Parmenio was
evidently
sacrificed in cold blood to
what have been styled, in after ages, "reasons of
state.
what have been styled, in after ages, "reasons of
state.
Charles - 1867 - Classical Dictionary
Use.
Knoicl.
, vol.
17, p.
218.
)--II.
One of this family received the surname of Pralexta-
tus, from an action of his while still wearing the pra-
texta, or youthful gown, and before he had assumed the
toga viriiis, or gown of manhood. It was customary
in those days for fathers to take their young sons to
the senate-house when anything important was under
discussion, in order tbst they might sooner become
familiarized with public affairs. The father of young
Papirius took him on one of these occasions, while a
matter of considerable moment was pending; and it
having been deemed advisable to adjourn the debate
onto the morrow, an injunction of secrecy was lsid
upon all who were present. The mother of young Pa-
Eirius wished to know what had passed in the senate;
ut the son, unwilling to betray the secrets of that as-
sembly, amused his parent by telling her that it had
been debated whe'. her it would be more advantageous
to the republic to give two wives to one husband, or
two huabands to one wife. The mother of Papirius
was alarmed, and she communicated the secret to the
other Roman matrons, and on the morrow they assem-
bled in large numbers before the senate-house, bathed
in tears, and earnestly entreating that one woman might
have two husbands rather than one husband two wives.
The senators were astonished at so singular an appli-
cation; but young Papirius modestly explained the
cause, and the fathers, in admiration of his ready tact,
passed a decree, that for the future boys should not be
allowed to come to the senate with their fathers, ex-
cept Papirius alone. This regulation continued until
the time of Augustus, who rescinded it. (Macrob. ,
1,6)
Pappus, a celebrated mathematician of Alexandrea,
who lived towards the end of the fourth century. He
is known by his Mathematical Collections (UlaJSn/taTi-
Kai awayuyai), in eight books, and by other works,
among which were a Commentary on Ptolemy'a Al-
magest, a work on Geography, a Treatise on Military
Engines, a Commentary on Aristarchus of Samoa, &c.
His Collection* have chiefly come down to ua; of
bis other productions we have merely some fragments.
? ? The last five books of the Collections remain entire;
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? PAR
PAR
tticier. Farsang, which is pronounced in modem Per-
sian FirMcng. It has been changed in Arabic into
Farsakh. Various etymologies have been proposed
tor the tenn. The latter part of the word is thought
to be th 1 Persian seng, " a stone," and the term might
thus l>6 Icrivcd from the stones which were placed to
mark t'. ie distances in the road. Bohlen (quoted by
Rddigcr) supposes the firtt part of the word to be
the pi spoaition fera, and compares the word with the
Ls'. in ad lapidem. (Encycl. Us. Knowl. , vol. 17, p.
Ml. )
P*Rc<e. the Fates, called also Fain, and in Greek
Holpai (Moira). In the Iliad, with the exception of
one passage (20, 49), the Moira is spoken of in the
singular number, and as a person, almost exactly as we
use the word Fale. But in the Odyssey this word is
employed as a common substantive, followed by a gen-
itive of tho person, and signifying decree. The Thc-
ogony of Hesiod limits the Fates, like so many other
goddesses, to three, and gives them Jupiter and The-
mis for their parents. (TAeog-. , 904. ) In an interpo-
lated passage of the same poem (v. 217) they are class-
ed among the children of Night; and Plato, on his
part, makes them the daughters of Necessity. (Rep. ,
10, 617. ) Their names in Hesiod are Clotho (Spin-
tier), Lachcsis (Alloltcr), and Atropos (Unchange-
able); but he docs not speak of their spinning the
destinies of men. This office of theirs is, however,
noticed in both the Iliad and Odyssey. It is probable
that Homer, in accordance with the sublime fiction in
the Theogony, regarded the Fates as the otfspring of
Jupiter and Order, for in him they are but the minis-
ters of Jupiter, in whose hands are the issues of all
things. (Nitzch, ad Od, 8, 236. ) jEschylus makes
even Jupiter himself subject to the Fates. (Pram.
Vinct. , 515. --Kcightley's Mythology, p. 195. )--Ac-
cording to the popular mythology, Ciotho held the dis-
taff, Lachcsis span each one's portion of the thread of
existence, and Atropos cut it off: hence the well-
kr. own line expressing their respective functions:
"Clotho celum rctinel, Lachcsis net, et Atropos occal. "
The more correct explanation, however, is to make
Clotho spii, Lachesis mark out each one's portion,
and Atropos sever it. --The Latin writers indulge in
various views of the functions of the Parca, as sug-
gested by their own ingenuity of elucidation. Thus
Apuleius (De Mundo, sub fin. ) makes Clotho preside
over the present, Atropos the past, and Lachesis the
future; an idea probably borrowed from Plato, who
introduces the Moira singing ru yeyovora, ra ovra,
ra uiiXovra. (Rep. , 10, 617. ) So in the Scandina-
vian mythology, the Norns or Destinies, who are also
three in number, are called Urdur, Verdandi, end
Skuld, or " Past," " Present," and "Futures'--Ac-
cording to Fulgentius (Mythol. , 1, 7), Clotho presides
over nativity, Atropos over death, and Lachesis over
each one's lot in life. --The term Moira (Moipa) comes
from peipu, "to divide1" or "portion out. " Tho or-
dinary etymology for the word Parca deduces' it by
antiphrasis from parco, "to spare," because they never
spared. (Serv. ad JEn , 1, 26. --Martian. Capell --
ponat. --Diomed, ap. Voss, Etymol. ) Varro derives
it " a pariendo," because they presided over the birth
of men (Aul. Gcll. , 3, 16); or, to quote his own words,
"Parca,immulata litera una,a partu nominaia. " Scal-
iger makes it come from parco, " to spare," in a dif-
ferent sense from Servius and tho other grammarians
? ? Suotcd above; because, according to him, only one of
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? t kK
PAR
towever, whicl prompted the enterprise, was a wish
