No More Learning

His dark gray eyes were very bright, and
often flashed fire beneath his black brows; he had an aquiline
nose and a large mouth. His thick lips were compressed in a
manner denoting a stubborn firmness of purpose; his forehead,
already marked with deep furrows, indicated a mind continually
absorbed in meditation of serious things. But although his
countenance had no beauty of line, it expressed a severe nobility
of character, while a certain melancholy smile indued his harsh
features with so benevolent a charm as to inspire confidence at
first sight. His manners were simple, if uncultured; his language
rough and unadorned. But on occasion his homely words were
animated by a potent fervor that convinced and subdued all his
hearers.
While in the monastery of St. Dominic he led a silent life,
and became increasingly absorbed in spiritual contemplation. He
was so worn by fasting and penance that when pacing the clois-
ters, he seemed more like a spectre than a living man. The
hardest tests of the novitiate seemed light to him, and his supe-
riors were frequently obliged to curb his zeal. Even on days
not appointed for abstinence he scarcely ate enough to support
life. His bed was a grating with a sack of straw on it and one
blanket; his clothing of the coarsest kind, but strictly clean; in
modesty, humility, and obedience he surpassed all the rest of the
brethren. The fervor of his devotion excited the wonder of the
superiors, and his brother monks often believed him to be rapt
in a holy trance. The cloister walls seemed to have had the
effect of restoring his peace of mind by separating him from the
world, and to have purified him of all desires save for prayer and
obedience.
In the year 1481, serious alarms of war were threatening Fer-
rara from all sides. Already many of the inhabitants had fled,
and before long the university in which the Dominicans taught
theology was closed. Thereupon, either from economy or as a
measure of precaution, the superior of the order dispatched the
a


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15358
PASQUALE VILLARI
greater part of his monks elsewhere. Savonarola was directed
to go to Florence; he thus bade a last farewell to his family,
friends, and native town,- for he was destined never to see them
again.
On this, his first arrival in Florence, in 1481, he entered the
monastery of St. Mark, where the brightest and also the saddest
years of his life were to be passed. And inasmuch as the name
of Savonarola is always associated with that of St. Mark, it will
be well to say a few words on the convent's history.
At the beginning of the fifteenth century it was a poor, half-
ruined building, inhabited by a few monks of the order of St.
Sylvester, whose scandalous life occasioned numerous complaints
to be laid before the Court of Rome. Finally, Cosimo the Elder
obtained the papal permission to remove these monks elsewhere,
and granted the house to the reformed Dominicans of the Lom-
bard congregation. Then, deciding to rebuild it, he charged the
celebrated architect, Michelozzo Michelozzi, with the work; and
six years later, in 1443, the monastery was finished at a cost of
36,000 forins. Cosimo was never sparing of expense for churches,
monasteries, and other public works fitted to spread the fame of
his munificence and increase his popularity. While the convent
was in course of erection, he had been very generous in helping
the Dominicans; and now that the work was so successfully com-
pleted, he was not satisfied until he could endow them with a
valuable library. This, however, was a difficult undertaking and
one of considerable expense; since it was a question of collecting
manuscripts, which just then commanded exorbitant prices.
the opportune decease of Niccold Niccoli, the greatest manuscript-
collector in Europe, enabled Cosimo to fulfill his purpose. Nic-
coli had been one of the most learned men of his day, and spent
his whole life and fortune in acquiring a store of codices that
was the admiration of all Italy. He had bequeathed this treas-
ure to Florence; but having also left many debts behind him, 'his
testamentary dispositions had not been carried out. Accordingly
Cosimo paid off the debts; and reserving a few of the more pre-
cious codices for himself, intrusted the rest of the collection to
the monastery of St. Mark. This was the first public library
established in Italy; and the monks kept it in such excellent
order as to prove themselves worthy of the charge. St. Mark's
became almost a centre of erudition; and being joined to the


