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WAR
From the (Philosophical Dictionary)
A"
LL animals wage perpetual war; every species is born to
devour another. Not one, not even sheep or doves, that
does not swallow a prodigious number of invisible creat-
ures. Males make war for the females, like Menelaus and Paris.
Air, earth, water, are fields of carnage. God having given reason
to men, this reason might teach them not to emulate the brutes,
particularly when nature has provided them neither with arms
to kill their fellows nor with a desire for their blood.
Yet murderous war is so much the dreadful lot of man, that
with two or three exceptions, all ancient histories represent them
full-armed against one another. Among the Canadian Indians
man and warrior are synonymous; and we have seen in our
hemisphere, that thief and soldier are the same thing. Mani-
chæans! behold your excuse! From the little that he may have
seen in army hospitals, or in the few villages memorable for
some glorious victory, its warmest apologist will admit that war
always brings pestilence and famine in its train.
Truly, that is a noble art which desolates countries, destroys
habitations, and causes the death of from forty to a hundred
thousand men a year!
In historic times this invention was first
cultivated by nations who convened assemblies for their common
good. For instance, the Diet of the Greeks declared to the Diet
of Phrygia and neighboring nations their intention to depart on
a thousand fishers' barks, for the extermination of these rivals.
The assembled Roman people thought it to their interest to
destroy the people of Veii or the Volscians. And afterwards, all
the Romans, becoming exasperated against all the Carthaginians,
fought them interminably on land and sea.
It is a little different at present. A genealogist proves to a
prince that he descends in a right line from a count whose par-
ents three or four hundred years ago made a family compact
with a house the recollection of which, even, is lost. This house
had distant pretensions to a province whose last ruler died sud-
denly. Both the prince and his council at once perceive his
legal right. In vain does this province, hundreds of leagues dis-
tant, protest that it knows him not, and has no desire to know
him; that to govern it he must at least have its consent; - these
objections reach only as far as the ears of this ruler by divine


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right. He assembles a host of needy adventurers, dresses them
in coarse blue cloth, borders their hats with a broad white bind-
ing, instructs them how to wheel to the right and to the left,
and marches them to glory. Other princes hearing of this ad-
venture come to take part in it, each according to his power, and
cover the country with more mercenary murderers than Zenghis
Khan, Tamerlane, or Bajazet employed in their train. People at
a distance hear that fighting is going on, and that by joining the
ranks they may earn five or six sous a day. They divide them-
selves into bands, like reapers, and offer their services to whoever
will hire them. These hordes fall upon one another, not only
without having the least interest in the affray, but without know-
ing the reason of it. There appear, therefore, five or six bel-
ligerent powers, sometimes three against three, sometimes two
against four, and sometimes one against five,- all equally detest-
ing one another, - supporting and attacking by turns; all agreed
in a single point only, that of doing as much harm as possible.
The most amazing part of this infernal enterprise is that each
murderous chief causes his colors to be blessed, and solemnly
invokes God, before he goes to exterminate his neighbors! If it
is his luck to kill only two or three thousand men, he does not
return thanks for it; but when he has destroyed say ten thou-
sand by fire and sword, and to make a good job leveled some
town with the ground, then they sing a hosanna in four parts,
composed in a language unknown to the fighters, and full of bar-
barity. The same pæan serves for marriages and births, as well
as for murders; which is unpardonable, particularly in a nation
famous for song-writing. Natural religion has a thousand times
prevented men from committing crime. A well-trained mind
is not inclined to brutality; a tender mind is appalled by it,
remembering that God is just. But conventional religion encour-
ages whatever cruelties are practiced in droves,— conspiracies,
seditions, pillages, ambuscades, surprisals of towns, robberies, and
murder. Men march gayly to crime, each under the banner of
his saint.
A certain number of dishonest apologists is everywhere paid
to celebrate these murderous deeds: some are dressed in a long
black close coat, with a short cloak; others have a shirt above a
gown; some wear two variegated streamers over their shirts.
All of them talk a long time, and quote what was done of old in
Palestine, as applicable to a combat in Veteravia. The rest of


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the year these people declaim against vice. They prove in three
arguments and by antitheses that ladies who lay a little carmine
on their cheeks will be the eternal objects of eternal vengeance;
that Polyeucte' and Athalie' are works of the evil one; that
a man who for two hundred crowns a day furnishes his table
with fresh sea-fish during Lent, works out his salvation; and that
a poor man who eats two and a half sous' worth of mutton will
go to perdition. Miserable physicians of souls! You exclaim for
five quarters of an hour on some prick of a pin, and say nothing
on the malady which tears us into a thousand pieces! Philoso-
phers, moralists! burn all your books, while the caprices of a
few men force that part of mankind consecrated to heroism, to
murder without question millions of our brethren! Can there be
anything more horrible in all nature? What becomes of, what
signifies to me, humanity, beneficence, modesty, temperance, mild-
ness, wisdom, and piety, whilst half a pound of lead, sent from
the distance of a hundred steps, pierces my body, and I die at
twenty years of age in inexpressible torments, in the midst of
five or six thousand dying men; whilst my eyes, opening for the
last time, see the town in which I was born destroyed by fire
and sword, and the last sounds which reach my ears are the cries
of women and children dying beneath the ruins, all for the pre-
tended interests of a man whom I never knew ?
APPEARANCES
From the Philosophical Dictionary)
AKP
RE all appearances deceitful? Have our senses been given us
only to
delude us? Is everything error ? Do we live in a
dream, surrounded by shadowy chimeras ? We see the sun
setting, when he is already below the horizon; before he has yet
risen, we see him appear.
him appear. A square tower seems to be round.
A straight stick, thrust into the water, seems to be bent.
You see your face in a mirror, and the image appears to
be behind the glass; it is, however, neither behind nor before it.
This glass, to the sight and touch so smooth and even, is in
fact an unequal congregation of projections and cavities. The
finest and fairest skin is a kind of bristled network, the openings
of which are incomparably larger than the threads, and inclose
infinite number of minute hairs. Under this network, fluids