to obtain, in the person of Helen, then the fairest
woman of her time, a fulfilment of what Venus had
altered him when he was deciding the contest of
beauty. Arriving at Sparta, where Menelaus. the hus-
of Helen, was reigning, he met with an hospitable re-
caption; hut, Menelaus soon after having sailed away
to Crete, the Trojan prince availed himself of his ab-
sence, seduced the affections of Helen, and bore her
may to his native city, together with a large portion
of the wealth of her husband. (Consult remarks under
the article Helena ) Hence ensued the war of Troy,
which ended in the total destruction of that ill-fated
city. {Vid. Troja. ) Paris, though represented in
general as effeminate and vain of his personal appear-
ance, yet distinguished himself during the siege of
Troy by wounding Dioinedc, Machaon, Antilochus,
and Palamedes, and subsequently by discharging the
dart which proved fatal to Achilles. Venus took him
under her special protection, and, in the single com-
bat with Menelaus, rescued him from the vengeance
of the latter. The circumstances of his death are
mentioned under the article CEnone. . (Did. Cret. , 1,
i i. -- Apollod. , 3, 12. -- Hygin. , fab. , 92, 273 --
Ttets. ad Lycophr. , 57, 61, 63, 86, &c. )
ParIsi, a British nation lying to the north of the
Coritani, and occupying the district which is called
Jloldemess, or, according to Camden, the whole East-
Riding of Yorkshire. They are supposed to have de-
rived their name from the two British words paur isa,
which signify low pasture, and which are descriptive
of the situation and uses of their country. Their cap-
ital was Petuaria. (Manner! , Geogr. , vol. 2, pt. 2,
p. 187. )
Parish, a people and city of Gaul, now Paris, the
capital of the kingdom of France. (Vid. Lutetia. --
Cits. , B. G. , 6, 3. )
Pabisus, a river of Paunonia, falling into the Dan-
ube; according to Mannerl, the Mur, in the Hungarian
part of its course. (Mannerl, Geogr. , vol. 3, p. 489. )
Pabiuh, now Camanar, a town of Asia Minor, in
Mysia Minor, on the Propontis, southwest of Linus,
and northeast from Paesus. It was founded by the
Milesians and Parians. (I'lin. , 5, 32. -- Paul. Lex. ,
>>ni. , de Censib. )
Parma, a city of Italy, south of the Po, on the small
river Parma. It was founded by the Etrurians, taken
by a tribe of Gauls called the Boii, and at last colon-
ized by the Romans, A. U. C. 569. (Liv. , 39, 55. )
From Cicero it may be inferred that Parma suffered
from the adverse factions in the civil wars. (Ep. ad.
Fern. , 10, 33. --Id. ibid. , 12. 5-- Id, Philipp. , 14,
3. ) It was probably recolonized under Augustus, as
some inscriptions give it the title of Colonia Julia Au-
gusta Parma. Strabo (216) speaks of it as a city of
note. From Martial we learn that its wool was highly
prized (14, 53; 5, 13). In the ages that immedi-
ately succeeded the fall of the Roman empire, we find
this rity distinguished also by the appellation of Chry-
sopolis (Gold-city), but are unacquainted with the
causes that led-to the adoption of the name. (Geogr.
Ravenna*, 4, 33. --Donizo, Vit. Machtildis, 1, 10. )
The modern name is Parma. (Mannert, Gecgr. , vol.
9, pt. 1, p. 218. )
Parmenides (napprvidne), the second in the series
? f the Elcatic philosophers, was a native of Elea. He
* as descended from a noble family, and is said to have
? ? been induced to study philosophy by Aminias. (Diog.
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? PAR
PAR
bom Lis capital on some expedition, together with itM
of his having won the prize at the Olympic games.
Philip, while preparing to invade the Persian empire,
aent a considerable force into Aaia as an advanced
guard, and he chose Parmenio and Attains as the lead-
en of the expedition. These commanders began by
expelling the Persian garrisons from several Greek
towns of Aaia Minor. Parmenio took Grynsjum in
iEolis, the inhabitants of which, having aided with the
Persians, and fought against the Macedonians, were
sold as slaves. When Alexander set out on his Asi-
atic expedition, Parmenio had one of the chief com-
mands in the army. At the head of the Thessalian cav-
alry he contributed much to the victory of the Grani-
cus; and at Issue he had the command of the cavalry
on the left wing, which was placed near the scacoast,
and had to sustain for a time the principal attack of
the Persians. At Arbela he advised Alexander not to
S've battle until he bad well reconnoitred the ground,
eing in command of the left wing, he was attacked
in flank by the Penians, and was lor a time in some
danger, until Alexander, who had been successful in
another part of the field, came to his assistance. Par-
menio afterward pursued the fugitives, and took pos-
session of the Persian camp, with the elephants, cam-
els, and all the baggage. When Alexander marched
beyond the Caspian gates in pursuit of Darius and
Bessus, he left Parmenio, who was now advanced in
years, in Media, at the head of a considerable force.
Some time after, while Alexander was encamped at
Artacoana, a conspiracy is said to have been discovered
against his life, in which Philotas, the son of Parme-
nio, was accused of being implicated. He was, in con-
sequence, put to the torture, and, after enduring dread-
ful agonies, confessed, though in vague terms, that he
had conspired against the life of Alexander, and that
his father Parmenio was cognizant of it. This being
considered sufficient evidence, Philotas was stoned to
death, and Alexander despatched a messenger to Me-
dia, with secret orders to Oleander and other officers
who were serving under Parmenio, to put their com-
mander to death. The unsuspecting veteran, while
conversing with his officers, was run through the body
by Oleander. This is the substance of the account of
Ourtius (lib. 6 ct 7). Arrian'a account is somewhat
different (lib. 3). Whatever may be thought of the
trial and execution of Philotas, and it appears to have
been at least a summary and unsatisfactory proceed-
ing, the murder of Parmenio, and the manner of it, form
one of the darkest blots in Alexander's character.