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PASQUALE VILLARI
15359
congregation of the Lombard Dominicans, the more learned
brothers of the order resorted to Florence, and increased the
new convent's renown. The most distinguished men of the time
frequently came to St. Mark's to enjoy conversation with the
friars. It was during these years that Fra Giovanni da Fiesole,
better known as Fra Beato Angelico, was employed in covering
the convent walls with his incomparable works. But above all
their treasures of art and learning, the brethren chiefly gloried in
their spiritual father and founder, St. Antonine.
During his first days in Florence, Savonarola was accordingly
half intoxicated with delight. He was charmed by the smiling
landscape, the soft lines of the Tuscan hills, the elegance of the
Tuscan speech. Even before reaching the town, the gentle man-
ner of the country-folk he met on the way had predisposed him
to expect happiness in this fairest of Italian cities, where art and
nature contend for the palm of beauty. To his deeply religious
mind, Florentine art seemed the expression of a divine harmony,
a proof of the omnipotence of genius when inspired by faith.
The paintings of Fra Angelico appeared to have filled the clois-
ters of St. Mark with a company of angels; and as he gazed
upon them, the friar felt transported into a blessed sphere like
unto the world of his dreams. The sacred memories of Anto.
nine; the saint's deeds of charity, still enduring and still vener-
ated by the brotherhood; the friars themselves, so superior in
culture and refinement to any that he had yet known,- all com-
bined to make him believe his lot cast among real brethren of the
soul. His heart expanded with ingenuous hopes; he forgot all
past disappointments, and did not anticipate the still sadder trials
awaiting him when he should have been long enough in Florence
to understand better the nature of its inhabitants.
At the time of Savonarola's coming, Lorenzo the Magnificent
had reigned in Florence for many years, and was then at the
height of his power and fame. Under his rule all things wore
an air of prosperity and well-being. The factions which had so
frequently distracted the city had long been extinguished; all
refusing to bend beneath the Medicean yoke were either impris-
oned, exiled, or dead: and general tranquillity reigned. Con-
tinually occupied with festivities, dances, and tournaments, the
Florentines, once so jealous of their rights, seemed now to have
forgotten the very name of freedom.


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PASQUALE VILLARI
After the first few days in Florence, Savonarola was again
oppressed by a feeling of isolation. Intimacy with the inhabit.
ants quickly betrayed the confirmed skepticism and flippancy
hidden beneath their great intellectual culture. The general
absence of principle and faith once more threw him back upon
himself; and his disgust was all the greater in consequence of
the lofty hopes with which he had entered Florence. Even
among the brethren of St. Mark's there was no real religious
feeling; for although the name of St. Antonine was so often on
their lips, it was uttered in a vainglorious rather than a loving
spirit. But above all, his indignation was aroused by the much-
vaunted studies of the Florentines. It was a new and horrible
experience to him to hear them wrangling over the precepts of
Plato and Aristotle, without caring or even perceiving that from
party spirit, and in the heat of discussion, they were denying
the most essential principles of the Christian faith. Accordingly
he began from that moment to regard all these men of letters,
erudites, and philosophers, with a sort of angry contempt; and
this feeling increased in strength to the point of often leading
him to disparage the very philosophy in which, by many years of
strenuous labor, he was himself so thoroughly versed.
But in no case would it have been possible for him to have
long retained the sympathy of the Florentines, inasmuch as they
were held apart from the newly arrived friar by an irreconcilable
diversity of temperament. Everything in Savonarola came from
the heart; even his intellect was ruled by its generous impulse:
but his manners and speech were rough and unadorned. He
spoke with a harsh accent, expressed himself in a homely way,
and made use of lively and almost violent gesticulations. Now,
the Florentines preferred preachers of scholarly refinement of
gesture, expression, and style, able to give an unmistakable imi-
tation of some ancient writers and copious quotations from others:
as to the gist of the sermon, they cared little about it; often
indeed conferring most praise on the speaker who allowed them
to see that he had little belief in religion. Savonarola, on the
contrary, thundered forth furious diatribes against the vices of
mankind, and the scanty faith of clergy and laity; he spoke dis-
paragingly of poets and philosophers, condemned the strange
craze for ancient authors, and quoting from no book save the
Bible, based all his sermons on its texts. Now, there were few