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incessantly pass, and from it there issue continual exhalations
which cover the whole surface.
What we call large is to an elephant very small; and what
we call small is to insects a world. The motion which a snail
finds swift would be slow in the eye of an eagle. This rock,
which is impenetrable by steel, is a sieve consisting of more
pores than matter, and containing a thousand avenues leading
to its centre, in which are lodged multitudes of animals, which
may, for aught we know, think themselves the masters of the
universe.
Nothing is either as it appears to be, or in the place where
we believe it to be.
Some philosophers, tired of the constant deceptions of bodies,
have in their spleen pronounced that bodies do not exist, and
that nothing is real but mind. As well might they conclude
that, appearances being false, and the nature of the soul being
as little known as that of matter, there is no reality in either
body or soul.
Perhaps it is this despair of knowing anything which has led
some Chinese philosophers to declare Nothing the beginning and
the end of all things.
This destructive philosophy was well known in Molière's time.
Doctor Macphurius represents the school: when teaching Sgana-
relle, he says, “You must not say, I am come, but It seems to
me that I am come;' for it may seem so to you, without being
really the case.
But at the present day, a comic scene is not an argument
(though it is sometimes better than an argument), and there is
often as much pleasure in seeking after truth as in laughing at
philosophy.
You do not see the network, the cavities, the threads, the
inequalities, the exhalations, of that white and delicate skin which
Animals a thousand times less than a mite discern
these objects which escape your vision; they lodge, feed, and
travel about in them, as in an extensive country, and those on
the right arm are entirely ignorant that creatures of their own
species live on the left. Were you so unfortunate as to see
what they see, this charming skin would strike you with horror.
The harmony of a concert which delights you must have on
certain classes of minute animals the effect of terrible thunder;
and perhaps it kills them. We see, touch, hear, feel things, only
you admire.


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in the way in which they ought to be seen, touched, heard, or
felt, by ourselves.
All is in due proportion. The laws of optics, which show you
an object in the water where it is not, and break a right line,
are in entire accordance with those which make the sun appear
to you with a diameter of two feet, although he is a million
times larger than the earth. To see him in his true dimensions
would require an eye capable of collecting his rays at an angle
as great as his disk, which is impossible. Our senses, then, assist
much more than they deceive us.
Motion, time, hardness, softness, dimensions, distance, approxi-
mation, strength, weakness, appearances of whatever kind, -all is
relative. And who has created these relations ?
ON THE CONTRADICTIONS OF THIS WORLD
From the Philosophical Dictionary
)
HE
T
more one knows this world of ours, the more contradic-
tions and inconsistencies he finds. To begin with the Grand
Turk: he is under an indispensable necessity to cut off the
head of whoever displeases him, and he can at the same time
hardly preserve his own.
If from the Grand Turk we pass to St. Peter, his Holiness
confirms the election of emperors, he has kings for his vassals,
but has no more power than a Duke of Savoy. He sends his
commands into America and the East Indies; yet can he not
take away one privilege from the republic of Lucca. The Em-
peror is King of the Romans; but his whole right and preroga-
tive consists in holding the Pope's stirrup, and the basin for him
to dip his hands at mass.
The English serve their monarch on the knee; but then they
depose him, imprison him, behead him.
Men who are vowed to poverty, obtain, by the very virtue
of that vow, an estate of two hundred thousand crowns yearly
revenue; and by means of their humility, become absolute sov-
ereigns.
At Rome they rigorously condemn pluralities of benefices,
while at the same instant they will issue bulls to enable some
German to hold half a dozen bishoprics at once.
It is, say
they, because the German bishops have no church cures. The


