Moreover, as was done by the saintly Arhats as long as they lived, I too from this day forward, as long as I live, renounce [21 the taking of what is not given, and [3] unlawful sexual conduct, and [4]
speaking
untruly, and [5] intoxicating liquor and places of vulgar amusement.
Richard-Sherburne-A-Lamp-for-the-Path-and-Commentary-of-Atisha
(Stanza 21)
What I mean to say here is that the vows of a Monk are unique among the seven ranks.
Seven Only
There may be an objection at the outset that there are eight
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Pratimok~a ranks set down in all the basic Discipline texts, and in such Hinayana works as the Progress in Knowledge, the Treasure o f Phenomenology and its useful summaries, and the Major Exposition ofthe "Treasure", therefore how can my saying seven be correct? Well, it is true those texts do propose the number as eight, but noble Asanga establishes it as seven in every section of his Levels ofYoga
Practice and [in particular] in the Chapter on Conduct. [299b] And if we doubt the brilliance of that great man's mind, we are finished. Asanga is a Bodhisattva of the Third Level, who attained a concentration called the "Stream of Truth", and who was prophesied in the Basic Tantra of Maiiju? rf as "that holy man, Asariga, wise in the true meaning of the texts". 11 Does anyone doubt that he heard the entire (siitra] collection directly from Ajitanatha?
In his Commentary on "Twenty Verses on the Vow", the venerable Bodhibhadra says:
"In regard to the vowing of Conduct, vows are taken in the seven ranks of Pratimoksa. That is, the five kinds in the religious life: the Monk and Nun, the Nun-candidate, the male and female Novices; and the two kinds in the Lay state: the male and female Devotees. The practice of One-Day [vows] is not a true ascetical practice, and has not been taught as worthy ofPratimok~a rank since there is no restraint of desires for [any] great length of time. " 12
The Guru who declared this was a great master of the Discipline of the Bodhisattva scriptures. I follow his inter- pretation because he received his instruction in the [Buddhist] trad! tion i~ the unbroken line from noble Nagarjuna and Acarya Santideva.
Lay Devotee and Novice
A few things can be observed here about the sevenfold ranks of Pratimok~a: The [Lay] Devotees are of two types: those who abstain from unlawful sexual activity, and those who abstain even from their own partners. But the training
common to both [types] is: renunciation of the four basic transgressions [killing, stealing, lying, unchastity] and of
? liquor. Some say renunciation of false views [in place of liquor].
In regard to liquor, some Discipline masters interpret it as objectionable by its very nature [300a] but the Phenomenology followers say it is objectionable [only] because its renunciation has been promised. However, I must omit their full presentations here.
For the Devotee, then, there are the five precepts and forty-five rules which [specifically] apply to them. 13 The Novice vows include these fifty practices of the faultless [and celibate] Devotee, [divided] according to whether [their subject matter] must be confessed [when violated] or [whose renunciation) must be vowed [as part of religious life) or are [simply) sinless. 14
Monk and Nun
The training of the Monk is such that of two hundred and fifty-three [rules], twenty-seven must be confessed [when violated], two hundred and thirteen must be vowed, and thirteen pertain to sinless matters [of community governance]. 15
The Nun-candidate correctly observes two hundred and forty rules - that is, all the above, except for the thirteen [rules pertaining to community governance], and including the pure and irreproachable life of the Novice, as well as her Six Basic Rules and Six Rules for Harmony [in the community]. 16
The Nun is pure in her five hundred rules, 17 which include those of the pure Nun-candidate as well as the Monk, together with the training the holy Doctrine and Discipline texts present for the perfecting of the pure Monk.
The Eighteen Schools ofBuddhism
There have been a variety of sects [in the Buddhist Com- munity]: [A] the MahasaJ! lghika, [B] the Sarvastivada, [C] the Sthavira, and [D] the Sammatiya sects. These existed [formerly] in eighteen schools:
[A] The five schools of MahasaiJlghika: the Purvasaila,
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the Aparasaila, the Haimavata, the Lokottara-vada, and the Prajfiaptivada. [B] The [seven Sarvastivada]: the Miila, the Kasyapiya, the Dharmagupta, the Mahisasaka, the Vibhajya-vada, [300b] the Bahusrutiya, and TamrasiiFyii.
[C] Three sects of Sthavira: the Mahavihiira-vasina, the Jetavaniya, and the Abhayagiri-vasina. [D] Three sects of Sammatiya: Kaurukullaka, the Avantaka, and the Viitsi- putriya. 18
Some texts differ on this listing, saying that the Vijiiaptiviida belong to Sarvastiviida, but keeping the rest the same. And another text has it:
"[A] Kasyapiya, Dharmagupta, Mahisasaka and Miila-sarvastivada;
[B] Purva, A para, Haimavata,
Prajiiapti, Vibhajya and Lokottaravada; [C] TamrasaFya, Bahusrutiya, Avantaka, Kaurukullaka and Vatsi-putriya;
[D. ] Jetavaniya, Abhaya and Mahavihara.
"In four, six, five and three, They wanted their variety, and Hence the Eighteen Schools.
"The Lion of Sakya's teaching endures Because of the Gurus who went forth of old With the power of his message.
"Though the schools were many,
And great the variety of views,
Due to difference in region and teachers,
Never did they argue about the [Great] Teacher. "19
For their respective differences in the matter of the Rule and views, you must study the great texts on those topics.
The Glorious Pure Life: The Monk
Returning to my root text, the words "THE PURE LIFE" [Stanza 21] refer to renunciation in the matter ofliquor and of women. For the dangers of liquor you can study that subject in the [Discipline] scriptures and the pertinent
? places in the siitra collection. For the danger of women, consult the [Discipline] scriptures also, and the siitras of both Mahayana and Hinayana. For instance, the Hi:nayana siitra The Teaching in Sevens: Sexuality:
[301a] "For example, 0 Brahmin, take a man who promises to live the Pure Life, and never even has an intimate encounter with a woman. But when his eyes behold women's bodies, he is attracted by their shape; he dallies with women and is captivated by their chatter; he becomes absorbed in paying them attentions. Even when he is separated from them by walls and curtains, women's adornments and their singing and dancing and sound of music go right to his heart. And when he sees his neigh- bour indulging his senses with desire, he takes that into
his heart. Y et he still'inakes Bestowal [ofthe merit] of his Pure Life [to gain] a place among the gods! The Pure Life of such a man is altogether impure. "20
And again from the Mahayana siitra, The Seven-fold Way: " I f we ought not cling to Desire even in imagination,
Why mention indulging the senses of sight and touch? " 21
The dangers of Desire in general can be learned from the Questions o f King Udayana-vatsa and the Admonitions on Desire Sutra.
So then, a man who gives a show of living the Pure Life while not [truly] living it, who is proud of the signs and marks of the religious profession, yet treats it con- temptuously thinking "The religious life [simply] means we are bodhisattvas who have the same prerogatives a layman does", thatman is a hypocrite, and like a thief and robber. The sutras say things like "A thief is eating [alms]; a thief is drinking [alms]". Such a sinful Monk or Novice should never have taken up the saffron robe - that shrine to gods
and men. It has been said that "the religious robe burns [the hypocrite]; the begging bowl burns". And the Arrest of Misconduct Sutra:
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"The Monk who violates his Rule without so much as a snap of the fingers for the royal mark of the Teacher's saffron robes should not be kept [in the Community]. " 22 [30lb]
The misfortune of this [hypocrisy] can be studied in the pertinent parts of such siitras as the Questions of KiiSyapa. The teaching of Mahayana- and my thought also- on that kind of sinful religious profession is that [such persons] should not enter upon this Great Path. The Pure Life, properly so called, is untouched by such evils and com- pletely pure.
Because it is more perfect than the Lay Devotee or Novice or Nun-candidate, I said:
THE GLORIOUS PURE LIFE IS HIGHEST;
BY WHICH HE MEANT THE VOWS OF THE MONK. (Stanza 21}
And it is the Blessed One himself who held that the pure vow of the Monk is "the perfect foundation for the Great Vehicle, and superior by far".
Acts of the Community
As for wh~t we call "Monk", it is he who has been ordained23 by the Fourfold Motion-with-Acts [of the Community].