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PASQUALE VILLARI
15361
Florentines who read the Bible at all; since, finding its Latin
incorrect, they were afraid of corrupting their style.
Having entered the convent of St. Mark towards the end of
1481, the following year Savonarola was charged by the friar
with the instruction of the novices, and applied himself to the
task with his accustomed zeal. Continually dominated by the same
mystic enthusiasm, he constantly exhorted his pupils to study
the Scriptures; and often appeared among them with tear-swollen
eyes, and wrought almost 'to ecstasy by prolonged vigils and fer-
vid meditation.
He retained his modest post of lecturer to the novices, up to
the Lent of 1486, when he was sent to preach in various cities
of Lombardy, and especially in Brescia. Here, with the Book of
Revelation for his theme, he found it easier to stir the sympa-
thies of his hearers. His words were fervent, his tone command-
ing, and he spoke with a voice of thunder; reproving the people
for their sins, denouncing the whole of Italy, and threatening all
with the terrors of God's wrath. He described the forms of the
twenty-four elders, and represented one of them as rising to
announce the future calamities of the Brescians. Their city, he
declared, would fall a prey to raging foes; they would see rivers
of blood in the streets; wives would be torn from their husbands,
virgins ravished, children murdered before their mothers' eyes:
all would be terror and fire and bloodshed. His sermon ended
with a general exhortation to repentance, inasmuch as the Lord
would have mercy on the just. The mystic image of the elder
made a deep impression upon the people. The preacher's voice
seemed really to resound from the other world; and his threat-
ening predictions awakened much alarm. During the sack of
Brescia in 1512 by the ferocious soldiery of Gaston de Foix,-
when, it is said, about six thousand persons were put to the
sword,- the inhabitants remembered the elder of the Apocalypse
and the Ferrarese preacher's words.
The great success of these Lenten sermons at last made the
name of Savonarola known to all Italy, and decided the course
of his life: for henceforward he no longer doubted his mission.
Yet such was the goodness and candor of his nature, that self-
confidence only made him more modest and humble. His ardor
for prayer, his faith and devout exultation, rose to so great a
height, that as his companion, Fra Sabastiano of Brescia, says,
Savonarola, when engaged in prayer, frequently fell into a trance;
XXVI--961


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15362
PASQUALE VILLARI
after celebrating mass, was so transported with holy fervor as
to be obliged to retire to some solitary place; and a halo of light
was often seen to encircle his head.
Savonarola remained in Lombardy until the January of 1489,
and during that period wrote to his mother from Pavia a long
and most affectionate letter. In this he begs her to forgive him
if he has nothing but prayers to offer to his family, since his
religious profession precludes him from helping them in other
ways; but he adds that in his heart he still shares their sorrows
and their joys. “I have renounced this world, and have become
a laborer in my Master's vineyard in many cities, not only to
save my own soul, but the souls of other men. If the Lord
has intrusted the talent to me, I must needs use it as he wills;
and seeing that he hath chosen me for this sacred office, rest ye
content that I fulfill it far from my native place, for I bear
better fruit than I could have borne at Ferrara. There it would
be with me as it was with Christ, when his countrymen said, 'Is
not this man a carpenter, and the son of a carpenter ? ' But out
of my own place this has never been said to me; rather, when I
have to depart, men and women shed tears, and hold my words
in much esteem. I thought to have written only a few lines;
but love hath caused my pen to run on, and I have opened my
heart to you far more than was my purpose. Know, then, that
this heart of mine is more than ever bent on devoting soul and
body, and all the knowledge granted to me by God, to his sery-
ice and my neighbors' salvation; and since this work was not
to be done in my own land, I am fain to perform it elsewhere.
Encourage all to righteous living. I depart for Genoa this day. ”
Of Savonarola's preachings in Genoa nothing is known to
But we know that in the summer of 1489 he was suddenly
recalled by his superiors to Florence, and strangely enough, at
the express desire of Lorenzo de' Medici. The prince made the
request in order to gratify his favorite friend, Pico della Miran-
dola, who had earnestly pressed him to do so.
In the Lent of 1491 Savonarola preached in the Duomo, and
his voice echoed for the first time within the walls of Santa
Maria del Fiore. From that moment he would seem to have
become paramount in the pulpit, and master of the people; who
flocked to hear him in increasing numbers, and with redoubled
enthusiasm. The friar's imagery enchanted the popular fancy;
his threats of coming chastisement had a magical effect upon the
us.


