved the character of the roads as
far as practicable, although he could not every where overcome nature,
on account of the rocks and immense precipices; some of which tower
above the road, while others yawn beneath; so that departing ever so
little [from the path], the traveller is in inevitable danger of falling
down bottomless chasms. In some places the road is so narrow as to make
both the foot traveller and his beasts of burden, who are unaccustomed
to it, dizzy; but the animals of the district will carry their burdens
quite securely. These things however are beyond remedy, as well as the
violent descent of vast masses of congealed snow from above, capable of
overwhelming a whole company at a time, and sweeping them into the
chasms beneath. Numerous masses lie one upon the other, one hill of
congealed snow being formed upon another, so that the uppermost mass is
easily detached at any time from that below it, before being perfectly
melted by the sun.

7. A great part of the country of the Salassi lies in a deep
valley,[1532] formed by a chain of mountains which encloses the district
on either side; a part of them however inhabit the overhanging ridges.
The route of those who are desirous of passing from Italy over these
mountains, lies through the aforesaid valley. Beyond this the road
separates into two. The one which passes through the mountain peaks,
known as the Pennine Alps, cannot be traversed by carriages; the other,
which runs through the country of the Centrones, lies more to the
west. [1533] The country of the Salassi contains gold mines, of which
formerly, in the days of their power, they were masters, as well as of
the passes. The river Doria Baltea[1534] afforded them great facility in
obtaining the metal by [supplying them with water] for washing the gold,
and they have emptied the main bed by the numerous trenches cut for
drawing the water to different places. This operation, though
advantageous in gold hunting, was injurious to the agriculturists below,
as it deprived them of the irrigation of a river, which, by the height
of its position, was capable of watering their plains. This gave rise to
frequent wars between the two nations; when the Romans gained the
dominion, the Salassi lost both their gold works and their country, but
as they still possessed the mountains, they continued to sell water to
the public contractors of the gold mines; with whom there were continual
disputes on account of the avarice of the contractors, and thus the
Roman generals sent into the country were ever able to find a pretext
for commencing war. And, until very recently, the Salassi at one time
waging war against the Romans, and at another making peace, took
occasion to inflict numerous damages upon those who crossed over their
mountains, by their system of plundering; and even exacted from Decimus
Brutus, on his flight from Mutina,[1535] a drachm per man. Messala,
likewise, having taken up his winter quarters in their vicinity, was
obliged to pay them, both for his fire-wood, and for the elm-wood for
making javelins for the exercise of his troops. In one instance they
plundered the treasures of Cæsar,[1536] and rolled down huge [CAS. 206]
masses of rock upon the soldiers under pretence of making roads, or
building bridges over the rivers. Afterwards Augustus completely
overthrew them, and carried them to Eporedia,[1537] a Roman colony which
had been planted as a bulwark against the Salassi, although the
inhabitants were able to do but little against them until the nation was
destroyed; their numbers amounted to 36,000 persons, besides 8000 men
capable of bearing arms. Terentius Varro, the general who defeated them,
sold them all by public auction, as enemies taken in war. Three thousand
Romans sent out by Augustus founded the city of Augusta,[1538] on the
spot where Varro had encamped, and now the whole surrounding country,
even to the summits of the mountains, is at peace.

8. Beyond, both the eastern parts of the mountains, and those likewise
inclining to the south, are possessed by the Rhæti and Vindelici, who
adjoin the Helvetii and Boii, and press upon their plains. The Rhæti
extend as far as Italy above Verona and Como. The Rhætian wine, which is
esteemed not inferior to the finest wines of Italy, is produced [from
vines which grow] at the foot of the mountains. These people extend also
as far as the districts through which the Rhine flows. The Lepontii and
Camuni are of their nation. The Vindelici and Norici possess, for the
most part, the opposite side of the mountains together with the Breuni
and Genauni, who form part of the Illyrians. [1539] All these people were
continually making incursions both into the neighbouring parts of Italy,
and into [the countries] of the Helvetii, the Sequani,[1540] the Boii,
and the Germans. [1541] But the Licattii, the Clautinatii, and the
Vennones[1542] proved the boldest amongst the Vindelici; and the
Rucantii and Cotuantii amongst the Rhæti. Both the Estiones and
Brigantii belong to the Vindelici; their cities are Brigantium,
Campodunum, and Damasia, which may be looked upon as the Acropolis of
the Licattii.
It is narrated, as an instance of the extreme brutality of
these robbers towards the people of Italy, that when they have taken any
village or city, they not only put to death all the men capable of
bearing arms, but likewise all the male children, and do not even stop
here, but murder every pregnant woman who, their diviners say, will
bring forth a male infant. [1543]