Now Acts of the Community are of four kinds:24
[1] a Motion with [single] Act;
[2] a Motion with Two Acts;
[3] a Fourfold: Motion-with-[Three Acts]; and
[4] the Act of Triple Declaration of an Act.
These four kinds of Act are used for two types of matters: [A] personal, and [B] non-personal.
? Persons
Acts that deal with persons are:25 [1] Admission, [2] Ordination, [3] Unity of mind among persons, [4] Release from [penances for] transgressions, [5] Agree- ment on: Dismissal, Banishment, and those in Summer Retreat, [6] Blessing [and permission to leave retreat] for seven, twenty, or forty days, [7] Assistance to persons, and [8] Acts imposing penances.
Non-Person
Acts that do not deal with persons are:26 [1] Consecration of the Robes and Bowl, [2] Consecration of the Cloth, [3] Forfeiture of robes not freely given, [4] Decisions on
[monastery] boundaries, [302a] [5] Unity of mind with the laity, and any other acts of business like these.
The Community Acts are also [grouped as]: those to be passed by an assembly of two, four, five, ten, twenty, forty, or by the unanimous Community. 27 For example, an Act performable by an assembly of two: when a Monk confesses a transgression or sin he has committed, with the Act of Triple Declaration in presence of Community. An Act performable by four: confession in each other's presence of the Four Gross Sins [Intercourse, Theft, Homicide, Lying
to praise self]. An Act performable by ten: Ordination in populated areas. An Act performable by an assembly of five: Ordination in remote areas. By an assembly of twenty monks: Act of removing Suspension. By forty: Act of ordaining a Nun. By the unanimous Community: Acts for [monastic] boundaries, [establishing the date1of Po~adha, and for the Retreat Examination.
Ten Ways o f Ordination
The Discipline masters of the Sarvastivada sect - the Reverends Dharmatrata, Dbyangs-sgrogs, Vasumitra, Buddhadeva, Bsam-rJzogs, the great scholar Vasubandhu, the Elder GuQ. aprabha, and the Reverend Sakyaprabha -
all say that Ordination has been performed in ten ways:28
[1] By self-ordination: Buddhas and Solitary Buddhas.
[2] By conviction: the [First] Five Converts.
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[3] By the "Come aside, 0 Monk! ": Yasas and others.
[4] By accepting the Teacher: Mahakasyapa and others.
[5] By pleasing [the Buddha] with their questions:
Sudatta and others.
[6] By accepting the Eight Serious Virtues: Maha-
prajapati. [302b]
[7] By messenger: Dhannadinna.
[8] By five Monks, without a Discipline-master: persons in remote areas.
[9] By an assembiy often: persons in populated areas.
[10] By triple repetition of taking the Refuges: the
Ordination of the Sixty Bhadravargas.
Four types of Monk have been [traditionally] described: 29 [1] one who is a Monk in name only; [2] one who [merely] professes [but does not live as a Monk]; [3] one who is called "Monk" because he begs; [4] one who is called "Monk" because he conquers the passions. It is rare in our t,imes to firid a Monk of pure observance; for as the Acarya Santideva said: "The Teaching is rooted in monasticism, although monasticism survives with difficulty. "30 And therefore the Gurus have said repeatedly that the pure Lay Devotee is to be praised as a Mahayana vessel [far] more than the Monk who is weak in his observance and is
diminished, stained, tom, destroyed and impure.
Concerning Vows
I continue now with an explanation of the word "vow" [in Stanza 21]. "To vow" means to block and bind the stream of misconduct. This can be treated under several headings: [A] What is gained [by vowing]. [B] How it is gained. [C] Time for taking the vow. [D] How the vow is taken. [E] How it is given up. [F] Its nature. [G] Reasons that transgressions are committed. [H] Conditions that prevent transgression. [I] Rising from failures.
For the interpretation of the first four topics [A-D] one should consult his own Discipline-master and study the basic texts. [Topic E]: How is the vow given up? The ways
? o f g i v i n g u p Pratimok~a v o w s a r e s e v e r a l : o n e g i v e s b a c k h i s precepts, after sincere reflection, in the presence of anyone [capable of] understanding,31 or deserts the suitable environment [for living the religious life],32 or commits an Expulsion offence,33 or becomes hermaphrodite,34 or rejects the life of virtue altogether. How can these be [true] reasons for giving up the vow? [303a] Because the thought of honestly giving it up does occur, or one does forsake the supports [of religious life], or some cause or other of trans- gression does happen, or the [bodily] basis of the vow
changes, or the foundation of it [in virtue] is wrecked. Now Some Discipline-masters say that by committing [just] one transgression, the whole [discipline] is forsaken. Others also say that vows are given up at times when the
Holy Doctrine wanes. But the Sarvastivadin Discipline- masters have this to say:
"By committing one transgression [against the vowed rules] the rest are not forsaken, for a man can be both restrained and unrestrained [at the same time]; just as a man can be rich and [yet have] debts. So if a man with [vowed] conduct confesses his transgression, then it is
[simply] not true that he is [still] unrestrained. "35
In the case of hermaphrodite change, one would not [precisely] be giving up the vow that had been taken [for a particular male/female sex status] since one does not for- sake a vow that never existed [and there are no Pratimok~a vows for this ambiguous state]. The same is true at times when the Holy Doctrine declines [for then the Pratirnok~a simply does not exist]. The vow also ceases in death and transmigration because a different body is involved and one has not promised to practise [Pratimok~a] in that body, and the vows are not recalled [in the new body]. These ex- planations follow (the interpretations of] Acarya Vasubandhu, but I omit here the many adversary opinions [he argues] in his [Treasure ofPhenomenology] text.
[F] For the nature of the vow one should study the basic
THE MONASTIC LIFE 77
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(G]
(H]
Discipline texts and question the masters of his particular school.
There are two ways of committing transgressions: by not doing what should be done, and by doing what should not be done. And [the reasons are] fourfold: ignorance, irreverence, negligence, and strong
passions.
Conditions that prevent transgression are fivefold: [1] the restraint of the doors of the senses; moderation in food; perseverance in yoga in the early and latter parts of the night, without falling asleep; deliberate be- haviour, mindfulness, vigilance, and thorough aware- ness; a fear of even the slightest infraction. [2] the second condition is to look earnestly to one's [303b] religious practice, and reflect that the Teacher himself, and those who live the Pure Life, and the gods who rejoice in the Teaching, learned men as well as world- lings would condemn [transgression]; and through
self. ? examination [to develop] a sense of shame and embarrassment. [3] The third condition is to have modest goals, modest activity, and modest [concern for the] outcome. [4] The fourth condition is not to live as half-layman, half-religious; and to be well in- structed in what is and is not transgression; and zealous in the pursuit of virtue. [5] The fifth condition [reduces culpability in transgression]: being a begin- ner, insane, sleepy, of distraught mind or tormented
by emotions.
Rising from failings involves three things: begetting five despairs, a five-limbed vigilance, and removing despair in five ways. The five-limbed vigilance can be studied in the Hearers Level [of Asatiga). l6
[I]
The five despairs arise when a person commits some trans- gression or other and thinks: [1] "With this kind ofstart, my observance will [always] be faulty", or [2] "The Teacher [Buddha] and learned men of the Pure Life [surely] con- demn me", or [3] "The gods condemn me [for this]", or [4]
"Sinful men from here to the border know about me, and talk about me indecently", or [5] "With this unvirtuous
? beginning of mine, I will be reborn in the bad destinies after [leaving] this body, and then it will be no use! "
These despairs are removed by five [contrary] ways of thjnking: [1] "The Blessed One taught a Doctrine which has both a foundation and way of deliverance; therefore there [surely] is a means of rising from transgression", or [2] "Because I have not [yet] learned that transgressions are committed through ignorance, irreverence, negligence [304a] and strong passions, they [continue to] increase", or [3] "I now beget the Enlightenment Thought with sincere superior intention so that I will not go on failing", or [4] "I have now properly confessed [my failing] in the presence of learned men of the Pure Life", or [5] "I have entered the religious life of the well-spoken Doctrine-Discipline, and
my despair when I go against its training is not right or proper. The Blessed One condemned the stream of despair with whole lists of the obstructions [it creates]. Now since despair is the thing making the obstacles, then to put up with it and not cleanse it away from the start [can only] mean that I am the one who is not virtuous and right in not removing it! "
Summation of the Discipline
Confession should be made according to the methods found in the proper Discipline of each one's own school. You can also confess [privately] with the more general method I composed in my Ritual for Confession o f Failings. But be earnest about the fortnightly recitation of the Pratimok~a- s f i t r a a n d a b o u t t h e Po~adha [ o b s e r v a n c e ] . T h e m o n k w h o i s earnest about his Discipline training knows what the trans- gressions are and is wise about the [means] of deliverance
[from them]. He does not despair because his nature is to be pure, clean, unsullied, and sinless. Having left the house- holder's state to become homeless and enter religion, his Conduct in the well-spoken Doctrine-Discipline is not dim- inished, stained, tom, destroyed or impure. He guards it well. He stands adorned with the Twelve Qualities of Purifi- cationandtheSeventeenOrnamentsofReligiousPractice. 37
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It was as I reflected on how the pure Monk is this kind of man that I wrote:
THE. GLORIOUS PURE LIFE IS HIGHEST;
BY WHICH HE MEANT THE VOWS OF A MONK [304b]
Finally, Ajitanatha says in his Ornament ofthe Sutras:
"The Doctrine of the Discipline is [expressed] in terms of [1] Transgression, [2] its Source, [3] Rising from it, [4] Deliverance, [5] Persons, [6] Promulgation, [7] Distinc- tion, and [8] Determination. "38
This completes the section on the Hearer's Vehicle.