Parmenio was evidently sacrificed in cold blood to
what have been styled, in after ages, "reasons of
state. " He was seventy years of age; he had lost
two sons in the campaigns of Alexander, and Philotas
was the last one remaining to him. Parmenio appears
to have been a steady, brave, and prudent command-
er. (Eneycl. Ut. Knowl. , vol. 17, p. 283, seq. )
Parnassus (Kapvaaadc), I. the name of a mount-
ain-chain in Phocia, which extends in a northeasterly
direction from the country of the Locn Ozole to
Mount (Eta, and in a southwesterly direction through
the middle of Phocis, till it joins Mount Helicon on
the borders of Bosotia. Si ratio (316) says that Par-
nassus divided Phocis into two parts; but the name
was more usually restricted to the lofty mountain upon
which Delphi was situated. According to Stephanus
of Byzantium, it was anciently called Larnassus, be-
? ? cause the ark or larnax of Deucalion landed here af-
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? PAROS
PAROS.
134. ) The Parians, according to the historian juat
cited, did not take part with the Persians in the battle
of Salamit, but kept aloof near Cythnus, awaiting the
issue of the action. (Herod. , 6, 67. ) Themistocles,
however, subsequently imposed upon them a heavy
tine. (Herod. , 8, 11 a. ) Paros was famed for its mar-
ble. The quarries were on Mount Marpessa. (Virg. ,
En. , 6, 470. --Pmd. , Nem. , 4, 131. --Vtiy. , Georg. ,
ft, 34. --Hot. , Od. , I, \9,6. --Steph. Byx. , s. v. Mup-
tn;aaa. ) Some remarks on the Parian marble will
be offered below. -- Paros was the birthplace of the
poet Archilochus. (Strabo, I. e. --Fabr. , Bibl. Gr. ,
vol. 2, p. 107. ) -- It was in Paros that the famous
marble waa disinterred, known by the name of the Pa-
rian Chronicle, from its having been kept in this isl-
and. It is a chronological account of the principal
events in Grecian, and particularly in Athenian, his-
tory, during a period of 1318 years, from the reign of
Cecrops, B. C. 1450, to the archonship of Diognetus,
B. C. 264. But the chronicle of the last 90 years was
lost, so that the part now remaining ends at the ar-
chonship of Diotimus, B. C. 354. The authenticity
of this chronicle has been called in question by Mr.
Robertson, who, in 1788, published a "Dissertation
on the Parian Chronicle. " His objections, however,
cave been ably and fully discussed, and tho authen-
ticity of this ancient document has been fully vindi-
cated by Porson, in his review of Robertson's essay.
^Monthly Review, January, 1789, p. 690. --Parson's
Tracts, ed. Kidd, p. 57, seqq. --Consult also the En-
cyclopaedia. Melropolitana, Art. "Arundelian Mar-
bles. ") The chronicle is given, with an English ver-
sion, in Hale's Analysis of Chronology (vol. 1, p. 107,
seqq. )--The following very interesting account of the
quarries and marbles of Paros is given by Dr. Clarke.
? 'This day we set out upon mules for the ancient
quarries of the famous Parian marble, which are sit-
uate about a league to the east of the town, upon the
summit of a mountain, nearly corresponding in altitude
with the situation of the Grotto of Antiparos. The
mountain in which the quarries are situate is now
called Caprcsso: there are two of these quarries.
When we arrived at the first, we found in the mouth
of the quarry heaps of fragments detached from the
interior: they were tinged, by long exposure to the
air, with a reddish, ochreous hue; but, upon being
broken, exhibited the glittering sparry fracture which
often characterizes the remains of Grecian sculpture:
and in this we instantly recognised the beautiful mar-
ble, which is generally named, by way of distinction,
the Parian, although the same kind of marble is also
found in Thasos. The marble of Naxos only differs
from the Thasian and Parian in exhibiting a more ad-
vanced state of crystallization. The peculiar excel-
lence of the Parian is extolled by Strabo; and it pos-
sesses some valuable qualities unknown even to the
ancients, who spoke so highly in its praise. These
qualities are, that of hardening by exposure to atmo-
spheric air (which, however, is common to all homo-
geneous limestone), and the consequent property of
resisting decomposition through a series of ages; and
this, rather than the supposed preference given to the
Parian marble by the ancients, may be considered as
the cause of its prevalence among the remains of Gre-
cian sculpture. That the Parian marble was highly
and deservedly extolled by the Romans, is well
known: but in a very early period, when the arts had
? ? attained their full splendour in the age of Pericles, the
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? PAH
PAR
Grecun sculptors, and celebrated for its whiteness
ky Pindar (Arcn>. , 4, 262) and by Theocritus (6, 38).