9. After these come certain of the Norici, and the Carni, who inhabit
the country about the Adriatic Gulf and Aquileia. The Taurisci belong to
the Norici. Tiberius and his brother Drusus in one summer put a stop to
their lawless incursions, so that now for three and thirty years[1544]
they have lived quietly and paid their tribute regularly. Throughout the
whole region of the Alps there are hilly districts capable of excellent
cultivation, and well situated valleys; but the greater part, especially
the summits of the mountains inhabited by the robbers, are barren and
unfruitful, both on account of the frost and the ruggedness of the land.
On account of the want of food and other necessaries the mountaineers
have sometimes been obliged to spare the inhabitants of the plains, that
they might have some people to supply them; for these they have given
them in exchange, resin, pitch, torches, [CAS. 207] wax, cheese, and
honey, of which they have plenty. In the Mount Apennine[1545] which lies
above the Carni there is a lake which runs out into the Isar, which
river, after receiving another river, the Aude,[1546] discharges itself
into the Adriatic. From this lake there is also another river, the
Atesinus, which flows into the Danube. [1547] The Danube itself rises in
the mountains which are split into many branches and numerous summits.
For from Liguria to here the summits of the Alps stretch along
continuously, presenting the appearance of one mountain; but after this
they rise and fall in turns, forming numerous ridges and peaks. The
first of these is beyond the Rhine and the lake[1548] inclining towards
the east, its ridge moderately elevated; here are the sources of the
Danube near to the Suevi and the forest of Hercynia. [1549] The other
branches extend towards Illyria and the Adriatic, such are the Mount
Apennine, already mentioned, Tullum and Phligadia,[1550] the mountains
lying above the Vindelici from whence proceed the Duras,[1551] the
Clanis,[1552] and many other rivers which discharge themselves like
torrents into the current of the Danube.

10. Near to these regions dwell the Iapodes, (a nation now mixed with
the Illyrians, and Kelts,) close to them is [the Mount] Ocra. [1553]
Formerly the Iapodes were numerous, inhabiting either side of the
mountain, and were notorious for their predatory habits, but they have
been entirely reduced and brought to subjection by Augustus Cæsar. Their
cities are Metulum,[1554] Arupenum,[1555] Monetium,[1556] and
Vendon. [1557] After these is the city of Segesta,[1558] [situated] in a
plain. Near to it flows the river Save,[1559] which discharges itself
into the Danube. This city lies in an advantageous position for carrying
on war against the Dacians. [1560] Ocra forms the lowest portion of the
Alps, where they approach the territory of the Carni, and through which
they convey the merchandise of Aquileia in waggons to Pamportus. [1561]
This route is not more than 400 stadia. From thence they convey it by
the rivers as far as the Danube and surrounding districts, for a
navigable river[1562] which flows out of Illyria, passes by Pamportus,
and discharges itself into the Save, so that the merchandise may easily
be carried down both to Segesta, and to the Pannonians, and
Taurisci. [1563] It is near this city,[1564] that the Kulp[1565] falls
into the Save. Both of these rivers are navigable, and flow down from
the Alps. The Alps contain wild horses and cattle, and Polybius asserts
that an animal of a singular form is found there; it resembles a stag
except in the neck and hair, which are similar to those of a wild boar;
under its chin it has a tuft of hair about a span long, and the
thickness of the tail of a young horse. [1566]

11. One of the passages over the mountains from Italy into Transalpine
and northern Keltica is that which passes through the country of the
Salassi, and leads to Lugdunum. [1567] This [route] is divided into two
ways, one practicable for carriages, but longer, which crosses the
country of the Centrones, the other steep and narrow, but shorter; this
crosses the Pennine [Alps]. Lugdunum is situated in the midst of the
country, serving as an Acropolis, both on account of the confluence of
[CAS. 208] the rivers, and of its being equally near to all parts. It
was on this account that Agrippa cut all the roads from this [as a
centre] one running through the mountains of the Cevennes to the
Santones[1568] and Aquitaine,[1569] another towards the Rhine; a third
towards the ocean by the country of the Bellovaci[1570] and
Ambiani,[1571] and a fourth towards the Narbonnaise and the coast of
Marseilles. [1572] The traveller, also, leaving Lugdunum and the country
above on his left, may pass over the Pennine Alps themselves, the Rhone,
or Lake Leman, into the plains of the Helvetii, whence there is a
passage through Mount Jura into the country of the Sequani, and
Lingones; here the road separates into two routes, one running to the
Rhine, and the other[1573] to the ocean.