Notes to Chapter 3
1 Ot. 5584, Vol. 114:262. 2.
2 rigs-med-pa/agotraka. In some systems of Mahayana, notably the Yogacara
school, classification of persons into "Families" according to their dis- positions in a particular rebirth became popular. The reference here is to a fivefold division:
l) rigs-med/agotra: No-Family (= no inclination to liberation in one's present rebirth);
2) ma-nges-pa/aniyata: Uncertain Family ( = those who will enter which- ever Family circumstances suggest to them);
3) nyan-thos/Sriivaka: Hearer Family (= Hinayana ideal of the Arhat saint);
4) rang-sangs-rgyas/pratyeka-buddha: Solitary Buddha Family (=the self- made Buddha ideal ofHinayana);
5) de-bzhin-gshegs-pa/tathiigata: Tathagata Family (= the Mahayana ideal of compassionate Enlightenment).
3 bar-chad/antaraya: impediment. The Vinaya (Discipline) specifies many physical and circumstantial impediments which the candidate must be free from for acceptance as a Novice or Monk. The Ordination ceremony itself contains a double inquiry into freedom from these impediments; e. g. , free- dom from deformities, from a variety of specific diseases, from debt, lack of parental consent, and so on. See Matters of Discipline, Ot. 1030, Vol. 41:24. 3ff.
4 pham-pa byung-ba/piiriijika: expulsion offence. The first of the eight classes of offence against the monastic rule (which constitute the divisions of the Priitimolqa-sutra itself (Ot. 1031, Vol. 41:141-9):
1) 2) 3)
Expulsion (see below);
Suspension (dge-'dun lhag-ma/sarrrghiivaie~a); Indeterminate (ma-nges-pa/aniyata);
? 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)
Forfeiture (spang-ba/nai! Jsargika);
Transgression (/tung-byed-pa/ptitayantika); Confessable (so-sor-bshag-pa/pratideianiya); Etiquette (bslab-pa'i chos/iaik~a);
Dispute-settling (rtsod-pa'i zhi/adhikararJa-iamatha).
The four Expulsion Offences are the most serious and involve dismissal from the community:
1) Sexual intercourse (mi-tshangs-pa spyod-pa/a-brahma-caryam: lit. , impure life);
2) 3) 4)
Theft (ma-byin-par len-pa/adatttidiinam);
Homicide (gsod-pa/badha);
Lying to praise self (mi'i chos bla-mar smra-ba/uttara-manu~ya-dharma- praltipa: lit. , speaking of self as higher in things of man).
5 de-bzhin-gshegs-pa'i snying-po-can = Tathtigata-garbha. A term of the YogiicaraNijfliinaviida school of Mahiiyiina referring to ultimate reality under the aspect of the potential for Buddhahood within every "vessel" Such a reality would be rejected by strict Miidhya111ika as holding to a position of reality, and therefore false both by reason of holding to a position
and by establishing a reality. See Atisa's Chapter VI of the Commentary; also A. K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, pp. 404-S.
Ot. 112.
6
7 Unidentified.
8
9
10 11 12 13
chos-kyi dbyings! dharma-dhiitu. The term for ultimate reality when con- sidered under the aspect of its own proper nature, indescribable, incon- ceivable.
The two types of Family [rigs/gotra1presented here differ from the fivefold distinction mentioned earlier [see note 21. The True Nature [chos-nyid kyi rigs] Family means those who have already achieved Buddhahood in the various bodies of fruition that Suvarl)advipa describes; the Striving Family [sgrub-pa'i rigs1refers to those still progressing on the Paths.
Illumination on the Unfathomable, Ot. 5192, Vol. 91.
Ot. 162, Vol. 6.
Ot. 5584, Vol. 114:262. 2.
The five precepts of the lay Devotee, according to the Miilasarviistiviida tradition which the Tibetan Communities follow, are found in the vow formula itself:
"0 Aciirya, please heed me! From this day forward, as long as I live, I, (name), renounce [11 the killing of living beings; I tum away, as was done by the saintly Arhats as long as they lived, from the killing of life. With this first precept I shall train, obey, and imitate the training of the saintly Arhats.
Moreover, as was done by the saintly Arhats as long as they lived, I too from this day forward, as long as I live, renounce [21 the taking of what is not given, and [3] unlawful sexual conduct, and [4] speaking untruly, and [5] intoxicating liquor and places of vulgar amusement. These five precepts I shall study, obey, and follow as the saintly Arhats before
me "[Matters ofDiscipline, Ot. 1030, Vol. 41:22ff].
The forty-five rules connected with the five precepts. are not mentioned in the Discipline itself, but are later interj>retations and refinements of the applica- tion of the precepts; e. g. , the basic precept ofNot Killing would have several types of killing expressed as "rules" connected with it: parricide, matricide, infanticide, the killing of an Arhat, and so on.
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14 Atrsa'stripledivisionofthemonasticrulesisamorege? ericcla~sification than the eight classes of transgressions [see note 4] foun~ m the Pratlmokfas of any of the schools. The eight classes of the Prattmok~a are spectfic descriptions of the type of transgression. ranked from the most senous to the least offensive. Atisa's analysis is rather of the nature of the transgressions themselves - whether they are actions evil in themselves (and therefore requiring confession). or actions that would n~t be w~ong ~f one had not promised to observe them, or actions that are stmply dtscrettonary matters
pertaining to good order.
15 The number of rules pertaining to each of the three classes totals 253, but
that. total is at variance with the total number of rules in the known Pratimoksas (Sarvastivada: 262; Miilasarviistiviida: 258; Pali: 227]. This in itself is not unusual. since there is considerable latitude in the enumeration of the Etiquette rules. some combining two prohibitions into one. However, the Commentary's statement that twenty-three rules pertain to the "Confessable" does not agree with any of the schools. which all enumerate four: not receiving food from the hands of nuns, admonishing nuns to let the monks eat first when in a layman's house. receiving food from families which have been interdicted by the Samgha, and taking food in the Community for use outside. without permission of the Community. [See W. Pachow,
Comparative Studv o f the Priitimok~a. p. II. ]
The discrepancies about the monastic rule here in the Commentary simply
point to Atlsa's having been ordained in the Mahiisamghika lineage, whose Pratimok~a has since been lost. Atisa did discourse on the Discipline during summer retreats in Central Tibet. but it is perhaps significant that no men- tion is made of his participating in any ordination ceremonies either as Aciirya or Upiidhyaya. The statement has been made by Nyii~amoli Thera in his Pii(imokkha [p. 101] that AtiSa was asked not to ordain in Tibet because his o;vn lineage [Mahasamghika] was different from t,hat begun at Bsam-yas by Santirak~ita with the first seven Tibetan monks. Santirak~ita's lineage is attested as the Tibetan preference by the Kanjur's containing only the Miilasarvastivada version of the Discipline and Priitimok~a Sutra.