We collected several specimens: in breaking them
ire observed the same whiteness and brilliant fracture
which characterizes the marble of Naxos, but with a
particular distinction before mentioned, the Parian
marble being harder, having a closer grain, and a less
fo. ia'. ed texture. Three different stages of crystal-
lization may be observed, by comparing the three dif-
ferent kinds of marble dug at Carrara in Italy, in Pa-
res, and in Naxos: the Carrara marble being milk-
white, and less crystalline than the Parian; and the
Parian whiter, and less crystallized than the Naxian. "
(Clarke's Travels, vol. 6, p. 133, seqq , Lond. ed. )--
Parian marble has been frequently confounded not
only with Carrara marble, but also with alabaster,
though differing altogether in nature from the latter
substance, and in character from the former. The
true Parian marble has generally somewhat of a faint
bluish tinge among the white, ar. d often has blue
veins in different parts of it. (Elrru's Diet, of the
Fine Arts, s. v. )
ParrhasIi, a people of Arcadia, apparently on the
Laconian frontier; but the extent and position of their
territory is not precisely determined. Thucydides
? ays their district was under the subjection of Manti-
nea, and near Sciritis of Laconia (5, 33). But Pan-
sanias seems rather to assign the Parrhasii a more
western situation; for he names as their towns Lyco-
sura, Thocnias, Trapezus, Acacesium, Macarea, and
Dasea, all of which were to the west and northwest of
Megalopolis. (Cramer's Anc. Greece, vol. 3, p. 350. )
Parrhasius, a celebrated painter, son and pupil of
Evenjr, and a native of Ephesus, but who became
eventually a citizen of Athens, having been presented
with the freedom of that place, (l'lut. , Vit. Thes. ,
1. --Junius, Catal. , p. 142. ) The period when he
flourished admits of some discussion. From a passage
in Pliny (35, 9, 36) it would appear to have been
about the 96th Olympiad; and Quintilian (12, 10)
fltces Parrhasius and Zeuxis about the time of the
'eloponnesian war, producing, in support of this opin-
ion, the well-known conversation of the former artist
with Socrates. (Xen. , Mem. , 3, 10. ) Now Socrates
died in the first year of the 95th Olympiad, and this
date fully accords with the year to which Parrhasius
is assigned by Pliny. (Sillig, Diet. Art. , s. >>. ) --
Parrhasius raised the art of painting to perfection in
? II that is exalted and essential. He compared his three
great predecessors with one another, rejected what
was exceptionable, and adopted what was admirable
m each. The classic invention of Polygnotus, the
magic tone of Apollodorus, and the exquisite design
of Zeuxis, were all united in the works of Parrhasius;
what they had produced in practice, he reduced to
theory He so circumscribed and defined, says Quin-
tilian (12, 10), all the powers and objects of art, that
he was termed the legislator: and all contemporary
and subsequent artists adopted his standard of divine
and heroic proportions. Parrhasius gave, in fact, to
the divine and heroic character in painting what Poly-
cletus had given to the human in sculpture, by his Do-
ryphorus, namely, a canon of proportion. Phidias had
discovered in the nod of the Homeric Jupiter the char-
acteristic of majesty, inclination of the head: this hint-
ed to him a higher elevation of the neck behind, a bolder
Erotrusion of the front, and the increased perpendicu-
? ? II of the profile. To this conception Parrhasius fixed
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? PAR
PAR
taction of the co. iteat, an evil threatening the exist-
ence of (he state, no children being born to supply the
waste of war and natural decay. The Remedy aaid to
have been adopted was a strange one, eighty charac-
teristic of Lacedaemon, and such as no other people
would have used. The young men who had come to
maturity since the beginning of the war were free
fro;. -, the oath which tid been taken, and they were
cent home tc cohabit promiscuously with the marriage-
ible virgins. But even at Sparta this expedient in
some degree ran counter to the popular feelings.
When the war was ended, and the children of this ir-
regular 11 tercourse, called Partheniaa (JUit virgmum),
had attaii ed to manhood, they found themselves,
though breu in all the discipline of Lycurgus, becom-
ing every day more and more slighted. Their spirit
was high, and a conspiracy was accordingly formed by
them against the state, in conjunction with the Helots;
but the public authorities, aware of the existence of
disaffection among them, obtained information of all
their plans, by means of certain individuals whom they
had caused to join the Parthenis, and to pretend to
? w friendly to the. r views. The festival of the Hya-
cinthia was selected by the conspirators as the day for
action; and it was arranged, that when Phalanthus, their
leader, should place his felt-cap upon his head, this
was to be the signal for commencing. The appointed
irae arrived, and the festival had begun, when a pub-
ic crier coming forth, made proclamation, in the name
? f the magistrates, that "Phalanthus should not put
his felt-cap on his head" (jit/ &v irepiBcivai Kvvijv *d-
XavPov). The Partlieniie immediately perceived that
their plot was discovered, and were soon after sent off
in a colony, under the guidance of Phalanthus, and
founded the city of Tarentum in Italy. (Strab , 279. )
It is more than probable that so much of this story as
relates to the oath taken by the Spartans, and the
sending home of their young men, is a mere fiction.
On the other hand, however, it would seem that the
emergencies of the state had actually induced the
Spartans to relax the rigour of their principles, by
Gnnitting marriages between Spartan women and
iconians of inferior condition. Thcopompua (ap.
Athen. , G, p. 271) says, that certain of the Helots
were selected for this purpose, who were afterward
admitted to the franchise under a peculiar name (iirev-
vaxToi). Still, however, even supposing that the
number of the Spartans was thus increased by a con-
siderable body of new citizens, drawn from the servile
or the subject class of Laconians, or from the issue of
marriages formed between such persons and Spartan
women, it would nevertheless remain to be explain-
ed, how this act of wise liberality could be connected
with that discontent, which is uniformly mentioned,
certainly not without some historical ground, as the
occasion of the migration to Tarentum. And this
seems inexplicable, unless we suppose that a distinc-
tion was made between the new and the old citizens,
which provoked a part of the former to attempt a rev-
olution, and compelled the government to adopt one of
the usual means of getting rid of disaffected and tur-
bulent subjects. (Thirltcall's Greece, vol. I, p. 353. )
Pabth k :*Iu M Mare, a name sometimes given to
that part of the Mediterranean which lies on the right
tf Egypt. It was also called Isiacum Mare. (Amm.
MarceU. , 14, 8-- Id. , 32, 15. ) Gregory Nazianzen
? tyles the aoa around Cyprus XlapBeviKOv niXayoc.
? ? (Or. , 19. ) . .
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? PARTHENON.