## p. 15363 (#311) ##########################################

PASQUALE VILLARI
15363
He was
minds of all, for it truly seemed that all were already oppressed
by evil presentiments. His recently published writings likewise
assured his influence over distinguished men who had hitherto
stood hesitatingly aloof; but this did not prevent him from con-
demning, in the plainest and most decided terms, the skepticism
and corruption of the most celebrated literati of the time.
All this naturally caused much annoyance to Lorenzo de'
Medici, and roused the hostility of his friends.
already styled a tyrant by many, and universally charged with
having corrupted the magistrates, and appropriated public and
private funds. Therefore it was plain that the friar had dared
to make allusion to him. Nevertheless this audacity served to
increase Savonarola's fame, and in the July of 1491 he was
elected Prior of St. Mark's. This new office, while raising him
to a more prominent position, also gave him greater independ-
ence. He at once refused to conform to an abuse that had been
introduced in the convent: namely, that the new prior must go to
pay his respects, and as it were do homage, to the Magnificent.
"I consider that my election is owed to God alone,” he said,
"and to him alone will I vow obedience. » Lorenzo was deeply
offended by this, and exclaimed, “You see! a stranger has come
into my house, yet he will not stoop to pay me a visit. ” Never-
theless, being reluctant to wage war with the prior of a convent,
or attach too much importance to a monk, he sought to win him
over by kindness. He went several times to hear mass in St.
Mark's, and afterwards walked in the garden; but Savonarola
could not be persuaded to leave his studies in order to bear him
company. When the friars ran to tell him of Lorenzo's presence,
he replied, “If he does not ask for me, let him go or stay at his
pleasure. ”
He was very severe in his judgment of Lorenzo's
character; and knowing the harm wrought on public morals by
the prince, had no wish to approach a tyrant whom he regarded
not only as the foe and destroyer of freedom, but as the chief
obstacle to the restoration of Christian life among the people.
Lorenzo then began to send rich gifts and generous alms to the
convent. But this naturally increased Savonarola's previous con-
tempt for his character. And he alluded to the circumstance in
the pulpit, when saying that a faithful dog does not leave off
barking in his master's defense, because a bone is thrown to
him. Nevertheless, soon after this he found a large sum of
money in gold in the convent alms-box; and persuaded that


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15364
PASQUALE VILLARI
(C
Lorenzo was the donor, immediately sent it all to the congrega-
tion of the good men of St. Martin for distribution among the
poor, saying that silver and copper sufficed for the needs of his
brethren. Thus, as Burlamacchi remarks, Lorenzo was at last
convinced that this was not the right soil in which to plant
vines. ”
But Lorenzo refused to be checked by this rebuff; and pres-
ently sent five of the weightiest citizens in Florence to Savon-
arola, in order to persuade him to change his behavior and
manner of preaching, by pointing out the dangers he was incur-
ring for himself and his convent. But Savonarola soon cut short
their homily by saying, "I know that you have not come of your
own will, but at that of Lorenzo. Bid him to do penance for his
sins; for the Lord is no respecter of persons, and spares not the
princes of the earth. ” And when the five citizens hinted that
he might be sent into exile, he added, “I fear not sentences of
banishment, for this city of yours is like a mustard-seed on the
earth. But the new doctrine shall triumph, and the old shall
fall. Although I be a stranger, and Lorenzo a citizen, and indeed
the first in the city, I shall stay, while he will depart. ” He then
spoke in such wise on the state of Florence and Italy, that his
hearers were amazed by his knowledge of public affairs.
then that he predicted before many witnesses, in the sacristy of
St. Mark, that great changes would befall Italy, and that the Mag-
nificent, the Pope, and the King of Naples were all near unto
death.
Lorenzo de' Medici had retired to his pleasant country-house
at Careggi. He was wasting away from severe internal disease,
and by the beginning of April 1492 all hope of his recovery was
at an end.
As his last moments drew near, all his sins
rose before him in increasing magnitude, became more and more
threatening. The last offices of religion were powerless to con-
quer his terrors; for having lost all faith in mankind, he could
not believe in his confessor's sincerity. Accustomed to see his
slightest wish obeyed and all the world bow to his will, he could
not realize that any one would dare to deny him absolution.
Accordingly the blessing of the Church was powerless to lighten
the weight burdening his conscience, and he was more and more
cruelly tortured by remorse. “No one has ever dared to refuse.
me anything," he thought to himself; and thus the idea that had
once been his chief pride became his worst torment.
It was
.