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chancellor of France is the second person in the State, and yet
he is never permitted to eat at the king's table; at least it has
never happened hitherto: while a colonel, who is scarce a gentle-
man, enjoys that honor. An intendant's lady is a queen in her
,
husband's province, and at court no more than a simple country
madam.
Men convicted of the heinous sin of nonconformity are pub.
licly burnt: whilst the second Eclogue of Virgil, in which is that
warm declaration of love which Corydon makes the beauteous
Alexis, “Formosum pastor Corydon ardebat Alexin,” is gravely
expounded in every college; and pupils are asked to note that
though Corydon was fair and Amyntas swarthy, yet still Amyntas
had the preference.
Should a poor, harmless philosopher, who never dreamed of
doing the least harm to any one, take it into his head that the
earth moves, that light comes from the sun, that matter might
have other properties than those we are acquainted with, imme-
diately the hue and cry is raised against him; he is an impious
disturber of the public peace: though his persecutors have trans-
lated and published, in usum Delphini, Lucretius, and Cicero's
(Tusculan Questions, which are two complete bodies of irre-
ligion.
Our courts of justice have rejected the belief in evil spirits,
and witches are subjects of laughter: but Gaufredy and Grand-
ier were both burnt for witchcraft; and lately, by a majority of
voices, a monk was condemned to the stake by one of our Parlia-
ments for having bewitched a young damsel of eighteen years by
breathing upon her.
The skeptical philosophy of Bayle was persecuted even in
Holland. La Motte le Vayer, a still greater skeptic, though not
near so good a philosopher, was preceptor to Louis XIV. and his
brother. Gourville was hanged in effigy at Paris, whilst he was
the ambassador of France in Germany.
The famous atheist Spinoza lived and died in peace. Vanini,
whose only crime was writing against Aristotle, was burnt for an
atheist; in this character he has the honor to fill a considerable
space in the history of the republic of letters, as well as in all
the dictionaries, – those enormous archives of lies, with a small
mixture of truth. Do but open those books, you will find it
recorded that Vanini not only taught atheism in his writings, but
also that twelve professors of the same creed had actually set


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out from Naples to make proselytes for their gospel. Then open
Vanini's books, and you will be astonished to find that they con-
tain so many proofs of the existence of a Deity. See here what
he says in his Amphitheatrum,' a work condemned upon hear-
say because it is wholly unknown: «God is his own sole prin-
ciple and boundary, without end, without beginning, having no
need of either; and the father of all beginning and of every end:
he exists forever, but in no space of time; there is no duration, a
parte ante, – that is to say, which is past,- nor futurity, which
will come hereafter: he is present everywhere, without occupying
any place; immovable, yet without stopping, and rapid without
motion: he is all, but without inclusion of all; he is in every-
thing, but without being excluded from other beings; good with-
out quality; and whilst he produces all the various changes in
nature, he is himself unvaried and immutable: his will is his
power; he is simplicity itself: there is no such thing as mere
possibility; all in him is real: he is the first, the middle, and the
last act; in one word, he is all: yet he is above all kings, with-
out them, within them, beyond them, eternally before them, yet
present with them. ” After such a confession of his faith was
Vanini denounced as an atheist! On what grounds? The simple
deposition of a fellow called Francon. In vain did his works
bear witness for him. A single enemy robbed him at one stroke
of life and reputation.
The little book called the Cymballum Mundi' - a cold imita-
tion of Lucian, without the slightest, the most distant relation to
Christianity — has in like manner been condemned to the flames:
yet Rabelais has been printed cum privilegio, and the Turkish
Spy' and even the Persian Letters' suffered to pass unmolested,
– particularly the latter, that ingenious, diverting, and daring per.
formance which contains an entire letter in defense of suicide;
another in which are the words, “If we suppose such a thing as
religion”; another where it is said in express terms, that the bish-
ops have properly no other function but that of dispensing with
the laws; another which calls the Pope a magician who endeavors
to persuade us that three and one are the same, and that the
bread we eat is not bread. The Abbé de St. Pierre, a man possi-
bly deceived but ever upright, and whose works Cardinal Du Bois
used to call the “Dreams of a Good Citizen,” - this Abbé de
St. Pierre, I say, was excluded from the French Academy, nemine
contradicente, for having in a political work advocated boards of


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are
council in place of secretaries of State, and for saying that the
finances had been shamefully managed towards the close of that
glorious reign. The author of the Persian Letters' made men-
tion of Louis XIV. only to tell the world that the King was a
magician who undertook to persuade his subjects that paper was
gold and silver; who preferred the Turkish to all other forms
of government; who held a man that handed him a napkin in
higher esteem than one who had won him battles; who had given
a pension to a runaway who had fled a matter of two leagues
from the field of battle without once looking behind him, and
a considerable position to another who had run four leagues;
who was miserably poor, although his finances are inexhaustible.
What did this same author say of Louis XIV. , the protector of
the French Academy? for on the reputation of this book he was
admitted into their number. We may add to this, what crowns
the inconsistency, that this body received him amongst them
chiefly for having made them ridiculous; for of all the books
in which authors have laughed at their company, in none
they worse handled than in the Persian Letters. ' Listen: «The
members who compose this body have nothing to do but to prate
everlastingly; panegyric flows naturally out of that babbling of
theirs, which is truly world without end,” etc. After being treated
in this manner, they praised him for his skill in drawing a strong
likeness.
Were I disposed to treat the contrarieties of the republic of
letters, I must write the history of all the literati, and of all the
wits who have ever existed. Or had I a mind to consider the
inconsistencies of society, I must write a history of the human
race. An Asiatic traveling in Europe might take us all for
pagans. The very days of our week pay tribute to Mars, Mer-
cury, Jupiter, and Venus; the marriage of Cupid and Psyche is
painted in a palace belonging to the Pope! If this Asiatic at-
tended our opera, he could not doubt that it was a festival in
honor of the heathen gods. Were he to study our manners, he
would be still more astonished. Spain excludes all foreigners
from the smallest commerce, directly or indirectly, with her
American settlements, whilst those very Americans carry on,
through Spanish factors, a trade to the amount of fifty millions
per annum; so that Spain could never grow rich were it not for
the violation of that law, which still stands though perpetually
trampled upon. Another government encourages an India com-
pany, while its theologians declare its dividends criminal before