16 The Six Basic Rules and Six Rules for Harmony are not identified in the known traditions. From the context they seem similar to the Nuns' "Eight Serious Virtues" mentioned in the Nuns Ordination Ritual; e. g. receiving ordination only from monks; awaiting announcement of the proper date for the fortnightly Po~adha from the monks' community; not making the summer retreat without the monks nearby for Instruction; not admonishing the monks; rising in reverence to even y0ung monks although the nun be a hundred years old, and so on. See Ridding and La Vallee Poussin, "A Fragment of the Sanskrit Vinaya: Bhi~unl-karma-vacana", Bulletin ofthe School ofOriental Studies (London), Vol. I, pt III, pp. 141-2.
17 '! fie number 500 for the rules of Nuns is mentioned in a siitra quote in Santideva's SS (p. 170), but the Nuns Priitimo~a Sutra (Ot. 1033) itself has a total of only 371 rules in the Miila-sarviistiviida tradition. The Pali version has 311 rules. See A. C. Banerjee, Sarviistiviida Literature, p. 88; and E. J. Thomas, The Life ofthe Buddha, pp. 107-12, for further information.
18 The history of the early divisions of Buddhism was knowledge that every monk was expected to have, and the enumeration here is in Tibetan verse in the Commentary,. a mnemonic borrowed from Bhavya's Nikaya-bheda- vibhanga-vyiikhyiina (Ot. 5640), and translated by Atisa himself. The proper names refer to certain doctrines held, or to founding teachers, or to places where moth~r monasteries were built. See Sukumar Dutt's Buddhist
? Monks and Monasteries ofIndia; A. K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, Chapter
9.
19 Questions forthe Monks' Retreat, Ot. 5649, Vol. 127:309. 1.
20 In SS: p. 81.
21 Ot. 817, Vol. 33:36. 5.
22 Ot. 886. Vol. 35:55. 2.
23 bsnyen-par rdzogs-pa/upasan:zpadii: the ordination ceremony as distinct
24
from the ceremony for admission to the religious life as a novice (rab-tll- byung-ba/pravrajyii). The essence of ordination is the unanimous and formally acknowledged consent of the Community to accept the novice who has the intention to be bound (vowed) by the rules of the Monk. The ceremony itself was conducted as a formal business meeting of the Com- munity, requiring a minimum of five monks (four of whom have specific functions in the ceremony), and consent of the Community given in its most solemn and binding form. The four officers required for the ceremony are: 1) Preceptor (mkhan-po/upiidhyiiya): to sponsor and receive the novice in
the name of the Community;
2) Teacher (slob-dpon/iiciirya): to instruct the novice and receive his
promises at the end of the ceremony;
3) President (las-byed-pa/karma-karaka): to act as master of ceremonies
or chairman, seeing to the proper conduct of the ritual, and to present
the formal motion to the Community for granting the ordination;
4) Admonitor (gsang-ste ston-pa/raho'nuJiisaka): to inquire privately during the ceremony about the novice's freedom from the physical
impediments.
The ceremony in all its details of rubrics and formulas and proper conduct of the meeting is described in the first chapter of the Matters o f Discipline itself, and is considered to be among the oldest of Buddhist scriptures. See A. C. Banerjee, op. cit. pp. 101-42.
The four basic types of acts of the Community (dge-'dun gyi las/samgha-
karma) are described in great detail in the Matters o f Discipline, chapter 10: Acts. It is believed that this true democratic parliamentary procedure was adapted by the Buddha from contemporary tribal council systems such as the Vajji of northern India. (See S. Dutt. op. cit. . pp. 85-7. ) An Act of the Community is always expressed by silence in response to the presiding monk's proposal of the Motion. As Atisa states, the third type of Act is required for ordination: a triple repetition of the Motion before the fourth and final assent of the Community. SeeS. Dutt, Early Buddhist Monachism, pp. 144ff; A. C. Banerjee, op. cit. , pp. 222-4; for the Pali Vinaya: Mahiivagga IX(S. B. E . ? Vol. XVIII).
Numerous rules throughout the Priitimo! qa are concerned with harmony in the religious community, and appropriate penances imposed for infractions, and formal lifting of the penance when atonement has been made. Banish- ment (bskrad-pa/praviisaniyam) could be carried out against a group of monks who had created scandal in a given place. Penances in general are treated? in Chapter XIII of the Discipline. Regulations and conduct for the annual monsoon retreat are covered in Chapter IV.
The first two items pertain to the Ordination Ritual; the third pertains to poverty in the matter of the monks' robes. their care and distribution. (Chapter VII of the Discipline). Forfeiture, the fourth class of Priitimok~a rules, describes offences for which the monk must give up the cloth (and other material gain) he has received through suggesting that generosity to laypersons.
25
26
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27 The? prescriptions mentioned here show the minimal number (two) of monks required (and obligated) to conduct the fortnightly recitation of the Priitimoksa. as well as how confession may be made even when a larger assembly ? is gathered: i. e. by turning to the monk at one's elbow to admit the guilt.
- Ordination hy five monks in remote areas had application in the history of Tibet when the native Tibetan lineage of ordina. tions begun at Bsam-yas by Santirak~ita was nearly broken by the persecution of Glang-dar-ma in the ninth centurv. In the later rekindling of the Doctrine. three monks who had fled the persecution and had found ; Tibetan worthy and desirous of ordina-
tion in A-mdo. one Dgongs-pa rab-gsal. performed the ceremony according to the prescribed ritual by inviting two Chinese monks to participate in order to make up the minimal assembly of five. Bu-ston records the incident: chos-'bvun~ (Obermiller). Pt II. pp. 201-2.
The ? R~treat Examination (Discipline. Chap. Ill) is the special recitation of Priitimoksa at the end of the summer retreat, with examina- tion and confession of faults committed, seen. or apprehended by others during the time of retreat. ?
2R Considering that Atisa was ordained in the Mahasamghika lineage and described a different analysis of Priitimok~a rules from that of the Sarvastivada, it is interesting to note here his listing of their great Discipline masters as authorities - perhaps in deference to his Tho-ling patrons. The title. "Reverend" (btsun-pa! bhadanta) is especially reserved for outstanding Discipline commentators. and all those listed here are found in the Tanjur, ~xcept for two (Dbyangs-sgrogs and Bsam-rdzogs). Gul)aprabha and Sakyaprabha are especially revered in Tibet as the "Two Excellents" (mchog gnyis).
The Ten Ways of Ordination are a traditional listing, found in AK(LVP). IV, 60, and in the Blue Annals (Roerich), p. 33. The first Five Converts refers to the Buddha's companions in his initial austerities, who later listened to . his first sermon on the Four Holy Truths and followed him. (See Mahiivagga, I, 6. ) Yasas' ordination by the "Come aside, 0 Monk! " (dge- slong tshur shog! ehi bhik! u) is described in the Ordination Ceremony itself as the Buddha's first way of receiving monks into the Community. (See Matters of Discipline: Ot. 1030, Vol. 41:22). Mahakasyapa, the ascetic of Uruvela, came to the Buddha with his five hundred disciples, and all were ordained by their very assent to the Buddha's teaching. (See E. J. Thomas,
Life ofthe Buddha, p. 91. ) Sudatta (or Aniithapil)c;lada) is not recorded as ever being other than a lay devotee; so this reference remains unidentified. Mahaprajapati, the Buddha's aunt, who prevailed upon him to permit women to join the Community as nuns. (See Cullavagga, X. 1. ) Dharmadinnii, a woman locked up in a harem, sent a messenger to the Buddha for admission to the Community. (See Majjhima Nikaya. I, 299. ) The Sixty Bhadravargas ("the good groups") are not accounted for in the various Disciplines known to date. The appellation bhadravarga is usually given to the first five converts.
these topics, defines this as meaning death; i. e. , one must be in the human body to be able to observe the precepts of the Pratimok~a. At death, the
InAK(L VP). IV ,97. BCA, IX. 45.
mi brda phrad-pa.
29
30
31
32 ris mthun-pa/nikiiya-sabhiiga. Vasubandhu, whom Atisa is following in
? vows of the monastic life do not carry over into other rebirths. even human.
See AK(LVP). IV. 94.
33 See note 4.
34 mtshan gnyis dus gcig-tu byung-ba: lit. , "both [sex] marks appearing at the same time", which is hermaphroditism. But actually sex-change is meant here- a physiological possibility accepted in the history of Indian medicine. SeeAK(LVP), IV, 94.