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PASQUALE VILLARI
15365
Suddenly, however, he thought of Savonarola's stern face;
here, he remembered, was a man who had been equally unmoved
by his threats and his blandishments, and thereupon he exclaimed,
“I know no honest friar save this one;” and expressed his desire
to confess to Savonarola. A messenger was instantly dispatched
to St. Mark's. The prior was so astounded by the strange and
unexpected summons that he almost refused to believe it, and
answered that it seemed useless for him to go to Careggi, since
no words of his would be acceptable to Lorenzo. But on learn-
ing the sick man's desperate condition and earnest desire to con-
fess to him, he set forth without delay.
On that day Lorenzo had thoroughly realized that his end was
at hand. He had sent for his son Piero, and given him his final
counsels and last farewells. His friends were dismissed during
this interview: but when they were allowed to return to the
room, and had persuaded Piero to go back home, as his presence
agitated his father too much, Lorenzo expressed a wish to see
Pico della Mirandola once more; and the latter immediately came
to him. The sweet aspect of the kindly, gentle young man
seemed to have a soothing effect upon him; for he said, “I should
have been very sorry to die without first being cheered a little
by thy presence. ” And thereupon his face grew calm, his dis-
course almost cheerful; and he began to laugh and jest with his
friend. Pico had scarcely left the room before Savonarola en-
tered it, and respectfully approached the bed of the dying prince.
Lorenzo explained that there were three sins on his conscience
which he was specially anxious to confess, in order to be ab-
solved from them: the sack of Volterra; the robbery of the
Monte delle Fanciulle, whereby so many girls had been driven
to a life of shame; and the bloody reprisals following the con-
spiracy of the Pazzi. In speaking of these things, even before
beginning his private confession, the Magnificent again fell into
great agitation; and Savonarola sought to calm him by repeat-
ing, "God is good, God is merciful - » But,” he added, directly
Lorenzo had ceased speaking, "three things are needful. "
«What
things, Father? ” replied Lorenzo. Savonarola's face grew stern,
.
and extending the fingers of his right hand, he began thus:
« First, a great and living faith in God's mercy. ” — “I have the
fullest faith in it. ” — "Secondly, you must restore all your ill-
gotten wealth, or at least charge your sons to restore it in your
(C
»
»


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PASQUALE VILLARI
name. ” At this the Magnificent seemed to be struck with sur-
prise and grief; nevertheless, making an effort, he gave a nod of
assent. Savonarola then stood up; and whereas the dying prince
lay cowering with fear in his bed, he seemed to soar above his
real stature as he said, “Lastly, you must restore liberty to the
people of Florence. ” His face was solemn; his voice almost ter-
rible; his eyes, as if seeking to divine the answer, were intently
fixed on those of Lorenzo, who, collecting all his remaining
strength, angrily turned his back on him without uttering a word.
Accordingly Savonarola left his presence without granting him
absolution, and without having received any actual and detalled
confession. The Magnificent remained torn by remorse, and soon
after breathed his last, on April 8th, 1492.
Through the influence of Savonarola the aspect of the city
was completely changed. The women threw aside their jewels
and finery, dressed plainly, bore themselves demurely; licentious
young Florentines were transformed, as by magic, into sober, reli-
gious men; pious hymns took the place of Lorenzo's carnival
songs. The townsfolk passed their leisure hours seated quietly
in their shops, reading either the Bible or Savonarola's works.
All prayed frequently, flocked to the churches, and gave largely
to the poor.
Most wonderful of all, bankers and tradesmen were
impelled by scruples of conscience to restore ill-gotten gains,
amounting to many thousand florins.
All men
were wonder-
struck by this singular and almost miraculous change.
Many new converts asked leave to join the Tuscan congregation;
and the number of brethren wearing the robe of St. Mark was
incredibly multiplied.
The mode of these men's conversion is likewise worthy of
special remark; since it proves that Savonarola, instead of en-
couraging sudden resolves and fits of enthusiasm, always pro-
ceeded with the utmost caution. We find an example of this in
the account given by the Florentine Bettuccio, more generally
known as Fra Benedetto, of his own conversion. He was the
son of a goldsmith, exercising the then profitable art of minia-
ture painting; was in the prime of youth, of a joyous tempera-
ment, full of dash and courage, prompt to quarrel, a singer,
musician, and poet, fond of good living, and entirely devoted to
pleasure. Consequently he was a favorite guest in the gayest
society, and led a life of frivolous gallantry.