12. Polybius tells us that in his time the gold mines were so rich about
Aquileia, but particularly in the countries of the Taurisci Norici, that
if you dug but two feet below the surface you found gold, and that the
diggings [generally] were not deeper than fifteen feet. In some
instances the gold was found pure in lumps about the size of a bean or
lupin, and which diminished in the fire only about one eighth; and in
others, though requiring more fusion, was still very profitable. Certain
Italians[1574] aiding the barbarians in working [the mines], in the
space of two months the value of gold was diminished throughout the
whole of Italy by one third. The Taurisci on discovering this drove out
their fellow-labourers, and only sold the gold themselves. Now, however,
the Romans possess all the gold mines. Here, too, as well as in Iberia,
the rivers yield gold-dust as well as the diggings, though not in such
large quantities. The same writer, speaking of the extent and height of
the Alps, compares with them the largest mountains of Greece, such as
Taygetum,[1575] Lycæum,[1576] Parnassus,[1577] Olympus,[1578]
Pelion,[1579] Ossa,[1580] and of Thrace, as the Hæmus, Rhodope, and
Dunax, saying that an active person might almost ascend any of these in
a single day, and go round them in the same time, whereas five days
would not be sufficient to ascend the Alps, while their length along the
plains extends 2200 stadia. [1581] He only names four passes over the
mountains, one through Liguria close to the Tyrrhenian Sea,[1582] a
second through the country of the Taurini,[1583] by which Hannibal
passed, a third through the country of the Salassi,[1584] and a fourth
through that of the Rhæti,[1585] all of them precipitous. In these
mountains, he says, there are numerous lakes; three large ones, the
first of which is Benacus,[1586] 500 stadia in length and 130 in
breadth, the river Mincio flows from it. The second is the
Verbanus,[1587] 400 stadia [in length], and in breadth smaller than the
preceding; [CAS. 209] the great river Ticino[1588] flows from this
[lake]. The third is the Larius,[1589] its length is nearly 300 stadia,
and its breadth 30, the river Adda flows from it. All these rivers flow
into the Po. This is what we have to say concerning the Alpine
mountains.




BOOK V.

ITALY.

SUMMARY.


The Fifth Book contains a description of Italy from the roots of
the Alps to the Strait of Sicily, the Gulf of Taranto, and the
region about Posidonium; likewise of Venetia, Liguria, Agro
Piceno, Tuscany, Rome, Campania, Lucania, Apulia, and the islands
lying in the sea between Genoa and Sicily.




CHAPTER I.


1. At the foot of the Alps commences the region now known as Italy. The
ancients by Italy merely understood Œnotria, which reached from the
Strait of Sicily to the Gulf of Taranto, and the region about
Posidonium,[1590] but the name has extended even to the foot of the
Alps; comprehending on one side that portion of Liguria situated by the
sea, from the confines of Tyrrhenia to the Var; and on the other, that
portion of Istria which extends as far as Pola. It seems probable that
the first inhabitants were named Italians, and, being successful, they
communicated their name to the neighbouring tribes, and this propagation
[of name] continued until the Romans obtained dominion. Afterwards, when
the Romans conferred on the Italians the privileges of equal
citizenship, and thought fit to extend the same honour to the Cisalpine
Galatæ and Heneti,[1591] they comprised the whole under the general
denomination of Italians and Romans; they likewise founded amongst them
numerous colonies, some earlier, some later, of which it would be
difficult to say which are the most considerable.