35 AK(LVP). IV. 94.
36
The five-limbed vigilance is not found in the Hearer's Level.
What I mean to say here is that the vows of a Monk are unique among the seven ranks.
Seven Only
There may be an objection at the outset that there are eight
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Pratimok~a ranks set down in all the basic Discipline texts, and in such Hinayana works as the Progress in Knowledge, the Treasure o f Phenomenology and its useful summaries, and the Major Exposition ofthe "Treasure", therefore how can my saying seven be correct? Well, it is true those texts do propose the number as eight, but noble Asanga establishes it as seven in every section of his Levels ofYoga
Practice and [in particular] in the Chapter on Conduct. [299b] And if we doubt the brilliance of that great man's mind, we are finished. Asanga is a Bodhisattva of the Third Level, who attained a concentration called the "Stream of Truth", and who was prophesied in the Basic Tantra of Maiiju? rf as "that holy man, Asariga, wise in the true meaning of the texts". 11 Does anyone doubt that he heard the entire (siitra] collection directly from Ajitanatha?
In his Commentary on "Twenty Verses on the Vow", the venerable Bodhibhadra says:
"In regard to the vowing of Conduct, vows are taken in the seven ranks of Pratimoksa. That is, the five kinds in the religious life: the Monk and Nun, the Nun-candidate, the male and female Novices; and the two kinds in the Lay state: the male and female Devotees. The practice of One-Day [vows] is not a true ascetical practice, and has not been taught as worthy ofPratimok~a rank since there is no restraint of desires for [any] great length of time. " 12
The Guru who declared this was a great master of the Discipline of the Bodhisattva scriptures. I follow his inter- pretation because he received his instruction in the [Buddhist] trad! tion i~ the unbroken line from noble Nagarjuna and Acarya Santideva.
Lay Devotee and Novice
A few things can be observed here about the sevenfold ranks of Pratimok~a: The [Lay] Devotees are of two types: those who abstain from unlawful sexual activity, and those who abstain even from their own partners. But the training
common to both [types] is: renunciation of the four basic transgressions [killing, stealing, lying, unchastity] and of
? liquor. Some say renunciation of false views [in place of liquor].
In regard to liquor, some Discipline masters interpret it as objectionable by its very nature [300a] but the Phenomenology followers say it is objectionable [only] because its renunciation has been promised. However, I must omit their full presentations here.
For the Devotee, then, there are the five precepts and forty-five rules which [specifically] apply to them. 13 The Novice vows include these fifty practices of the faultless [and celibate] Devotee, [divided] according to whether [their subject matter] must be confessed [when violated] or [whose renunciation) must be vowed [as part of religious life) or are [simply) sinless. 14
Monk and Nun
The training of the Monk is such that of two hundred and fifty-three [rules], twenty-seven must be confessed [when violated], two hundred and thirteen must be vowed, and thirteen pertain to sinless matters [of community governance]. 15
The Nun-candidate correctly observes two hundred and forty rules - that is, all the above, except for the thirteen [rules pertaining to community governance], and including the pure and irreproachable life of the Novice, as well as her Six Basic Rules and Six Rules for Harmony [in the community]. 16
The Nun is pure in her five hundred rules, 17 which include those of the pure Nun-candidate as well as the Monk, together with the training the holy Doctrine and Discipline texts present for the perfecting of the pure Monk.
The Eighteen Schools ofBuddhism
There have been a variety of sects [in the Buddhist Com- munity]: [A] the MahasaJ! lghika, [B] the Sarvastivada, [C] the Sthavira, and [D] the Sammatiya sects. These existed [formerly] in eighteen schools:
[A] The five schools of MahasaiJlghika: the Purvasaila,
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the Aparasaila, the Haimavata, the Lokottara-vada, and the Prajfiaptivada. [B] The [seven Sarvastivada]: the Miila, the Kasyapiya, the Dharmagupta, the Mahisasaka, the Vibhajya-vada, [300b] the Bahusrutiya, and TamrasiiFyii.
[C] Three sects of Sthavira: the Mahavihiira-vasina, the Jetavaniya, and the Abhayagiri-vasina. [D] Three sects of Sammatiya: Kaurukullaka, the Avantaka, and the Viitsi- putriya. 18
Some texts differ on this listing, saying that the Vijiiaptiviida belong to Sarvastiviida, but keeping the rest the same. And another text has it:
"[A] Kasyapiya, Dharmagupta, Mahisasaka and Miila-sarvastivada;
[B] Purva, A para, Haimavata,
Prajiiapti, Vibhajya and Lokottaravada; [C] TamrasaFya, Bahusrutiya, Avantaka, Kaurukullaka and Vatsi-putriya;
[D. ] Jetavaniya, Abhaya and Mahavihara.
"In four, six, five and three, They wanted their variety, and Hence the Eighteen Schools.
"The Lion of Sakya's teaching endures Because of the Gurus who went forth of old With the power of his message.
"Though the schools were many,
And great the variety of views,
Due to difference in region and teachers,
Never did they argue about the [Great] Teacher. "19
For their respective differences in the matter of the Rule and views, you must study the great texts on those topics.
The Glorious Pure Life: The Monk
Returning to my root text, the words "THE PURE LIFE" [Stanza 21] refer to renunciation in the matter ofliquor and of women. For the dangers of liquor you can study that subject in the [Discipline] scriptures and the pertinent
? places in the siitra collection. For the danger of women, consult the [Discipline] scriptures also, and the siitras of both Mahayana and Hinayana. For instance, the Hi:nayana siitra The Teaching in Sevens: Sexuality:
[301a] "For example, 0 Brahmin, take a man who promises to live the Pure Life, and never even has an intimate encounter with a woman. But when his eyes behold women's bodies, he is attracted by their shape; he dallies with women and is captivated by their chatter; he becomes absorbed in paying them attentions. Even when he is separated from them by walls and curtains, women's adornments and their singing and dancing and sound of music go right to his heart. And when he sees his neigh- bour indulging his senses with desire, he takes that into
his heart. Y et he still'inakes Bestowal [ofthe merit] of his Pure Life [to gain] a place among the gods! The Pure Life of such a man is altogether impure. "20
And again from the Mahayana siitra, The Seven-fold Way: " I f we ought not cling to Desire even in imagination,
Why mention indulging the senses of sight and touch? " 21
The dangers of Desire in general can be learned from the Questions o f King Udayana-vatsa and the Admonitions on Desire Sutra.
So then, a man who gives a show of living the Pure Life while not [truly] living it, who is proud of the signs and marks of the religious profession, yet treats it con- temptuously thinking "The religious life [simply] means we are bodhisattvas who have the same prerogatives a layman does", thatman is a hypocrite, and like a thief and robber. The sutras say things like "A thief is eating [alms]; a thief is drinking [alms]". Such a sinful Monk or Novice should never have taken up the saffron robe - that shrine to gods
and men. It has been said that "the religious robe burns [the hypocrite]; the begging bowl burns". And the Arrest of Misconduct Sutra:
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"The Monk who violates his Rule without so much as a snap of the fingers for the royal mark of the Teacher's saffron robes should not be kept [in the Community]. " 22 [30lb]
The misfortune of this [hypocrisy] can be studied in the pertinent parts of such siitras as the Questions of KiiSyapa. The teaching of Mahayana- and my thought also- on that kind of sinful religious profession is that [such persons] should not enter upon this Great Path. The Pure Life, properly so called, is untouched by such evils and com- pletely pure.
Because it is more perfect than the Lay Devotee or Novice or Nun-candidate, I said:
THE GLORIOUS PURE LIFE IS HIGHEST;
BY WHICH HE MEANT THE VOWS OF THE MONK. (Stanza 21}
And it is the Blessed One himself who held that the pure vow of the Monk is "the perfect foundation for the Great Vehicle, and superior by far".
Acts of the Community
As for wh~t we call "Monk", it is he who has been ordained23 by the Fourfold Motion-with-Acts [of the Community].
Now Acts of the Community are of four kinds:24
[1] a Motion with [single] Act;
[2] a Motion with Two Acts;
[3] a Fourfold: Motion-with-[Three Acts]; and
[4] the Act of Triple Declaration of an Act.
These four kinds of Act are used for two types of matters: [A] personal, and [B] non-personal.