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Such was the life led by Bettuccio, the miniature-painter,
when Savonarola began to be renowned, and all Florence flocked
to his sermons. Bettuccio, however, refused to follow the herd;
for he was on the side of the Arrabbiati, and joined in their
scoffs against the Piagnoni. But one day when in the house of
a noble and beautiful matron, the latter spoke of Savonarola's
sermons in the warmest terms. He laughed at the time; but on
another day he was induced by the lady's persuasions to accom-
pany her to the Duomo. He describes his deep confusion on
entering the church, and finding himself among so great a com-
pany of believers, who stared at him with astonishment. ' At
first he longed to escape, but somewhat reluctantly decided to
remain. And as soon
as Savonarola mounted the pulpit, every-
thing seemed changed to him. Having once fixed his eyes on
the preacher, he was unable to withdraw them; his attention was
powerfully arrested, his mind impressed: and then he says, “At
last I knew myself to be as one dead rather than living. ” When
the sermon was over, he wandered forth into lonely places; “and
for the first time I turned my mind to my inner self. ” After
long meditation he went home, and became a changed man. He
threw aside his songs and musical instruments, forsook his com-
panions, and discarded his scented attire.
From that day he was one of the most assiduous of Savo-
narola's hearers, frequented the convent of St. Mark, repeated
prayers and litanies, and even beheld strange visions and heard
heavenly voices in the air.
“I had a hard struggle with my
companions,” he tells us, who went about making mock of me;
and a still harder struggle with my own passions, which, break-
ing loose again from time to time, assailed me very fiercely. ”
At last, when he felt sure of himself, he sought the austere
prior of St. Mark's and cast himself at his feet. His voice trem-
bled, he could scarcely utter a word in the presence of him to
whom he owed his regeneration; nevertheless he stammered
forth his desire to join the brotherhood. Savonarola reasoned
with him on the danger of precipitate resolves, the difficulties of
the monastic life; and concluded by counseling him to make a
better trial of himself by leading a Christian life in the world,
before crossing the convent threshold. The advice proved to be
needed; for Bettuccio had again to fight against the violence of
his passions, and was not always victorious in the struggle.


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PASQUALE VILLARI
After doing severe penance for these fresh lapses, and when
assured by long trial of having really mastered the flesh, he
returned to Savonarola in a calmer frame of mind. But the lat.
ter, who had kept him carefully in sight, would not yet allow
him to assume the monastic robe, sending him instead to minis-
ter to the sick and bury the dead.
From time to time he was summoned to the friar's cell, to
receive advice and hear lectures on the monastic life; finally,
on the 7th of November, 1495, he put on the robe, and on the
13th of November of the following year took the full vows, and
assumed the name of Fra Benedetto.
This was how Savonarola gained one of the most faithful of
his followers, one of the most steadfast in the hour of peril, and
who preserved to the last an increasing admiration and almost
worship for his master. The friar was equally cautious in his
advice to others, and never pressed any one to join the brother-
hood. His only concern was for the improvement of manners,
the diffusion of morality, and the regeneration of the true doc-
trines of Christ, to which men's souls appeared dead. It was
to this end that he now specially dedicated his whole time and
strength, his entire heart and soul. When preaching on the holy
life and Christian virtue, his soul almost seemed to shine forth
from his eyes, and his spiritual energy to be transfused by his
voice into the people, who daily and visibly improved under his
beneficent influence. Contemporary writers never cease express-
ing their wonder at this quasi-miracle: some are edified by the
triumph thus achieved by religion, others regret the days of joy-
ous ballads and carnival songs; but all are equally emphatic as
to the change in public manners, and acknowledge that it was
solely the work of Fra Girolamo Savonarola.
The Carnival of 1496 was now at hand; and the friar being
silenced, the Arrabbiati were preparing to celebrate it in the old
Medicean style, in order to vent the unbridled passions and filthy
lusts, which as they thought had too long been repressed. And
thereupon the friar determined to thwart them even in this
matter.
But it proved a harder task than might have been expected.
The Florentines had always been given to carnival festivities;
and under the Medici, had indulged in these pleasures to an un-
limited and almost incredible extent. During this holiday period