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God. Our Asiatic would behold the seats of judges, the com-
mand of armies, the places of counselors of State, bought with
money: nor could he comprehend the assertion of the patents
entitling them to hold these places, that these have been granted
without caballing, fee, or reward, and purely on the score of merit,
whilst the valuable consideration given is plainly disclosed in their
letters of provision! What would he think to see our players at
the same instant paid by the sovereign and excommunicated by
the clergy ? Suppose he were to ask why a lieutenant-general –
who is only a roturier, a man of the common class, though he
may have won battles should, in the estimation of the court, be
ranked with a peasant, whilst an echevin or city sheriff is held as
noble as the Montmorencies? Why, when all regular shows are
prohibited in the week consecrated to edification, should mounte-
banks be tolerated whose language is offensive to the least deli-
cate ear? In short, he would see our laws in direct opposition to
our customs. Yet were we to travel into Asia, we should come
upon like inconsistencies.
Men are everywhere fools: they make laws much as we re-
pair breaches in walls. In one place the elder brothers contrive
to leave the younger mere beggars; in others they share alike.
At one time the Church authorizes duels, at another she anathe-
matizes them. The partisans and enemies of Aristotle have been
excommunicated each in turn; as have the wearers of long hair
or short hair. In the known world no law has been discovered
able to redress a very silly piece of folly, which is gaming. The
laws of play are the only ones which admit of neither exception,
relaxation, imposition, nor variation. An ex-lackey, if he plays
at lansquenet with a king, and happens to win, is paid without
the least hesitation; in every other respect the law is a sword,
with which the stronger cuts the weaker in pieces.
Yet the world gets on as if it were constituted in the wisest
manner imaginable! Irregularity is a part of ourselves. Our
political world is much like our globe: though ugly enough, it
manages to get on. It would be folly to wish that all the
mountains, seas, and rivers were drawn in regular geometrical
figures: it would be a still greater folly to expect consummate
wisdom from men; as if one should suggest giving wings to
dogs, or horns to eagles. Indeed, these pretended oppositions
that we call contradictions are necessary ingredients in the
composition of man; who like the rest of nature is what he has
to be.


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ON READING
From the Philosophical Dictionary
)
T"
HERE is this good in a large library, that it frightens the be-
holder! Two hundred thousand volumes are enough to
discourage a man tempted to print a book. But unfortu-
nately he very soon says to himself, "Most of those books are
not read, and perhaps mine will be! ” He compares himself to
the drop of water that complained of being confounded and lost
in the ocean; a génie took pity on it, and made an oyster swal-
low it. It became one of the finest pearls in the ocean, and in
time the chief ornament of the great Mogul's throne. Those who
are mere compilers, imitators, commentators, pickers of phrases,
critics by the week,- in short, those on whom no génie will take
pity,- will forever remain the drop of water.
Our man, then, is working in his garret in hopes of becoming
the pearl.
It is true that in that immense collection of books there are
about one hundred and ninety-nine thousand that will never be
read, at least never read through; but one may need to consult
some of them once in his life. And it is a great advantage to
the seeker to find without delay, under his hand, in the palace
of kings, the volume and the page he is looking for. The library
is one of the noblest of institutions. There has never been an
expense more magnificent and more useful.
The public library of the French king is the finest in the
world; less indeed as to number and rarity of volumes, than in
the facility and politeness with which the librarians lend them
to all the learned. That collection is unquestionably the most
precious monument there is in France.
Let not that astonishing multitude of books daunt the stu-
dent. Paris contains seven hundred thousand people; one cannot
live with them all, and must make choice of three or four
friends, - and we ought not to complain more of a superfluity of
books than of men.
A man who wishes to know something of his own being, and
who has no time to lose, is much puzzled. He feels that he
ought at once to read Hobbes and Spinoza; Bayle, who has writ-
ten against them; Leibnitz, who has opposed Bayle; Clarke, who
has disputed the theories of Leibnitz; Malebranche, who differs