PARTHENON.
ttucr IraHding* of the kind, and was constructed en-
tirely of Pentelic marble. It waa built during the
splendid era of Pericles, and the expense of its erec-
tion was estimated at six thousand talents.
One of this family received the surname of Pralexta-
tus, from an action of his while still wearing the pra-
texta, or youthful gown, and before he had assumed the
toga viriiis, or gown of manhood. It was customary
in those days for fathers to take their young sons to
the senate-house when anything important was under
discussion, in order tbst they might sooner become
familiarized with public affairs. The father of young
Papirius took him on one of these occasions, while a
matter of considerable moment was pending; and it
having been deemed advisable to adjourn the debate
onto the morrow, an injunction of secrecy was lsid
upon all who were present. The mother of young Pa-
Eirius wished to know what had passed in the senate;
ut the son, unwilling to betray the secrets of that as-
sembly, amused his parent by telling her that it had
been debated whe'. her it would be more advantageous
to the republic to give two wives to one husband, or
two huabands to one wife. The mother of Papirius
was alarmed, and she communicated the secret to the
other Roman matrons, and on the morrow they assem-
bled in large numbers before the senate-house, bathed
in tears, and earnestly entreating that one woman might
have two husbands rather than one husband two wives.
The senators were astonished at so singular an appli-
cation; but young Papirius modestly explained the
cause, and the fathers, in admiration of his ready tact,
passed a decree, that for the future boys should not be
allowed to come to the senate with their fathers, ex-
cept Papirius alone. This regulation continued until
the time of Augustus, who rescinded it. (Macrob. ,
1,6)
Pappus, a celebrated mathematician of Alexandrea,
who lived towards the end of the fourth century. He
is known by his Mathematical Collections (UlaJSn/taTi-
Kai awayuyai), in eight books, and by other works,
among which were a Commentary on Ptolemy'a Al-
magest, a work on Geography, a Treatise on Military
Engines, a Commentary on Aristarchus of Samoa, &c.
His Collection* have chiefly come down to ua; of
bis other productions we have merely some fragments.
? ? The last five books of the Collections remain entire;
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? PAR
PAR
tticier. Farsang, which is pronounced in modem Per-
sian FirMcng. It has been changed in Arabic into
Farsakh. Various etymologies have been proposed
tor the tenn. The latter part of the word is thought
to be th 1 Persian seng, " a stone," and the term might
thus l>6 Icrivcd from the stones which were placed to
mark t'. ie distances in the road. Bohlen (quoted by
Rddigcr) supposes the firtt part of the word to be
the pi spoaition fera, and compares the word with the
Ls'. in ad lapidem. (Encycl. Us. Knowl. , vol. 17, p.
Ml. )
P*Rc<e. the Fates, called also Fain, and in Greek
Holpai (Moira). In the Iliad, with the exception of
one passage (20, 49), the Moira is spoken of in the
singular number, and as a person, almost exactly as we
use the word Fale. But in the Odyssey this word is
employed as a common substantive, followed by a gen-
itive of tho person, and signifying decree. The Thc-
ogony of Hesiod limits the Fates, like so many other
goddesses, to three, and gives them Jupiter and The-
mis for their parents. (TAeog-. , 904. ) In an interpo-
lated passage of the same poem (v. 217) they are class-
ed among the children of Night; and Plato, on his
part, makes them the daughters of Necessity. (Rep. ,
10, 617. ) Their names in Hesiod are Clotho (Spin-
tier), Lachcsis (Alloltcr), and Atropos (Unchange-
able); but he docs not speak of their spinning the
destinies of men. This office of theirs is, however,
noticed in both the Iliad and Odyssey. It is probable
that Homer, in accordance with the sublime fiction in
the Theogony, regarded the Fates as the otfspring of
Jupiter and Order, for in him they are but the minis-
ters of Jupiter, in whose hands are the issues of all
things. (Nitzch, ad Od, 8, 236. ) jEschylus makes
even Jupiter himself subject to the Fates. (Pram.
Vinct. , 515. --Kcightley's Mythology, p. 195. )--Ac-
cording to the popular mythology, Ciotho held the dis-
taff, Lachcsis span each one's portion of the thread of
existence, and Atropos cut it off: hence the well-
kr. own line expressing their respective functions:
"Clotho celum rctinel, Lachcsis net, et Atropos occal. "
The more correct explanation, however, is to make
Clotho spii, Lachesis mark out each one's portion,
and Atropos sever it. --The Latin writers indulge in
various views of the functions of the Parca, as sug-
gested by their own ingenuity of elucidation. Thus
Apuleius (De Mundo, sub fin. ) makes Clotho preside
over the present, Atropos the past, and Lachesis the
future; an idea probably borrowed from Plato, who
introduces the Moira singing ru yeyovora, ra ovra,
ra uiiXovra. (Rep. , 10, 617. ) So in the Scandina-
vian mythology, the Norns or Destinies, who are also
three in number, are called Urdur, Verdandi, end
Skuld, or " Past," " Present," and "Futures'--Ac-
cording to Fulgentius (Mythol. , 1, 7), Clotho presides
over nativity, Atropos over death, and Lachesis over
each one's lot in life. --The term Moira (Moipa) comes
from peipu, "to divide1" or "portion out. " Tho or-
dinary etymology for the word Parca deduces' it by
antiphrasis from parco, "to spare," because they never
spared. (Serv. ad JEn , 1, 26. --Martian. Capell --
ponat. --Diomed, ap. Voss, Etymol. ) Varro derives
it " a pariendo," because they presided over the birth
of men (Aul. Gcll. , 3, 16); or, to quote his own words,
"Parca,immulata litera una,a partu nominaia. " Scal-
iger makes it come from parco, " to spare," in a dif-
ferent sense from Servius and tho other grammarians
? ? Suotcd above; because, according to him, only one of
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? t kK
PAR
towever, whicl prompted the enterprise, was a wish