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15369
the whole city vas scene of wild revelry; drunkenness and
debauchery prevailed, and public decorum was cast to the winds.
Savonarola's sermons had undoubtedly wrought a great change;
but certain carnival customs were so deeply rooted that neither
new doctrines, altered laws, nor the severe prohibitions of the
magistrates had availed to extirpate them. And as was only
natural, the boys of Florence took special delight in these revels.
They were accustomed, during those days, to continually stop
people in the streets by barring the road with long poles, and
refusing to remove them until they had extorted enough money
to pay for their mad feastings by night. After these carousals
they made bonfires in the squares, round which they danced and
sang, and finally pelted one another with stones in so brutal a
fashion that no year passed without some of the combatants
being left dead on the ground. This “mad and bestial game of
stones," as the chroniclers style it, was frequently forbidden, and
the players threatened with the severest penalties; but none of
these measures had the slightest effect. All the leading citizens,
the Eight, even the Signory itself, had exhausted their efforts in
vain. By nightfall the boys were so excited with the revels
of the day that no penalty availed to keep them in check. At
last Savonarola undertook the task. After the brilliant results
achieved during the past years in the reformation of politics and
morals, and being prevented by the changed condition of affairs
from continuing those important crusades, he planned a third and
simpler reform, that he styled “the reform of the children. ”
Foreseeing that it would be extremely difficult to entirely
abolish the old customs, he decided to transform them by substi-
tuting religious for carnival gayeties. Accordingly, at the same
street corners where the children formerly assembled to demand
money for their banquets, he caused small altars to be erected,
before which they were to take their stand and beg contribu-
tions; not, however, for purposes of self-indulgence, but for alms
to the poor. Sing as much as ye will, he said to the boys, but
sing hymns and sacred lauds instead of indecent songs. He
wrote some hymns for them himself, - thus returning to the poet-
ical pursuits which he had so long forsaken,- and commissioned
the poet Girolamo Benivieni to compose other verses of the
same sort. Then, that all might be conducted with due decorum,
he charged Fra Domenico to collect all the children, and choose
some leaders from among them, and several of the latter waited
>


## p. 15370 (#318) ##########################################

15370
PASQUALE VILLARI
on the Signory to explain the proposed reform. Having obtained
the sanction of the government, the boys of Florence, exulting in
their novel importance, eagerly undertook their appointed work.
The city was by no means quiet even in this carnival, nor was
it possible to walk the streets without molestation; but although
the children were as importunate as of old, it was now for the
charitable aim prescribed by Savonarola. And thus, in the year
1496, the game of stones was suppressed for the first time; there
was no more gluttonous feasting, and three hundred ducats were
collected for the poor. Then, on the last day of carnival, a grand
procession was arranged, in which, attracted by the novelty of
the thing, the whole population took part. The children went
through the city singing hymns and entering all the principal
churches; after which they handed over the sums collected to the
“good men of St. Martin,” for distribution among the modest
poor” ( poveri vergognosi). Some objections were raised by those
who always murmured against every good work that proceeded
from Savonarola; but the greater part of the citizens, and all
worthy men, declared that the friar had again achieved a task in
which every one else in Florence had failed.
(c
It was one of those moments in which the popular aspect
seems to undergo a magical change. Savonarola's adherents had
either disappeared or were in hiding; all Florence now seemed
against him.
The morning of the 8th of April, Palm Sunday, 1498, passed
quietly; but it was easy for an observant eye to discern that this
tranquillity was only the sullen calm that precedes a storm, and
that it was a marvel no startling event had yet occurred. Savona-
rola preached in St. Mark's, but his sermon was very short and
sad; he offered his body as a sacrifice to God, and declared his
readiness to face death for the good of his flock. Mournfully,
but with much composure, he took leave of his people; and in
giving them his benediction, seemed to feel that he was address-
ing them for the last time.
The friar's adherents then
hurried to their homes to procure arms; while a portion of their
adversaries held the corners of the streets, and all the rest
marched through the city, crying “To St. Mark's, to St. Mark's,
fire in hand! ” They assembled on the Piazza of the Signory;
and when their numbers had sufficiently increased, moved in the
direction of the convent, brandishing their weapons and uttering
»