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with all of them; Locke, who is supposed to have confounded
Malebranche; Stillingfleet, who thinks he has vanquished Locke;
Cudworth, who sets himself up above all because no one can un-
derstand him! One would die of old age before he could go
through a hundredth part of the metaphysical romance !
THE IGNORANT PHILOSOPHER
From the Philosophical Dictionary)
W"
I am
can
HO art thou ? Whence art thou ? What is thy business
here? What will become of thee ? — These are questions
which confront us all, but which not a man of us can
answer. I ask the plants what power occasions their growth;
and how the same soil produces fruits so different. Insensible
and mute, these leave me to my ignorance. I interrogate that
crowd of animals endowed with motion, able to communicate,
who enjoy my very sensations; who possess some ideas, some
memory, all the passions. They know even less than I what
they are, why they are, what they shall be.
a weak
animal: I come into the world without knowledge, strength, or
instinct. I cannot even crawl to my mother's breast, as
other animals. I acquire a few ideas, as I acquire a little
strength, when my organs begin to develop. This strength in-
creases to a certain degree, and then daily decreases. So the
power of conceiving ideas increases to a certain degree, and then
insensibly disappears. What is the nature of that crescent force ?
I know not; and those who have spent their lives in search of
this unsearchable cause know no more than I. What is that
other power which creates images in my brain ? which preserves
them in my memory? Those who spend their lives in seeking
for this knowledge have sought it in vain. We are as ignorant
of first principles as we were in our cradles. Have I learned
anything from the books of the past two thousand years? Some-
times a desire arises in us to understand in what manner we
think. I have interrogated my reason, imploring it to explain.
The question confounds it. I have tried to discover if the same
springs of action which enable me to digest or to walk are those
whereby I develop ideas. I cannot conceive how or wherefore
these ideas flee, when hunger makes my body languish, and how
they spring up again when I have eaten I have observed so


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>
-
great a difference in my thinking when I am well fed or ill fed,
that I have believed there was a substance in me which reasoned,
and another substance which digested.
But on endeavoring to
prove to myself that we are two, I have been sure that I am
only one; and the contradiction confuses me.
I have asked some of my fellow-creatures who with great
industry cultivate the earth, our common source of life, if they
felt themselves to be double beings; if they had discovered in
their philosophy that they possessed an immortal substance that
was yet formed of nothing, existed without extent, acted on their
nerves without touching them, and actually preceded their crea-
tion. They thought I was laughing at them, and went about
their business with not so much as a reply. Seeing then that
an immense number of men had not the least idea of the diffi-
culties that distressed me, nor perplexed themselves with what
was said in the schools,- of Being in the abstract, of matter and
spirit, etc. , -observing too that they often diverted themselves
with my eagerness to learn, I suspected it to be unnecessary that
we should know these things. I concluded that nature gives
to every being what is proper for him; and I came to think
that those things which we could not obtain were not designed
Notwithstanding this depressing conclusion, however, I
cannot suppress the desire of being instructed; and my disap-
pointed curiosity is ever insatiable.
We must renounce common-sense, or else concede that we
know nothing save by experience; and certainly if it be by ex-
perience alone - by a series of trials and through long reflection
- that we acquire some feeble and slight ideas of body, of space,
of time, of infinity, even of God, it is not likely that the author
of our nature placed these ideas in the brain of every foetus, in
order that only a small number of men should afterwards make
use of them.
Having no ideas, then, save by experience, it is not possible
that we should ever know what matter is. We touch and we
see the properties of that substance. But even the word sub-
stance, that which is beneath, hints to us that this thing beneath
will be unknown to us forever. Whatever we discover of its ap-
pearance, this substance, this foundation, will ever elude us. For
the same reason we shall never of ourselves know what spirit is.
The word originally signified breath, and by its use we express
vaguely and grossly that which inspires thinking. But if, even
XXVI–968
for us.
.


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-
by a miracle, - which is not to be expected, - we should achieve
some slight idea of the substance of this spirit, we should be
no further advanced; and we could never imagine how this sub-
stance received sentiments and thoughts. We know that we
possess a modicum of intelligence; but how do we acquire it?
It is a secret of Nature which she has not divulged to any
mortal.
I find at this time, in this period, - which is the dawn of
reason, that some of the hydra heads of fanaticism are again
springing up. Their poison however is apparently less mortal, ,
their jaws less voracious, than of yore. Less blood is spilled for
the sake of dogma than was long wasted on account of plenary
indulgences sold at market. But fanaticism still lives. Every
man who searches for truth incurs the danger of persecution.
Are we then to remain idle in mental darkness ? Or must we
light a flambeau at which envy and calumny may rekindle their
torches ? For my own part, I would no more conceal truth in
the face of these monsters than I would go without food for fear
of being poisoned.
CLIMATE
From the Philosophical Dictionary
I
T is certain that the sun and the atmosphere stamp themselves
on all the productions of nature, from man to mushrooms.
In the grand age of Louis XIV. , the ingenious Fontenelle
remarked:
It might be suggested that the torrid and the two frigid
zones are not well suited to the sciences. Down to the present
day, these have not traveled beyond Egypt and Mauritania on
the one side, nor on the other beyond Sweden. Perhaps it is not
mere chance that their range is between Mount Atlas and the
Baltic Sea. But whether these are the limits appointed to them
by nature, or whether we may hope to see great authors among
Laplanders or negroes, is not disclosed. ”
Chardin, one of the few travelers who reason and investi-
gate, goes still further than Fontenelle, when speaking of Persia.
« The temperature of warm climates,” he says, "enervates the
mind as well as the body, and dissipates that fire which the