2. It is not easy to describe the whole of Italy under any one
geometrical figure; although some say that it is a promontory of
triangular form, extending towards the south and winter rising, with its
apex towards the Strait of Sicily, and [CAS. 210] its base formed by the
Alps. . . . [No one can allow this definition either for the base or one of
the sides,] although it is correct for the other side which terminates
at the Strait, and is washed by the Tyrrhenian Sea. But a triangle,
properly so called, is a rectilinear figure, whereas in this instance
both the base and the sides are curved. So that, if I agree, I must add
that the base and the sides are of a curved figure, and it must be
conceded to me that the eastern side deviates, as well; otherwise they
have not been sufficiently exact in describing as one side that which
extends from the head of the Adriatic to the Strait [of Sicily]. For we
designate as a side a line without any angle; now a line without any
angle is one which does not incline to either side, or but very little;
whereas the line from Ariminum[1592] to the Iapygian promontory,[1593]
and that from the Strait [of Sicily] to the same promontory, incline
very considerably. The same I consider to be the case with regard to the
lines drawn from the head of the Adriatic and Iapygia, for meeting about
the neighbourhood of Ariminum and Ravenna, they form an angle, or if not
an angle, at least a strongly defined curve. Consequently, if the coast
from the head [of the Adriatic] to Iapygia be considered as one side, it
cannot be described as a right line; neither can the remainder of the
line from hence to the Strait [of Sicily], though it may be considered
another side, be said to form a right line. Thus the figure [of Italy]
may be said to be rather quadrilateral than trilateral, and can never
without impropriety be called a triangle. It is better to confess that
you cannot define exactly ungeometrical figures.

3. [Italy], however, may be described in the following manner. The roots
of the Alps are curved, and in the form of a gulf, the head turned
towards Italy; the middle of the gulf in the country of the Salassi, and
its extremities turned, the one towards Ocra and the head of the
Adriatic, the other towards the coast of Liguria as far as Genoa, a
mercantile city of the Ligurians, where the Apennines fall in with the
Alps. Immediately under [the Alps] there is a considerable plain, of
about an equal extent of 2100 stadia both in breadth and length; its
southern side is closed by the coast of the Heneti[1594] and the
Apennines, which extend to Ariminum and Ancona; for these mountains,
commencing at Liguria, enter Tyrrhenia, leaving but a narrow sea-coast;
they afterwards retire by degrees into the interior, and having reached
the territory of Pisa, turn towards the east in the direction of the
Adriatic as far as the country about Ariminum and Ancona, where they
approach the sea-coast of the Heneti at right angles. Cisalpine Keltica
is enclosed within these limits, and the length of the coast joined to
that of the mountains is 6300 stadia; its breadth rather less than 2000.
The remainder of Italy is long and narrow, and terminates in two
promontories, one[1595] extending to the Strait of Sicily, the
other[1596] to Iapygia. It is embraced on one side by the
Adriatic,[1597] on the other by the Tyrrhenian Sea. [1598] The form and
size of the Adriatic resembles that portion of Italy bounded by the
Apennines and the two seas, and extending as far as Iapygia and the
isthmus which separates the Gulf of Taranto from that of
Posidonium. [1599] The greatest breadth of both is about 1300 stadia, and
the length not much less than 6000. The remainder of the country is
possessed by the Bruttii, and certain of the Leucani. Polybius tells us,
that traversing the sea-coast on foot from Iapygia[1600] to the Strait
[of Sicily] there are 3000 stadia, the coast being washed by the Sea of
Sicily; but, that going by water it is 500 stadia less. The Apennines,
after approaching the country about Ariminum and Ancona, and determining
the breadth of Italy at this point from sea to sea, change their
direction and divide the whole country throughout its length. As far as
the Peucetii and Leucani they do not recede much from the Adriatic, but
on arriving at the Leucani they decline considerably towards the other
sea,[1601] and traversing the remainder of the distance through the
Leucani and Bruttii, terminate at Leucopetra,[1602] in Reggio. Such is a
general description of the whole of present Italy. We will now endeavour
to undertake a description of its various parts. And, first, of those
situated below the Alps.

[CAS. 212] 4. This is a superb plain variegated with fruitful hills. The
Po divides it almost through its midst, one side being denominated
Cispadana, and the other Transpadana. Cispadana comprehends that part
next the Apennines and Liguria and Transpadana the remainder. The former
[division] is inhabited by Ligurian and Keltic nations, the former
inhabiting the mountains and the latter the plains; and the latter
[division] by Kelts and Heneti. These Kelts are of the same race as the
Transalpine Kelts. Concerning the Heneti there are two traditions, some
saying that they are a colony of those Kelts of the same name who dwell
by the ocean. [1603] Others say that they are descended from the Veneti
of Paphlagonia, who took refuge here with Antenor after the Trojan war;
and they give as a proof of this the attention these people bestow on
rearing horses; which, though now entirely abandoned, was formerly in
great esteem among them, resulting from the ancient rage for breeding
mules, which Homer thus mentions:

“From the Eneti for forest mules renowned. ”[1604]

It was here that Dionysius, the tyrant of Sicily, kept his stud of
race-horses. And, in consequence, the Henetian horses were much esteemed
in Greece, and their breed in great repute for a long period.