to obtain, in the person of Helen, then the fairest
woman of her time, a fulfilment of what Venus had
altered him when he was deciding the contest of
beauty. Arriving at Sparta, where Menelaus. the hus-
of Helen, was reigning, he met with an hospitable re-
caption; hut, Menelaus soon after having sailed away
to Crete, the Trojan prince availed himself of his ab-
sence, seduced the affections of Helen, and bore her
may to his native city, together with a large portion
of the wealth of her husband. (Consult remarks under
the article Helena ) Hence ensued the war of Troy,
which ended in the total destruction of that ill-fated
city. {Vid. Troja. ) Paris, though represented in
general as effeminate and vain of his personal appear-
ance, yet distinguished himself during the siege of
Troy by wounding Dioinedc, Machaon, Antilochus,
and Palamedes, and subsequently by discharging the
dart which proved fatal to Achilles. Venus took him
under her special protection, and, in the single com-
bat with Menelaus, rescued him from the vengeance
of the latter. The circumstances of his death are
mentioned under the article CEnone. . (Did. Cret. , 1,
i i. -- Apollod. , 3, 12. -- Hygin. , fab. , 92, 273 --
Ttets. ad Lycophr. , 57, 61, 63, 86, &c. )
ParIsi, a British nation lying to the north of the
Coritani, and occupying the district which is called
Jloldemess, or, according to Camden, the whole East-
Riding of Yorkshire. They are supposed to have de-
rived their name from the two British words paur isa,
which signify low pasture, and which are descriptive
of the situation and uses of their country. Their cap-
ital was Petuaria. (Manner! , Geogr. , vol. 2, pt. 2,
p. 187. )
Parish, a people and city of Gaul, now Paris, the
capital of the kingdom of France. (Vid. Lutetia. --
Cits. , B. G. , 6, 3. )
Pabisus, a river of Paunonia, falling into the Dan-
ube; according to Mannerl, the Mur, in the Hungarian
part of its course. (Mannerl, Geogr. , vol. 3, p. 489. )
Pabiuh, now Camanar, a town of Asia Minor, in
Mysia Minor, on the Propontis, southwest of Linus,
and northeast from Paesus. It was founded by the
Milesians and Parians. (I'lin. , 5, 32. -- Paul. Lex. ,
>>ni. , de Censib. )
Parma, a city of Italy, south of the Po, on the small
river Parma. It was founded by the Etrurians, taken
by a tribe of Gauls called the Boii, and at last colon-
ized by the Romans, A. U. C. 569. (Liv. , 39, 55. )
From Cicero it may be inferred that Parma suffered
from the adverse factions in the civil wars. (Ep. ad.
Fern. , 10, 33. --Id. ibid. , 12. 5-- Id, Philipp. , 14,
3. ) It was probably recolonized under Augustus, as
some inscriptions give it the title of Colonia Julia Au-
gusta Parma. Strabo (216) speaks of it as a city of
note. From Martial we learn that its wool was highly
prized (14, 53; 5, 13). In the ages that immedi-
ately succeeded the fall of the Roman empire, we find
this rity distinguished also by the appellation of Chry-
sopolis (Gold-city), but are unacquainted with the
causes that led-to the adoption of the name. (Geogr.
Ravenna*, 4, 33. --Donizo, Vit. Machtildis, 1, 10. )
The modern name is Parma. (Mannert, Gecgr. , vol.
9, pt. 1, p. 218. )
Parmenides (napprvidne), the second in the series
? f the Elcatic philosophers, was a native of Elea. He
* as descended from a noble family, and is said to have
? ? been induced to study philosophy by Aminias. (Diog.
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? PAR
PAR
bom Lis capital on some expedition, together with itM
of his having won the prize at the Olympic games.
Philip, while preparing to invade the Persian empire,
aent a considerable force into Aaia as an advanced
guard, and he chose Parmenio and Attains as the lead-
en of the expedition. These commanders began by
expelling the Persian garrisons from several Greek
towns of Aaia Minor. Parmenio took Grynsjum in
iEolis, the inhabitants of which, having aided with the
Persians, and fought against the Macedonians, were
sold as slaves. When Alexander set out on his Asi-
atic expedition, Parmenio had one of the chief com-
mands in the army. At the head of the Thessalian cav-
alry he contributed much to the victory of the Grani-
cus; and at Issue he had the command of the cavalry
on the left wing, which was placed near the scacoast,
and had to sustain for a time the principal attack of
the Persians. At Arbela he advised Alexander not to
S've battle until he bad well reconnoitred the ground,
eing in command of the left wing, he was attacked
in flank by the Penians, and was lor a time in some
danger, until Alexander, who had been successful in
another part of the field, came to his assistance. Par-
menio afterward pursued the fugitives, and took pos-
session of the Persian camp, with the elephants, cam-
els, and all the baggage. When Alexander marched
beyond the Caspian gates in pursuit of Darius and
Bessus, he left Parmenio, who was now advanced in
years, in Media, at the head of a considerable force.
Some time after, while Alexander was encamped at
Artacoana, a conspiracy is said to have been discovered
against his life, in which Philotas, the son of Parme-
nio, was accused of being implicated. He was, in con-
sequence, put to the torture, and, after enduring dread-
ful agonies, confessed, though in vague terms, that he
had conspired against the life of Alexander, and that
his father Parmenio was cognizant of it. This being
considered sufficient evidence, Philotas was stoned to
death, and Alexander despatched a messenger to Me-
dia, with secret orders to Oleander and other officers
who were serving under Parmenio, to put their com-
mander to death. The unsuspecting veteran, while
conversing with his officers, was run through the body
by Oleander. This is the substance of the account of
Ourtius (lib. 6 ct 7). Arrian'a account is somewhat
different (lib. 3). Whatever may be thought of the
trial and execution of Philotas, and it appears to have
been at least a summary and unsatisfactory proceed-
ing, the murder of Parmenio, and the manner of it, form
one of the darkest blots in Alexander's character.