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15475
are
arts,»
imagination requires for invention. In such climates men
incapable of the long study and intense application necessary to
the production of first-rate works in the liberal and mechanic
etc. But Chardin did not recollect that Sadi and Lokman
were Persians, nor that Archimedes belonged to Sicily, where
the heat is greater than in three-fourths of Persia. He forgot
that Pythagoras once taught geometry to the Brahmins. The
Abbé Dubos supported and developed the opinion of Chardin. A
century and a half earlier, Bodin made this idea the foundation
of a system in his Republic and in his Method of History:
he asserts that climate determines the principle both of the
government and the religion of nations. Diodorus of Sicily held
the same opinion long before Bodin. The author of the Spirit
of Laws' without quoting authorities, carried this idea farther
than Chardin and Bodin. Certain classes believed him to have
first suggested it, and imputed it to him as a crime.
This was
quite in character with the classes referred to. There are men
everywhere who possess more zeal than understanding.
We might ask these believers in climatic influences, why the
emperor Julian, in his “Misopogon,' says that what pleased him
in the Parisians was the gravity of their characters and the
severity of their manners; and why these Parisians, without the
slightest change of climate, are now like playful children whom
the government punishes and smiles upon at the same moment,
and who themselves at the next moment also smile, and sing
lampoons upon their masters. Why are the Egyptians, who are
described as still more grave than the Parisians, at present the
most lazy, frivolous, and cowardly of peoples, after having con-
quered the whole world for their pleasure, under a king called
Sesostris ? Why are there no longer Anacreons, Aristotles, or
Zeuxises, at Athens ? Whence comes it that Rome, instead of
its Ciceros, Catos, and Livys, breeds citizens who dare not speak
their minds, and a brutalized populace whose supreme happiness
consists in having oil cheap and in gazing at processions ?
Cicero, in his letters, is occasionally very jocose concerning
the English. He desires his brother Quintus, Cæsar's lieutenant,
to inform him whether he finds any great philosophers among
them in his expedition to Britain. How little he suspected that
that country would one day produce mathematicians beyond his
comprehension ! Yet the climate has not altered, and the sky of
London is as cloudy now as it was then.


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VOLTAIRE
and usages.
.
Everything changes, both in bodies and minds, by time. Per-
haps the Americans will in some future period cross the sea to
instruct Europeans in the arts.
Climate has some influence, gov-
ernment a hundred times more; religion and government com-
bined, more still.
Certainly climate influences religion in respect to ceremonies
A legislator could have experienced no difficulty in
inducing the Indians to bathe in the Ganges at certain appear-
ances of the moon. Bathing is a high gratification to them.
Had a like purification been proposed to the people who inhabit
the banks of the Dwina, near Archangel, the proposer would
have been stoned. Forbid pork to an Arab, who, after eating
this meat (miserable and disgusting in Arabia), would be afflicted
with leprosy, he will obey you with joy; prohibit it to a West-
phalian, and he will be tempted to knock you down. Abstinence
from wine is a good precept of religion in Arabia, where orange,
citron, and lemon waters are necessary to health. Mahomet
would not have forbidden wine in Switzerland, especially before
going into battle.
Religions have always turned upon two pivots, — forms or
ceremonies, and faith: forms and ceremonies depend much on
climate; faith not at all. A doctrine will be received with equal
readiness under the equator or at the pole; it will be equally
rejected at Batavia and the Orcades; while it will be maintained
unguibus et rostro — with tooth and nail - at Salamanca. This de-
pends not on sun and atmosphere, but solely upon opinion, that
fickle empress of the world. Certain libations of wine will be
naturally enjoined in a country abounding in vineyards; and it
would never occur to the legislative mind to institute sacred mys-
teries which could not be celebrated without wine, in such a coun-
try as Norway. The burning of incense is expressly commanded
in a court where beasts are killed in honor of the divinity, and
for the priests' supper. This slaughter-house, called a temple,
would be a place of abominable infection were it not contin-
ually purified; and without the use of aromatics, the religion of
the ancients would have introduced the plague. The interior was
even festooned with flowers to sweeten the air. But the cow is
not a sacrificial animal in the burning territory of the Indian
peninsula, because, while it supplies the indispensable milk, it is
very rare in arid and barren districts; and because its flesh, being
dry and tough, and yielding but little nourishment, would afford