5. The whole of this country[1605] is full of rivers and marshes,
especially the district of the Heneti, which likewise experiences the
tides of the sea. This is almost the only part of our sea[1606] which is
influenced in the same manner as the ocean, and, like it, has ebb and
flood tides. In consequence most of the plain is covered with
lagoons. [1607] The inhabitants have dug canals and dikes, after the
manner of Lower Egypt, so that part of the country is drained and
cultivated, and the rest is navigable. Some of their cities stand in the
midst of water like islands, others are only partially surrounded. Such
as lie above the marshes in the interior are situated on rivers
navigable for a surprising distance, the Po in particular, which is
both a large river, and also continually swelled by the rains and snows.
As it expands into numerous outlets, its mouth is not easily perceptible
and is difficult to enter. But experience surmounts even the greatest
difficulties.

6. Formerly, as we have said, the district next this river was chiefly
inhabited by Kelts. The principal nations of these Kelts were the Boii,
the Insubri, and the Senones and Gæsatæ, who in one of their incursions
took possession of Rome. The Romans afterwards entirely extirpated these
latter, and expelled the Boii from their country, who then migrated to
the land about the Danube, where they dwelt with the Taurisci, and
warred against the Dacians until the whole nation was destroyed; and
they left to the surrounding tribes this sheep-pasturing district of
Illyria. The Insubri still exist; their metropolis is Mediolanum,[1608]
which formerly was a village, (for they all dwelt in villages,) but is
now a considerable city, beyond the Po, and almost touching the Alps.
Near to it is Verona, a large city, and the smaller towns Brescia,
Mantua, Reggio, and Como. This latter was but a very indifferent colony,
having been seriously impaired by the Rhæti who dwelt higher up, but it
was repeopled by Pompey Strabo, father of Pompey the Great. Afterwards
Caius Scipio[1609] transferred thither 3000 men, and finally divus Cæsar
peopled it with 5000 men, the most distinguished of whom were 500
Greeks. He conferred on these the privileges of citizens, and enrolled
them amongst the inhabitants. They not only took up their abode here,
but left their name to the colony itself; for all the inhabitants taking
the name of Νεοκωμῖται, this was translated [into Latin], and the place
called Novum-Comum. Near to this place is Lake Larius,[1610] which is
filled by the river Adda, and afterwards flows out into the Po. The
sources of this river, as well as those of the Rhine, rise in Mount
Adulas. [1611]

7. These cities are situated high above the marshes; near to them is
Patavium,[1612] the finest of all the cities in this [CAS. 213]
district, and which at the time of the late census[1613] was said to
contain 500 equites. Anciently it could muster an army of 120,000 men.
The population and skill of this city is evinced by the vast amount of
manufactured goods it sends to the Roman market, especially clothing of
all kinds. It communicates with the sea by a river navigable from a
large harbour [at its mouth], the river runs across the marshes for a
distance of 250 stadia. This harbour,[1614] as well as the river,[1615]
is named Medoacus. Situated in the marshes is the great [city of]
Ravenna, built entirely on piles,[1616] and traversed by canals, which
you cross by bridges or ferry-boats. At the full tides it is washed by a
considerable quantity of sea-water, as well as by the river, and thus
the sewage is carried off, and the air purified; in fact, the district
is considered so salubrious that the [Roman] governors have selected it
as a spot to bring up and exercise the gladiators in. It is a remarkable
peculiarity of this place, that, though situated in the midst of a
marsh, the air is perfectly innocuous; the same is the case with respect
to Alexandria in Egypt, where the malignity of the lake during summer is
entirely removed by the rising of the river which covers over the mud.
Another remarkable peculiarity is that of its vines, which, though
growing in the marshes, make very quickly and yield a large amount of
fruit, but perish in four or five years. Altinum[1617] stands likewise
in the marshes, its situation being very similar to that of Ravenna.
Between them is Butrium,[1618] a small city of Ravenna, and Spina,[1619]
which is now a village, but was anciently a celebrated Grecian city. In
fact, the treasures of the Spinitæ are shown at Delphi, and it is,
besides, reported in history that they had dominion over the sea. They
say that it formerly stood on the sea; now, however, the district is
inland about 90 stadia from the sea. Ravenna is reported to have been
founded by Thessalians, who not being able to sustain the violence of
the Tyrrheni, welcomed into their city some of the Ombrici, who still
possess it, while they themselves returned home. These cities for the
most part are surrounded, and, as it were, washed by the marshes.