? Persons
Acts that deal with persons are:25 [1] Admission, [2] Ordination, [3] Unity of mind among persons, [4] Release from [penances for] transgressions, [5] Agree- ment on: Dismissal, Banishment, and those in Summer Retreat, [6] Blessing [and permission to leave retreat] for seven, twenty, or forty days, [7] Assistance to persons, and [8] Acts imposing penances.
Non-Person
Acts that do not deal with persons are:26 [1] Consecration of the Robes and Bowl, [2] Consecration of the Cloth, [3] Forfeiture of robes not freely given, [4] Decisions on
[monastery] boundaries, [302a] [5] Unity of mind with the laity, and any other acts of business like these.
The Community Acts are also [grouped as]: those to be passed by an assembly of two, four, five, ten, twenty, forty, or by the unanimous Community. 27 For example, an Act performable by an assembly of two: when a Monk confesses a transgression or sin he has committed, with the Act of Triple Declaration in presence of Community. An Act performable by four: confession in each other's presence of the Four Gross Sins [Intercourse, Theft, Homicide, Lying
to praise self]. An Act performable by ten: Ordination in populated areas. An Act performable by an assembly of five: Ordination in remote areas. By an assembly of twenty monks: Act of removing Suspension. By forty: Act of ordaining a Nun. By the unanimous Community: Acts for [monastic] boundaries, [establishing the date1of Po~adha, and for the Retreat Examination.
Ten Ways o f Ordination
The Discipline masters of the Sarvastivada sect - the Reverends Dharmatrata, Dbyangs-sgrogs, Vasumitra, Buddhadeva, Bsam-rJzogs, the great scholar Vasubandhu, the Elder GuQ. aprabha, and the Reverend Sakyaprabha -
all say that Ordination has been performed in ten ways:28
[1] By self-ordination: Buddhas and Solitary Buddhas.
[2] By conviction: the [First] Five Converts.
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[3] By the "Come aside, 0 Monk! ": Yasas and others.
[4] By accepting the Teacher: Mahakasyapa and others.
[5] By pleasing [the Buddha] with their questions:
Sudatta and others.
[6] By accepting the Eight Serious Virtues: Maha-
prajapati. [302b]
[7] By messenger: Dhannadinna.
[8] By five Monks, without a Discipline-master: persons in remote areas.
[9] By an assembiy often: persons in populated areas.
[10] By triple repetition of taking the Refuges: the
Ordination of the Sixty Bhadravargas.
Four types of Monk have been [traditionally] described: 29 [1] one who is a Monk in name only; [2] one who [merely] professes [but does not live as a Monk]; [3] one who is called "Monk" because he begs; [4] one who is called "Monk" because he conquers the passions. It is rare in our t,imes to firid a Monk of pure observance; for as the Acarya Santideva said: "The Teaching is rooted in monasticism, although monasticism survives with difficulty. "30 And therefore the Gurus have said repeatedly that the pure Lay Devotee is to be praised as a Mahayana vessel [far] more than the Monk who is weak in his observance and is
diminished, stained, tom, destroyed and impure.
Concerning Vows
I continue now with an explanation of the word "vow" [in Stanza 21]. "To vow" means to block and bind the stream of misconduct. This can be treated under several headings: [A] What is gained [by vowing]. [B] How it is gained. [C] Time for taking the vow. [D] How the vow is taken. [E] How it is given up. [F] Its nature. [G] Reasons that transgressions are committed. [H] Conditions that prevent transgression. [I] Rising from failures.
For the interpretation of the first four topics [A-D] one should consult his own Discipline-master and study the basic texts. [Topic E]: How is the vow given up? The ways
? o f g i v i n g u p Pratimok~a v o w s a r e s e v e r a l : o n e g i v e s b a c k h i s precepts, after sincere reflection, in the presence of anyone [capable of] understanding,31 or deserts the suitable environment [for living the religious life],32 or commits an Expulsion offence,33 or becomes hermaphrodite,34 or rejects the life of virtue altogether. How can these be [true] reasons for giving up the vow? [303a] Because the thought of honestly giving it up does occur, or one does forsake the supports [of religious life], or some cause or other of trans- gression does happen, or the [bodily] basis of the vow
changes, or the foundation of it [in virtue] is wrecked. Now Some Discipline-masters say that by committing [just] one transgression, the whole [discipline] is forsaken. Others also say that vows are given up at times when the
Holy Doctrine wanes. But the Sarvastivadin Discipline- masters have this to say:
"By committing one transgression [against the vowed rules] the rest are not forsaken, for a man can be both restrained and unrestrained [at the same time]; just as a man can be rich and [yet have] debts. So if a man with [vowed] conduct confesses his transgression, then it is
[simply] not true that he is [still] unrestrained. "35
In the case of hermaphrodite change, one would not [precisely] be giving up the vow that had been taken [for a particular male/female sex status] since one does not for- sake a vow that never existed [and there are no Pratimok~a vows for this ambiguous state]. The same is true at times when the Holy Doctrine declines [for then the Pratirnok~a simply does not exist]. The vow also ceases in death and transmigration because a different body is involved and one has not promised to practise [Pratimok~a] in that body, and the vows are not recalled [in the new body]. These ex- planations follow (the interpretations of] Acarya Vasubandhu, but I omit here the many adversary opinions [he argues] in his [Treasure ofPhenomenology] text.
[F] For the nature of the vow one should study the basic
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(G]
(H]
Discipline texts and question the masters of his particular school.
There are two ways of committing transgressions: by not doing what should be done, and by doing what should not be done. And [the reasons are] fourfold: ignorance, irreverence, negligence, and strong
passions.
Conditions that prevent transgression are fivefold: [1] the restraint of the doors of the senses; moderation in food; perseverance in yoga in the early and latter parts of the night, without falling asleep; deliberate be- haviour, mindfulness, vigilance, and thorough aware- ness; a fear of even the slightest infraction. [2] the second condition is to look earnestly to one's [303b] religious practice, and reflect that the Teacher himself, and those who live the Pure Life, and the gods who rejoice in the Teaching, learned men as well as world- lings would condemn [transgression]; and through
self. ? examination [to develop] a sense of shame and embarrassment. [3] The third condition is to have modest goals, modest activity, and modest [concern for the] outcome. [4] The fourth condition is not to live as half-layman, half-religious; and to be well in- structed in what is and is not transgression; and zealous in the pursuit of virtue. [5] The fifth condition [reduces culpability in transgression]: being a begin- ner, insane, sleepy, of distraught mind or tormented
by emotions.
Rising from failings involves three things: begetting five despairs, a five-limbed vigilance, and removing despair in five ways. The five-limbed vigilance can be studied in the Hearers Level [of Asatiga). l6
[I]
The five despairs arise when a person commits some trans- gression or other and thinks: [1] "With this kind ofstart, my observance will [always] be faulty", or [2] "The Teacher [Buddha] and learned men of the Pure Life [surely] con- demn me", or [3] "The gods condemn me [for this]", or [4]
"Sinful men from here to the border know about me, and talk about me indecently", or [5] "With this unvirtuous
? beginning of mine, I will be reborn in the bad destinies after [leaving] this body, and then it will be no use! "
These despairs are removed by five [contrary] ways of thjnking: [1] "The Blessed One taught a Doctrine which has both a foundation and way of deliverance; therefore there [surely] is a means of rising from transgression", or [2] "Because I have not [yet] learned that transgressions are committed through ignorance, irreverence, negligence [304a] and strong passions, they [continue to] increase", or [3] "I now beget the Enlightenment Thought with sincere superior intention so that I will not go on failing", or [4] "I have now properly confessed [my failing] in the presence of learned men of the Pure Life", or [5] "I have entered the religious life of the well-spoken Doctrine-Discipline, and
my despair when I go against its training is not right or proper. The Blessed One condemned the stream of despair with whole lists of the obstructions [it creates]. Now since despair is the thing making the obstacles, then to put up with it and not cleanse it away from the start [can only] mean that I am the one who is not virtuous and right in not removing it! "
Summation of the Discipline
Confession should be made according to the methods found in the proper Discipline of each one's own school. You can also confess [privately] with the more general method I composed in my Ritual for Confession o f Failings. But be earnest about the fortnightly recitation of the Pratimok~a- s f i t r a a n d a b o u t t h e Po~adha [ o b s e r v a n c e ] . T h e m o n k w h o i s earnest about his Discipline training knows what the trans- gressions are and is wise about the [means] of deliverance
[from them]. He does not despair because his nature is to be pure, clean, unsullied, and sinless. Having left the house- holder's state to become homeless and enter religion, his Conduct in the well-spoken Doctrine-Discipline is not dim- inished, stained, tom, destroyed or impure. He guards it well. He stands adorned with the Twelve Qualities of Purifi- cationandtheSeventeenOrnamentsofReligiousPractice. 37
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It was as I reflected on how the pure Monk is this kind of man that I wrote:
THE. GLORIOUS PURE LIFE IS HIGHEST;
BY WHICH HE MEANT THE VOWS OF A MONK [304b]
Finally, Ajitanatha says in his Ornament ofthe Sutras:
"The Doctrine of the Discipline is [expressed] in terms of [1] Transgression, [2] its Source, [3] Rising from it, [4] Deliverance, [5] Persons, [6] Promulgation, [7] Distinc- tion, and [8] Determination. "38
This completes the section on the Hearer's Vehicle.