Parmenio was evidently sacrificed in cold blood to
what have been styled, in after ages, "reasons of
state. " He was seventy years of age; he had lost
two sons in the campaigns of Alexander, and Philotas
was the last one remaining to him. Parmenio appears
to have been a steady, brave, and prudent command-
er. (Eneycl. Ut. Knowl. , vol. 17, p. 283, seq. )
Parnassus (Kapvaaadc), I. the name of a mount-
ain-chain in Phocia, which extends in a northeasterly
direction from the country of the Locn Ozole to
Mount (Eta, and in a southwesterly direction through
the middle of Phocis, till it joins Mount Helicon on
the borders of Bosotia. Si ratio (316) says that Par-
nassus divided Phocis into two parts; but the name
was more usually restricted to the lofty mountain upon
which Delphi was situated. According to Stephanus
of Byzantium, it was anciently called Larnassus, be-
? ? cause the ark or larnax of Deucalion landed here af-
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? PAROS
PAROS.
134. ) The Parians, according to the historian juat
cited, did not take part with the Persians in the battle
of Salamit, but kept aloof near Cythnus, awaiting the
issue of the action. (Herod. , 6, 67. ) Themistocles,
however, subsequently imposed upon them a heavy
tine. (Herod. , 8, 11 a. ) Paros was famed for its mar-
ble. The quarries were on Mount Marpessa. (Virg. ,
En. , 6, 470. --Pmd. , Nem. , 4, 131. --Vtiy. , Georg. ,
ft, 34. --Hot. , Od. , I, \9,6. --Steph. Byx. , s. v. Mup-
tn;aaa. ) Some remarks on the Parian marble will
be offered below. -- Paros was the birthplace of the
poet Archilochus. (Strabo, I. e. --Fabr. , Bibl. Gr. ,
vol. 2, p. 107. ) -- It was in Paros that the famous
marble waa disinterred, known by the name of the Pa-
rian Chronicle, from its having been kept in this isl-
and. It is a chronological account of the principal
events in Grecian, and particularly in Athenian, his-
tory, during a period of 1318 years, from the reign of
Cecrops, B. C. 1450, to the archonship of Diognetus,
B. C. 264. But the chronicle of the last 90 years was
lost, so that the part now remaining ends at the ar-
chonship of Diotimus, B. C. 354. The authenticity
of this chronicle has been called in question by Mr.
Robertson, who, in 1788, published a "Dissertation
on the Parian Chronicle. " His objections, however,
cave been ably and fully discussed, and tho authen-
ticity of this ancient document has been fully vindi-
cated by Porson, in his review of Robertson's essay.
^Monthly Review, January, 1789, p. 690. --Parson's
Tracts, ed. Kidd, p. 57, seqq. --Consult also the En-
cyclopaedia. Melropolitana, Art. "Arundelian Mar-
bles. ") The chronicle is given, with an English ver-
sion, in Hale's Analysis of Chronology (vol. 1, p. 107,
seqq. )--The following very interesting account of the
quarries and marbles of Paros is given by Dr. Clarke.
? 'This day we set out upon mules for the ancient
quarries of the famous Parian marble, which are sit-
uate about a league to the east of the town, upon the
summit of a mountain, nearly corresponding in altitude
with the situation of the Grotto of Antiparos. The
mountain in which the quarries are situate is now
called Caprcsso: there are two of these quarries.
When we arrived at the first, we found in the mouth
of the quarry heaps of fragments detached from the
interior: they were tinged, by long exposure to the
air, with a reddish, ochreous hue; but, upon being
broken, exhibited the glittering sparry fracture which
often characterizes the remains of Grecian sculpture:
and in this we instantly recognised the beautiful mar-
ble, which is generally named, by way of distinction,
the Parian, although the same kind of marble is also
found in Thasos. The marble of Naxos only differs
from the Thasian and Parian in exhibiting a more ad-
vanced state of crystallization. The peculiar excel-
lence of the Parian is extolled by Strabo; and it pos-
sesses some valuable qualities unknown even to the
ancients, who spoke so highly in its praise. These
qualities are, that of hardening by exposure to atmo-
spheric air (which, however, is common to all homo-
geneous limestone), and the consequent property of
resisting decomposition through a series of ages; and
this, rather than the supposed preference given to the
Parian marble by the ancients, may be considered as
the cause of its prevalence among the remains of Gre-
cian sculpture. That the Parian marble was highly
and deservedly extolled by the Romans, is well
known: but in a very early period, when the arts had
? ? attained their full splendour in the age of Pericles, the
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? PAH
PAR
Grecun sculptors, and celebrated for its whiteness
ky Pindar (Arcn>. , 4, 262) and by Theocritus (6, 38).