8. Opitergium,[1620] Concordia, Atria,[1621] Vicetia,[1622] as well as
some smaller cities, are less annoyed by the marshes: they communicate
by small navigable canals with the sea. They say that Atria was formerly
a famous city, from which the Adriatic Gulf, with a slight variation,
received its name. Aquileia, which is the nearest to the head [of the
gulf], was founded by the Romans,[1623] to keep in check the barbarians
dwelling higher up. You may navigate transport ships to it up the river
Natisone for more than sixty stadia. This is the trading city with the
nations of Illyrians who dwell round the Danube. Some deal in marine
merchandise, and carry in waggons wine in wooden casks and oil, and
others exchange slaves, cattle, and hides. Aquileia is without the
limits of the Heneti, their country being bounded by a river which flows
from the mountains of the Alps, and is navigable for a distance of 1200
stadia, as far as the city of Noreia,[1624] near to where Cnæus Carbo
was defeated in his attack upon the Kimbrians. [1625] This place contains
fine stations for gold washing and iron-works. At the very head of the
Adriatic is the Timavum,[1626] a temple consecrated to Diomede, worthy
of notice. For it contains a harbour and a fine grove, with seven
springs of fresh water, which fall into the sea in a broad, deep
river. [1627] Polybius, however, says that, with the exception of one,
they are all salt springs, and that it is on this account the place is
called by the inhabitants—_the source and mother of the sea_.
Posidonius, on the other hand, tells us that the river Timavo, after
flowing from the mountains, precipitates itself into a chasm, [CAS. 215]
and after flowing under ground about 130 stadia, discharges itself into
the sea.

9. That Diomedes did hold sovereignty over the country around this
sea,[1628] is proved both by the Diomedean islands,[1629] and the
traditions concerning the Daunii and Argos-Hippium. [1630] Of these we
shall narrate as much as may be serviceable to history, and shall leave
alone the numerous falsehoods and myths; such, for instance, as those
concerning Phaethon and the Heliades[1631] changed into alders near the
[river] Eridanus, which exists no where, although said to be near the
Po;[1632] of the islands Electrides, opposite the mouths of the Po, and
the Meleagrides,[1633] found in them; none of which things exist in
these localities. [1634] However, some have narrated that honours are
paid to Diomedes amongst the Heneti, and that they sacrifice to him a
white horse; two groves are likewise pointed out, one [sacred] to the
Argian Juno, and the other to the Ætolian Diana. They have too, as we
might expect, fictions concerning these groves; for instance, that the
wild beasts in them grow tame, that the deer herd with wolves, and they
suffer men to approach and stroke them; and that when pursued by dogs,
as soon as they have reached these groves, the dogs no longer pursue
them. They say, too, that a certain person, well known for the facility
with which he offered himself as a pledge for others, being bantered on
this subject by some hunters who came up with him having a wolf in
leash, they said in jest, that if he would become pledge for the wolf
and pay for the damage he might do, they would loose the bonds. To this
the man consented, and they let loose the wolf, who gave chase to a herd
of horses unbranded, and drove them into the stable of the person who
had become pledge for him. The man accepted the gift, branded the horses
with [the representation of] a wolf, and named them _Lucophori_. They
were distinguished rather for their swiftness than gracefulness. His
heirs kept the same brand and the same name for this race of horses, and
made it a rule never to part with a single mare, in order that they
might remain sole possessors of the race which became famous. At the
present day, however, as we have before remarked, this [rage for]
horse-breeding has entirely ceased.