Notes to Chapter 3
1 Ot. 5584, Vol. 114:262. 2.
2 rigs-med-pa/agotraka. In some systems of Mahayana, notably the Yogacara
school, classification of persons into "Families" according to their dis- positions in a particular rebirth became popular. The reference here is to a fivefold division:
l) rigs-med/agotra: No-Family (= no inclination to liberation in one's present rebirth);
2) ma-nges-pa/aniyata: Uncertain Family ( = those who will enter which- ever Family circumstances suggest to them);
3) nyan-thos/Sriivaka: Hearer Family (= Hinayana ideal of the Arhat saint);
4) rang-sangs-rgyas/pratyeka-buddha: Solitary Buddha Family (=the self- made Buddha ideal ofHinayana);
5) de-bzhin-gshegs-pa/tathiigata: Tathagata Family (= the Mahayana ideal of compassionate Enlightenment).
3 bar-chad/antaraya: impediment. The Vinaya (Discipline) specifies many physical and circumstantial impediments which the candidate must be free from for acceptance as a Novice or Monk. The Ordination ceremony itself contains a double inquiry into freedom from these impediments; e. g. , free- dom from deformities, from a variety of specific diseases, from debt, lack of parental consent, and so on. See Matters of Discipline, Ot. 1030, Vol. 41:24. 3ff.
4 pham-pa byung-ba/piiriijika: expulsion offence. The first of the eight classes of offence against the monastic rule (which constitute the divisions of the Priitimolqa-sutra itself (Ot. 1031, Vol. 41:141-9):
1) 2) 3)
Expulsion (see below);
Suspension (dge-'dun lhag-ma/sarrrghiivaie~a); Indeterminate (ma-nges-pa/aniyata);
? 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)
Forfeiture (spang-ba/nai! Jsargika);
Transgression (/tung-byed-pa/ptitayantika); Confessable (so-sor-bshag-pa/pratideianiya); Etiquette (bslab-pa'i chos/iaik~a);
Dispute-settling (rtsod-pa'i zhi/adhikararJa-iamatha).
The four Expulsion Offences are the most serious and involve dismissal from the community:
1) Sexual intercourse (mi-tshangs-pa spyod-pa/a-brahma-caryam: lit. , impure life);
2) 3) 4)
Theft (ma-byin-par len-pa/adatttidiinam);
Homicide (gsod-pa/badha);
Lying to praise self (mi'i chos bla-mar smra-ba/uttara-manu~ya-dharma- praltipa: lit. , speaking of self as higher in things of man).
5 de-bzhin-gshegs-pa'i snying-po-can = Tathtigata-garbha. A term of the YogiicaraNijfliinaviida school of Mahiiyiina referring to ultimate reality under the aspect of the potential for Buddhahood within every "vessel" Such a reality would be rejected by strict Miidhya111ika as holding to a position of reality, and therefore false both by reason of holding to a position
and by establishing a reality. See Atisa's Chapter VI of the Commentary; also A. K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, pp. 404-S.
Ot. 112.
6
7 Unidentified.
8
9
10 11 12 13
chos-kyi dbyings! dharma-dhiitu. The term for ultimate reality when con- sidered under the aspect of its own proper nature, indescribable, incon- ceivable.
The two types of Family [rigs/gotra1presented here differ from the fivefold distinction mentioned earlier [see note 21. The True Nature [chos-nyid kyi rigs] Family means those who have already achieved Buddhahood in the various bodies of fruition that Suvarl)advipa describes; the Striving Family [sgrub-pa'i rigs1refers to those still progressing on the Paths.
Illumination on the Unfathomable, Ot. 5192, Vol. 91.
Ot. 162, Vol. 6.
Ot. 5584, Vol. 114:262. 2.
The five precepts of the lay Devotee, according to the Miilasarviistiviida tradition which the Tibetan Communities follow, are found in the vow formula itself:
"0 Aciirya, please heed me! From this day forward, as long as I live, I, (name), renounce [11 the killing of living beings; I tum away, as was done by the saintly Arhats as long as they lived, from the killing of life. With this first precept I shall train, obey, and imitate the training of the saintly Arhats.
Moreover, as was done by the saintly Arhats as long as they lived, I too from this day forward, as long as I live, renounce [21 the taking of what is not given, and [3] unlawful sexual conduct, and [4] speaking untruly, and [5] intoxicating liquor and places of vulgar amusement. These five precepts I shall study, obey, and follow as the saintly Arhats before
me "[Matters ofDiscipline, Ot. 1030, Vol. 41:22ff].
The forty-five rules connected with the five precepts. are not mentioned in the Discipline itself, but are later interj>retations and refinements of the applica- tion of the precepts; e. g. , the basic precept ofNot Killing would have several types of killing expressed as "rules" connected with it: parricide, matricide, infanticide, the killing of an Arhat, and so on.
THE MONASTIC LIFE 81
? 82 A LAMP FOR THE PATH AND COMMENTARY
14 Atrsa'stripledivisionofthemonasticrulesisamorege? ericcla~sification than the eight classes of transgressions [see note 4] foun~ m the Pratlmokfas of any of the schools. The eight classes of the Prattmok~a are spectfic descriptions of the type of transgression. ranked from the most senous to the least offensive. Atisa's analysis is rather of the nature of the transgressions themselves - whether they are actions evil in themselves (and therefore requiring confession). or actions that would n~t be w~ong ~f one had not promised to observe them, or actions that are stmply dtscrettonary matters
pertaining to good order.
15 The number of rules pertaining to each of the three classes totals 253, but
that. total is at variance with the total number of rules in the known Pratimoksas (Sarvastivada: 262; Miilasarviistiviida: 258; Pali: 227]. This in itself is not unusual. since there is considerable latitude in the enumeration of the Etiquette rules. some combining two prohibitions into one. However, the Commentary's statement that twenty-three rules pertain to the "Confessable" does not agree with any of the schools. which all enumerate four: not receiving food from the hands of nuns, admonishing nuns to let the monks eat first when in a layman's house. receiving food from families which have been interdicted by the Samgha, and taking food in the Community for use outside. without permission of the Community. [See W. Pachow,
Comparative Studv o f the Priitimok~a. p. II. ]
The discrepancies about the monastic rule here in the Commentary simply
point to Atlsa's having been ordained in the Mahiisamghika lineage, whose Pratimok~a has since been lost. Atisa did discourse on the Discipline during summer retreats in Central Tibet. but it is perhaps significant that no men- tion is made of his participating in any ordination ceremonies either as Aciirya or Upiidhyaya. The statement has been made by Nyii~amoli Thera in his Pii(imokkha [p. 101] that AtiSa was asked not to ordain in Tibet because his o;vn lineage [Mahasamghika] was different from t,hat begun at Bsam-yas by Santirak~ita with the first seven Tibetan monks. Santirak~ita's lineage is attested as the Tibetan preference by the Kanjur's containing only the Miilasarvastivada version of the Discipline and Priitimok~a Sutra.
16 The Six Basic Rules and Six Rules for Harmony are not identified in the known traditions. From the context they seem similar to the Nuns' "Eight Serious Virtues" mentioned in the Nuns Ordination Ritual; e. g. receiving ordination only from monks; awaiting announcement of the proper date for the fortnightly Po~adha from the monks' community; not making the summer retreat without the monks nearby for Instruction; not admonishing the monks; rising in reverence to even y0ung monks although the nun be a hundred years old, and so on. See Ridding and La Vallee Poussin, "A Fragment of the Sanskrit Vinaya: Bhi~unl-karma-vacana", Bulletin ofthe School ofOriental Studies (London), Vol. I, pt III, pp. 141-2.