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the Brahmins but sorry cheer. On the other hand, the creature
comes to be considered sacred, by reason of its rarity and utility.
The temple of Jupiter Ammon, where the heat is excessive, will
be entered only with bare feet. To perform his devotions at
Copenhagen, a man requires his feet to be warm and well cov-
ered.
It is not thus with doctrine. Polytheism has been believed in
.
all climates; and it is as easy for a Crim Tartar as for an inhab-
itant of Mecca to acknowledge one only incommunicable God,
neither begotten nor begetting. It is by doctrine, more than
by rites, that a religion extends from one climate to another.
The doctrine of the unity of God passed rapidly from Medina to
Mount Caucasus. Climate, then, yields to opinion.
In Egypt the emblematical worship of animals succeeded to
the doctrines of Thaut. The gods of the Romans afterwards
shared Egypt with the dogs, the cats, and the crocodiles. To the
Roman religion succeeded Christianity; that was completely ban-
ished by Mahometanism, which will perhaps be superseded by
some new religion. In all these changes climate has effected
nothing: government has done everything. We are here consid-
ering only second causes, without raising our unhallowed eyes to
a directing Providence. The Christian religion, which received
its birth in Syria, and grew up to fuller stature in Alexandria,
inhabits now those countries where Tenbat and Irminsul, Freya,
and Odin, were formerly adored.
There are some nations whose religion is the result of neither
climate nor government. What cause detached North Germany,
Denmark, most of Switzerland, Holland, England, Scotland, and
Ireland, from the Roman communion ? Poverty. Indulgences and
deliverances from purgatory for the souls of those whose bodies
had no money, were sold too dear. The prelates and monks
absorbed the whole revenue of a province. People adopted a
cheaper religion. In short, after numerous civil wars, it was
concluded that the papal faith was good for the nobles, and the
reformed faith for citizens. Time will show whether the religion
of the Greeks or of the Turks will prevail on the coasts of the
Euxine and Ægean Seas.


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LUXURY
From the Philosophical Dictionary)
>
IN
»
N THE country of the barefoot, could luxury be imputed to the
first man who made himself a pair of shoes ? Was he not
rather a model of sense and industry? So of the man who
contrived the first shirt.
As to the man who had it washed and ironed, I set him down
as an absolute genius, abundant in resources, and qualified to
govern a State.
Naturally, however, a society unused to clean
shirts looked upon him as an effeminate coxcomb, who was likely
to corrupt the simplicity of the nation.
The other day a Norwegian was berating a Dutchman for
luxury. “ "Where now," said he, "are the happy times when an
Amsterdam merchant, setting out for the Indies, left a quarter of
smoked beef in his kitchen, and found it untouched on his re-
turn? Where are your wooden spoons and iron forks? Is it not
shameful for a sensible Dutchman to sleep in a bed of damask ? ”
«Go to Batavia,” replied the Amsterdammer; "bring home, as
I have done, ten tons of gold: and then see if you too do not
prefer to be well clothed, well fed, and well lodged. ”
Since this conversation, twenty volumes have been written
about luxury, which has neither increased nor diminished.
For the space of two thousand years, both in verse and prose,
this pleasant vice has been attacked — and cherished. Recall the
Romans.
When early in their history these banditti pillaged
their neighbors' harvests, when to profit their own wretched vil-
lages they burned the poor hamlets of the Volsci and Samnites,
they were, we are told, disinterested and virtuous men. Natur-
ally they did not carry away gold, silver, and jewels, because the
towns which they sacked and plundered had none; nor did their
woods and swamps produce partridges or pheasants: yet posterity,
forsooth, extols their temperance! When they had systematically
robbed every country from the Adriatic to the Euphrates, and
had developed sense enough to enjoy the fruits of their rapine;
when they cultivated the arts and tasted all the pleasures of life,
and communicated them to the conquered nations,— then, we
are told, they ceased to be wise and good!
The moral seems to be that a robber ought not to eat the
dinner he has taken, nor wear the habit he has stolen, nor orna-
ment his fingers with plundered rings: all these, it is said, should


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15479
.
be thrown into the river, that the thief may live like the honest
man. But what morality ought to say is, Never rob, it is your
duty not to rob. Condemn the brigands when they plunder;
but do not treat them as fools or madmen for enjoying their
plunder. If English sailors win prize money for the capture of
Pondicherry or Havana, can they be blamed for pleasuring in
London in compensation for the hardships they have undergone
in Asia or America ? Certain censors admonish men to bury,
as it were, the riches that come from war, or agriculture, or
commerce and industry in general. They cite Lacedæmonia:
why not cite the republic of San Marino ? What benefits did
Sparta afford Greece ? Did she produce a Demosthenes, a Sopho-
a
cles, an Apelles, or a Phidias? The luxury of Athens formed
great men. Sparta certainly produced great captains, though
fewer even of these than did other cities. But granting that a
small republic like Lacedæmonia may maintain its poverty, men
uniformly die, whether in poverty or comfort. The savage of
Canada subsists and attains old age, not less than the English
landlord with fifty thousand guineas a year. But who would ever
compare the country of the Iroquois to England ?
Let the republic of Ragusa and the canton of Zug enact
sumptuary laws: they are quite right. The poor must not exceed
their means; but I have somewhere read that, with some harm,
luxury on the whole does great good.
If by luxury you mean excess, let us at once admit that ex-
cess is pernicious,- in abstinence as well as in gluttony, in parsi.
mony as in profusion. In my own village, where the soil is
meagre, the imposts heavy, and the prohibition against a man's
exporting the corn he has himself sown and reaped, intolerable,
there is hardly a cultivator who is not well clothed, and who has
not sufficient warmth and food. Should this cultivator plow in
his best clothes, and with his hair dressed and powdered, he
would display the most absurd luxury; but were a rich citizen of
Paris or London to appear at the play in the dress of this peas-
ant, he would exhibit the grossest, the most ridiculous parsimony.
«Some certain mean in all things may be found,
To mark our virtues' and our vices' bound. ”
On the invention of scissors, what was not said of those who
pared their nails, and cut off the hair that was hanging down
over their eyes? They were doubtless regarded as prodigals and