After the Timavum[1635] comes the sea-coast of Istria as far as Pola,
which appertains to Italy. Between [the two] is the fortress of
Tergeste, distant from Aquileia 180 stadia. Pola is situated in a gulf
forming a kind of port, and containing some small islands,[1636]
fruitful, and with good harbours. This city was anciently founded by the
Colchians sent after Medea, who not being able to fulfil their mission,
condemned themselves to exile. As Callimachus says,

“It a Greek would call
The town of Fugitives, but in their tongue
’Tis Pola named. ”

The different parts of Transpadana are inhabited by the Heneti and the
Istrii as far as Pola; above the Heneti, by the Carni, the Cenomani, the
Medoaci, and the Symbri. [1637] These nations were formerly at enmity
with the Romans, but the Cenomani and Heneti allied themselves with that
nation, both prior to the expedition of Hannibal, when they waged war
with the Boii and Symbrii,[1637] and also after that time.

10. Cispadana comprehends all that country enclosed [CAS. 216] between
the Apennines and the Alps as far as Genoa and Vada-Sabatorum. [1638] The
greater part was inhabited by the Boii, the Ligurians, the Senones, and
Gæsatæ; but after the depopulation of the Boii, and the destruction of
the Gæsatæ and Senones, the Ligurian tribes and the Roman colonies alone
remained. The nation of the Ombrici[1639] and certain of the Tyrrheni
are also mixed amongst the Romans. These two nations, before the
aggrandizement of the Romans, had some disputes with each other
concerning precedence. Having only the river Tiber between, it was easy
to commence war upon each other; and if the one sent out an expedition
against any nation, it was the ambition of the other to enter the same
country with an equal force. Thus, the Tyrrheni, having organized a
successful expedition against the barbarians [dwelling in the countries]
about the Po, but having speedily lost again through their luxury [all
they had acquired], the Ombrici made war upon those who had driven them
out. Disputes arose between the Tyrrheni and Ombrici concerning the
right of possessing these places, and both nations founded many
colonies; those, however, of the Ombrici were most numerous, as they
were nearest to the spot. When the Romans gained the dominion, they sent
out colonies to different parts, but preserved those which had been
formerly planted by their predecessors. And although now they are all
Romans, they are not the less distinguished, some by the names of Ombri
and Tyrrheni, others by those of Heneti, Ligurians, and Insubri.

11. Both in Cispadana and around the Po there are some fine cities.
Placentia[1640] and Cremona, situated about the middle of the country,
are close to each other. Between these and Ariminum,[1641] are Parma,
Mutina,[1642] and Bononia,[1643] which is near to Ravenna; amongst these
are smaller cities on the route to Rome, as Acara,[1644]
Rhegium-Lepidum,[1645] Macri-Campi,[1646] where a public festival is
held every year, Claterna,[1647] Forum-Cornelium;[1648] while
Faventia[1649] and Cæsena, situated near to the river Savio[1650] and
the Rubicon,[1651] are adjacent to Ariminum. Ariminum, like Ravenna, is
an ancient colony of the Ombri, but both of them have received also
Roman colonies. Ariminum has a port and a river[1652] of the same name
as itself. From Placentia to Ariminum there are 1300 stadia. About 36
miles above Placentia, towards the boundaries of the kingdom of Cottius,
is the city of Ticinum,[1653] by which flows a river[1654] bearing the
same name, which falls into the Po, while a little out of the route are
Clastidium,[1655] Derthon,[1656] and Aquæ-Statiellæ. [1657] But the
direct route as far as Ocelum,[1658] along the Po and the Doria
Riparia,[1659] is full of precipices, intersected by numerous other
rivers, one of which is the Durance,[1660] and is about 160 miles long.
Here commence the Alpine mountains and Keltica. [1661] Near to the
mountains above Luna is the city of Lucca. Some [of the people of this
part of Italy] dwell in villages, nevertheless it is well populated, and
furnishes the greater part of the military force, and of equites, of
whom the senate is partly composed. Derthon is a considerable city,
situated about half way on the road from Genoa to Placentia, which are
distant 400 stadia from each other. Aquæ-Statiellæ is on the same route.
That from Placentia to Ariminum we have already described, but the sail
to Ravenna down the Po requires two days and nights. A[1662] great part
of Cispadana likewise was covered by marshes, through which Hannibal
passed with difficulty on his march into Tyrrhenia. [1663] But Scaurus
drained the plains by navigable canals from the Po[1664] to the country
of the Parmesans. For the Trebia meeting the Po near Placentia, and
having previously received many other rivers, is over-swollen near this
place. I allude to the Scaurus[1665] who also made the Æmilian road
through Pisa and Luna as far as Sabbatorum, and thence through Derthon.
There is another Æmilian road, which continues the Flaminian.