17 '! fie number 500 for the rules of Nuns is mentioned in a siitra quote in Santideva's SS (p. 170), but the Nuns Priitimo~a Sutra (Ot. 1033) itself has a total of only 371 rules in the Miila-sarviistiviida tradition. The Pali version has 311 rules. See A. C. Banerjee, Sarviistiviida Literature, p. 88; and E. J. Thomas, The Life ofthe Buddha, pp. 107-12, for further information.
18 The history of the early divisions of Buddhism was knowledge that every monk was expected to have, and the enumeration here is in Tibetan verse in the Commentary,. a mnemonic borrowed from Bhavya's Nikaya-bheda- vibhanga-vyiikhyiina (Ot. 5640), and translated by Atisa himself. The proper names refer to certain doctrines held, or to founding teachers, or to places where moth~r monasteries were built. See Sukumar Dutt's Buddhist
? Monks and Monasteries ofIndia; A. K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, Chapter
9.
19 Questions forthe Monks' Retreat, Ot. 5649, Vol. 127:309. 1.
20 In SS: p. 81.
21 Ot. 817, Vol. 33:36. 5.
22 Ot. 886. Vol. 35:55. 2.
23 bsnyen-par rdzogs-pa/upasan:zpadii: the ordination ceremony as distinct
24
from the ceremony for admission to the religious life as a novice (rab-tll- byung-ba/pravrajyii). The essence of ordination is the unanimous and formally acknowledged consent of the Community to accept the novice who has the intention to be bound (vowed) by the rules of the Monk. The ceremony itself was conducted as a formal business meeting of the Com- munity, requiring a minimum of five monks (four of whom have specific functions in the ceremony), and consent of the Community given in its most solemn and binding form. The four officers required for the ceremony are: 1) Preceptor (mkhan-po/upiidhyiiya): to sponsor and receive the novice in
the name of the Community;
2) Teacher (slob-dpon/iiciirya): to instruct the novice and receive his
promises at the end of the ceremony;
3) President (las-byed-pa/karma-karaka): to act as master of ceremonies
or chairman, seeing to the proper conduct of the ritual, and to present
the formal motion to the Community for granting the ordination;
4) Admonitor (gsang-ste ston-pa/raho'nuJiisaka): to inquire privately during the ceremony about the novice's freedom from the physical
impediments.
The ceremony in all its details of rubrics and formulas and proper conduct of the meeting is described in the first chapter of the Matters o f Discipline itself, and is considered to be among the oldest of Buddhist scriptures. See A. C. Banerjee, op. cit. pp. 101-42.
The four basic types of acts of the Community (dge-'dun gyi las/samgha-
karma) are described in great detail in the Matters o f Discipline, chapter 10: Acts. It is believed that this true democratic parliamentary procedure was adapted by the Buddha from contemporary tribal council systems such as the Vajji of northern India. (See S. Dutt. op. cit. . pp. 85-7. ) An Act of the Community is always expressed by silence in response to the presiding monk's proposal of the Motion. As Atisa states, the third type of Act is required for ordination: a triple repetition of the Motion before the fourth and final assent of the Community. SeeS. Dutt, Early Buddhist Monachism, pp. 144ff; A. C. Banerjee, op. cit. , pp. 222-4; for the Pali Vinaya: Mahiivagga IX(S. B. E . ? Vol. XVIII).
Numerous rules throughout the Priitimo! qa are concerned with harmony in the religious community, and appropriate penances imposed for infractions, and formal lifting of the penance when atonement has been made. Banish- ment (bskrad-pa/praviisaniyam) could be carried out against a group of monks who had created scandal in a given place. Penances in general are treated? in Chapter XIII of the Discipline. Regulations and conduct for the annual monsoon retreat are covered in Chapter IV.
The first two items pertain to the Ordination Ritual; the third pertains to poverty in the matter of the monks' robes. their care and distribution. (Chapter VII of the Discipline). Forfeiture, the fourth class of Priitimok~a rules, describes offences for which the monk must give up the cloth (and other material gain) he has received through suggesting that generosity to laypersons.
25
26
THE MONASTIC LIFE 83
? 84 A LAMP FOR THE PATH AND COMMENTARY
27 The? prescriptions mentioned here show the minimal number (two) of monks required (and obligated) to conduct the fortnightly recitation of the Priitimoksa. as well as how confession may be made even when a larger assembly ? is gathered: i. e. by turning to the monk at one's elbow to admit the guilt.
- Ordination hy five monks in remote areas had application in the history of Tibet when the native Tibetan lineage of ordina. tions begun at Bsam-yas by Santirak~ita was nearly broken by the persecution of Glang-dar-ma in the ninth centurv. In the later rekindling of the Doctrine. three monks who had fled the persecution and had found ; Tibetan worthy and desirous of ordina-
tion in A-mdo. one Dgongs-pa rab-gsal. performed the ceremony according to the prescribed ritual by inviting two Chinese monks to participate in order to make up the minimal assembly of five. Bu-ston records the incident: chos-'bvun~ (Obermiller). Pt II. pp. 201-2.
The ? R~treat Examination (Discipline. Chap. Ill) is the special recitation of Priitimoksa at the end of the summer retreat, with examina- tion and confession of faults committed, seen. or apprehended by others during the time of retreat. ?
2R Considering that Atisa was ordained in the Mahasamghika lineage and described a different analysis of Priitimok~a rules from that of the Sarvastivada, it is interesting to note here his listing of their great Discipline masters as authorities - perhaps in deference to his Tho-ling patrons. The title. "Reverend" (btsun-pa! bhadanta) is especially reserved for outstanding Discipline commentators. and all those listed here are found in the Tanjur, ~xcept for two (Dbyangs-sgrogs and Bsam-rdzogs). Gul)aprabha and Sakyaprabha are especially revered in Tibet as the "Two Excellents" (mchog gnyis).
The Ten Ways of Ordination are a traditional listing, found in AK(LVP). IV, 60, and in the Blue Annals (Roerich), p. 33. The first Five Converts refers to the Buddha's companions in his initial austerities, who later listened to . his first sermon on the Four Holy Truths and followed him. (See Mahiivagga, I, 6. ) Yasas' ordination by the "Come aside, 0 Monk! " (dge- slong tshur shog! ehi bhik! u) is described in the Ordination Ceremony itself as the Buddha's first way of receiving monks into the Community. (See Matters of Discipline: Ot. 1030, Vol. 41:22). Mahakasyapa, the ascetic of Uruvela, came to the Buddha with his five hundred disciples, and all were ordained by their very assent to the Buddha's teaching. (See E. J. Thomas,
Life ofthe Buddha, p. 91. ) Sudatta (or Aniithapil)c;lada) is not recorded as ever being other than a lay devotee; so this reference remains unidentified. Mahaprajapati, the Buddha's aunt, who prevailed upon him to permit women to join the Community as nuns. (See Cullavagga, X. 1. ) Dharmadinnii, a woman locked up in a harem, sent a messenger to the Buddha for admission to the Community. (See Majjhima Nikaya. I, 299. ) The Sixty Bhadravargas ("the good groups") are not accounted for in the various Disciplines known to date. The appellation bhadravarga is usually given to the first five converts.
these topics, defines this as meaning death; i. e. , one must be in the human body to be able to observe the precepts of the Pratimok~a. At death, the
InAK(L VP). IV ,97. BCA, IX. 45.
mi brda phrad-pa.
29
30
31
32 ris mthun-pa/nikiiya-sabhiiga. Vasubandhu, whom Atisa is following in
? vows of the monastic life do not carry over into other rebirths. even human.
See AK(LVP). IV. 94.
33 See note 4.
34 mtshan gnyis dus gcig-tu byung-ba: lit. , "both [sex] marks appearing at the same time", which is hermaphroditism. But actually sex-change is meant here- a physiological possibility accepted in the history of Indian medicine. SeeAK(LVP), IV, 94.
35 AK(LVP). IV. 94.
36
The five-limbed vigilance is not found in the Hearer's Level.