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VOLTAIRE
coxcombs, buying an extravagant instrument fit only to spoil the
work of the Creator. What a sin to pare the horn which God
himself made to grow at our finger-ends! It was an insult to
Divinity! With shirts and socks it was far worse. With what
wrath and indignation did the old counselors, who had never
worn socks, exclaim against the young magistrates who encour-
aged so fatal a luxury!
PASSAGES FROM THE PAMPHLETS
LO
OVE truth, but pardon error. The mortal who goes astray
is still a man and thy brother. Be wise for thyself alone;
compassionate for him. Achieve thine own welfare by bless-
ing others.
TAKE revenge upon a rival by surpassing him.
To DESIRE all is the mark of a fool. Excess is his portion.
Moderation is the treasure of the wise: he knows how to control
his tastes, his labors, his pleasures.
Work is often the father of pleasure. I pity the man over-
whelmed with the weight of his own leisure. Happiness is a
good that nature sells us.
ONE day some mice said to one another, How charming
"
is this world! What an empire is ours! This palace so superb
was built for us; from all eternity God made for us these large
holes. Do you see those fat hams under that dim ceiling? they
were created there for us by Nature's hands; those mountains
of lard, inexhaustible aliment, will be ours till the end of time.
Yes, we are, great God, if our sages tell us the truth, the master-
piece, the end, the aim, of all thy works! Cats are dangerous
and prompt to devour, but it is to instruct and correct us! ”
MIRACLES are good; but to relieve a brother, to draw a
friend from the depths of misery, to pardon the virtues of our
enemies – these are greater miracles.
The secret of wearying your reader is to tell him everything.


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The true virtue then is beneficence”; a new word in the
French language, but the whole universe ought to cherish the
idea.
Souls communicate with souls, and can measure one another
without need of an intermediate body. It is only the greatness
or the worth of a soul that ought to frighten or intimidate
a
us. To fear or to respect the body and its accessories - force,
beauty, royalty, rank, office-- is pure imbecility. Men are born
equal and die equal. Let us respect the virtue, the merit of
their souls, and pity the imperfections of these souls.
DOUBTLESS we should by prudence avoid the evil which that
physical force [of rulers] can do us, as we should guard ourselves
against a crowned bull, an enthroned monkey, a savage dog, let
loose upon us.
Let us beware of such. Let us even endeavor,
if possible, to moderate them, to soften them; but this sentiment
is very different from the esteem and respect which we owe to
souls.
Having it clearly in your heart that all men are equal, and
in your head that the exterior distinguishes them, you can get
on very well in the world.
BELIEVE that in his eternal wisdom the Most High has, with
his own hand, engraved at the bottom of thy heart natural reli-
gion. Believe that the native candor of thy soul will not be the
object of God's eternal hate. Believe that before his throne, in
all times and in all places, the heart of the just person is pre-
cious. Believe that a modest bonze, a charitable dervish, finds
favor in his eyes sooner than a pitiless Jansenist or an ambitious
pontiff. God judges us according to our virtues, not our sacri-
fices.
AFTER all, it is right to give every possible form to our soul.
It is a flame that God has intrusted to us: we are bound to feed
it with all that we find most precious. We should introduce into
our existence all imaginable modes, and open every door of the
soul to all sorts of knowledge and all sorts of feelings: so long
as it does not all go in pell-mell, there is plenty of room for
everything


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One who has many witnesses of his death can die with cour-
age.
I ENVY the beasts two things,-their ignorance of evil to come,
and their ignorance of what is said about them.
Does not experience prove that influence over men's minds
is gained only by offering them the difficult, nay, the impossible,
to perform or believe? Offer only things that are reasonable,
and all the world will answer, “We knew as much as that. ” But
enjoin things that are hard, impracticable; paint the Deity as ever
armed with the thunder; make blood run before the altars: and
you will win the multitude's ear, and everybody will say of you,
“He must be right, or he would not so boldly proclaim things so
marvelous. »
A sure means of not yielding to the desire to kill yourself is
to have always something to do.
OPINION rules the world, and wise men rule opinion.
All nature is nothing but mathematics.
TO MAKE a good book, one must have a prodigious length of
time and the patience of a saint.
The human race would be too unhappy if it vere as common
to commit atrocious things as it is to believe them.
Most men die without having lived.
Who ought to be the king's favorite? The people.
I Know no great men except those who have rendered great
services to the human race.
Yes, without doubt, peace is of more value than truth; that is
to say, we must not vex our neighbor by arguments: but it is
necessary to seek the soul's peace in truth, and to tread under
foot the monstrous errors which would perturb it, and render it
the prey of knaves.
CONTROVERSY never convinced any man; men can be influenced
by making them think for themselves, by seeming to doubt with


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15483
them, by leading them as if by the hand, without their perceiving
it. A good book lent to them, which they read at leisure, pro-
duces upon them surer effects, because they do not then blush to
be subjugated by the superior reason of an antagonist.