We collected several specimens: in breaking them
ire observed the same whiteness and brilliant fracture
which characterizes the marble of Naxos, but with a
particular distinction before mentioned, the Parian
marble being harder, having a closer grain, and a less
fo. ia'. ed texture. Three different stages of crystal-
lization may be observed, by comparing the three dif-
ferent kinds of marble dug at Carrara in Italy, in Pa-
res, and in Naxos: the Carrara marble being milk-
white, and less crystalline than the Parian; and the
Parian whiter, and less crystallized than the Naxian. "
(Clarke's Travels, vol. 6, p. 133, seqq , Lond. ed. )--
Parian marble has been frequently confounded not
only with Carrara marble, but also with alabaster,
though differing altogether in nature from the latter
substance, and in character from the former. The
true Parian marble has generally somewhat of a faint
bluish tinge among the white, ar. d often has blue
veins in different parts of it. (Elrru's Diet, of the
Fine Arts, s. v. )
ParrhasIi, a people of Arcadia, apparently on the
Laconian frontier; but the extent and position of their
territory is not precisely determined. Thucydides
? ays their district was under the subjection of Manti-
nea, and near Sciritis of Laconia (5, 33). But Pan-
sanias seems rather to assign the Parrhasii a more
western situation; for he names as their towns Lyco-
sura, Thocnias, Trapezus, Acacesium, Macarea, and
Dasea, all of which were to the west and northwest of
Megalopolis. (Cramer's Anc. Greece, vol. 3, p. 350. )
Parrhasius, a celebrated painter, son and pupil of
Evenjr, and a native of Ephesus, but who became
eventually a citizen of Athens, having been presented
with the freedom of that place, (l'lut. , Vit. Thes. ,
1. --Junius, Catal. , p. 142. ) The period when he
flourished admits of some discussion. From a passage
in Pliny (35, 9, 36) it would appear to have been
about the 96th Olympiad; and Quintilian (12, 10)
fltces Parrhasius and Zeuxis about the time of the
'eloponnesian war, producing, in support of this opin-
ion, the well-known conversation of the former artist
with Socrates. (Xen. , Mem. , 3, 10. ) Now Socrates
died in the first year of the 95th Olympiad, and this
date fully accords with the year to which Parrhasius
is assigned by Pliny. (Sillig, Diet. Art. , s. >>. ) --
Parrhasius raised the art of painting to perfection in
? II that is exalted and essential. He compared his three
great predecessors with one another, rejected what
was exceptionable, and adopted what was admirable
m each. The classic invention of Polygnotus, the
magic tone of Apollodorus, and the exquisite design
of Zeuxis, were all united in the works of Parrhasius;
what they had produced in practice, he reduced to
theory He so circumscribed and defined, says Quin-
tilian (12, 10), all the powers and objects of art, that
he was termed the legislator: and all contemporary
and subsequent artists adopted his standard of divine
and heroic proportions. Parrhasius gave, in fact, to
the divine and heroic character in painting what Poly-
cletus had given to the human in sculpture, by his Do-
ryphorus, namely, a canon of proportion. Phidias had
discovered in the nod of the Homeric Jupiter the char-
acteristic of majesty, inclination of the head: this hint-
ed to him a higher elevation of the neck behind, a bolder
Erotrusion of the front, and the increased perpendicu-
? ? II of the profile. To this conception Parrhasius fixed
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? PAR
PAR
taction of the co. iteat, an evil threatening the exist-
ence of (he state, no children being born to supply the
waste of war and natural decay. The Remedy aaid to
have been adopted was a strange one, eighty charac-
teristic of Lacedaemon, and such as no other people
would have used. The young men who had come to
maturity since the beginning of the war were free
fro;. -, the oath which tid been taken, and they were
cent home tc cohabit promiscuously with the marriage-
ible virgins. But even at Sparta this expedient in
some degree ran counter to the popular feelings.
When the war was ended, and the children of this ir-
regular 11 tercourse, called Partheniaa (JUit virgmum),
had attaii ed to manhood, they found themselves,
though breu in all the discipline of Lycurgus, becom-
ing every day more and more slighted. Their spirit
was high, and a conspiracy was accordingly formed by
them against the state, in conjunction with the Helots;
but the public authorities, aware of the existence of
disaffection among them, obtained information of all
their plans, by means of certain individuals whom they
had caused to join the Parthenis, and to pretend to
? w friendly to the. r views. The festival of the Hya-
cinthia was selected by the conspirators as the day for
action; and it was arranged, that when Phalanthus, their
leader, should place his felt-cap upon his head, this
was to be the signal for commencing. The appointed
irae arrived, and the festival had begun, when a pub-
ic crier coming forth, made proclamation, in the name
? f the magistrates, that "Phalanthus should not put
his felt-cap on his head" (jit/ &v irepiBcivai Kvvijv *d-
XavPov). The Partlieniie immediately perceived that
their plot was discovered, and were soon after sent off
in a colony, under the guidance of Phalanthus, and
founded the city of Tarentum in Italy. (Strab , 279. )
It is more than probable that so much of this story as
relates to the oath taken by the Spartans, and the
sending home of their young men, is a mere fiction.
On the other hand, however, it would seem that the
emergencies of the state had actually induced the
Spartans to relax the rigour of their principles, by
Gnnitting marriages between Spartan women and
iconians of inferior condition. Thcopompua (ap.
Athen. , G, p. 271) says, that certain of the Helots
were selected for this purpose, who were afterward
admitted to the franchise under a peculiar name (iirev-
vaxToi). Still, however, even supposing that the
number of the Spartans was thus increased by a con-
siderable body of new citizens, drawn from the servile
or the subject class of Laconians, or from the issue of
marriages formed between such persons and Spartan
women, it would nevertheless remain to be explain-
ed, how this act of wise liberality could be connected
with that discontent, which is uniformly mentioned,
certainly not without some historical ground, as the
occasion of the migration to Tarentum. And this
seems inexplicable, unless we suppose that a distinc-
tion was made between the new and the old citizens,
which provoked a part of the former to attempt a rev-
olution, and compelled the government to adopt one of
the usual means of getting rid of disaffected and tur-
bulent subjects. (Thirltcall's Greece, vol. I, p. 353. )
Pabth k :*Iu M Mare, a name sometimes given to
that part of the Mediterranean which lies on the right
tf Egypt. It was also called Isiacum Mare. (Amm.
MarceU. , 14, 8-- Id. , 32, 15. ) Gregory Nazianzen
? tyles the aoa around Cyprus XlapBeviKOv niXayoc.
? ? (Or. , 19. ) . .
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? PARTHENON.
PARTHENON.
ttucr IraHding* of the kind, and was constructed en-
tirely of Pentelic marble. It waa built during the
splendid era of Pericles, and the expense of its erec-
tion was estimated at six thousand talents.