## p. 15371 (#319) ##########################################

PASQUALE VILLARI
1537 1
fierce cries. On the way they caught sight of a certain man,
named Pecori, who was quietly walking to the church of the
Santissima Annunziata, singing psalms as he went; and immedi-
ately some of them rushed after him, crying, “Does the hypocrite
still dare to mumble! ” And overtaking him on the steps of the
Innocenti, they slew him on the spot. A poor spectacles-maker,
hearing the great noise in the street, came out with his slippers
in his hand; and while trying to persuade the people to be quiet,
was killed by a sword-thrust in his head. Others shared the
same fate; and in th
way, infuriated by th taste of blood, the
mob poured into the Square of St. Mark. Finding
Finding the church
thronged with the people who had attended vespers, and were
still engaged in prayer, they hurled a dense shower of stones
through the door; whereat a general panic ensued, the women
shrieked loudly, and all took to fight. In a moment the church
was emptied; its doors, as well as those of the convent, were
locked and barred; and no one remained within save the citizens
who were bent on defending St. Mark's. .
Although barely thirty in number, these comprised some of
the most devoted of Savonarola's adherents; the men who had
escorted him to the pulpit, and were ever prepared to risk their
life in his service. For some days past they had known that the
convent was in danger; and accordingly eight or ten of them
had always come to guard it by night. Without the knowledge
of Savonarola or Fra Domenico, whom they knew to be averse
to all deeds of violence, they had, by the suggestion of Fra Sil-
vestro and Fra Francesco de' Medici, secretly deposited a store
of arms in a cell beneath the cloister. Here were some twelve
breastplates, and as many helmets; eighteen halberds, five or six
crossbows, shields of different kinds, four or five harquebusses, a
barrel of powder, and leaden bullets, and even, as it would seem,
two small mortars. Francesco Davanzati, who had furnished
almost all these weapons, and was then in the convent, brought
out and distributed them to those best able to use them. As-
sisted by Baldo Inghirlami, he directed the defense for some
time; placing guards at the weakest points, and giving the neces-
sary orders.
About sixteen of the friars took arms, and fore-
most among them were Fra Luca, son of Andrea della Robbia,
and our Fra Benedetto. It was a strange sight to see some of
these men, with breastplates over their Dominican robes and hel-
mets on their heads, brandishing enormous halberds, and speeding


## p. 15372 (#320) ##########################################

15372
PASQUALE VILLARI
(
through the cloister with shouts of “Viva Cristo! » to call their
companions to arms.
Savonarola was deeply grieved by this, and Fra Domenico
went about imploring all to cast aside their weapons. “They
must not stain their hands in blood; they must not disobey the
precepts of the gospel, nor their superior's commands. ” So he
cried, but all was in vain; for at that moment the furious yells
outside rose to a deafening pitch, and more determined attacks
were made on the gates. It was then that Savonarola resolved
to end the fruitless and painful struggle by the sacrifice of his
own safety; so, assuming his priest's vestments, and taking a
cross in his hand, he said to his companions, "Suffer me to
go forth, since through me orta est hæc tempestas” (this storm
has risen); and wished to surrender himself to his enemies at
once. But he was met by universal cries of despair; friars and
laymen pressed round him with tears and supplications. No!
do not leave us! you will be torn to pieces; and what would
become of us without you ? » When he saw his most trusted
friends barring the way before him, he turned about and bade
all follow him to the church. First of all he carried the Host
in procession through the cloisters; then led the way to the
choir, and reminded them that prayer was the only weapon to
be employed by ministers of religion: whereupon all fell on their
knees before the consecrated wafer, and intoned the chant-
(Salvum fac populum tuum, Domine' (O Lord, save thy people).
Some had rested their weapons against the wall, others still
grasped them, and only a few remained on guard at the main
entrances.
It was now about the twenty-second hour (i, e. , two hours
before sundown); the throng on the Piazza had increased, the
assailants were encouraged by meeting with no resistance, and
the Signory's guards were coming to their aid. At this moment
the mace-bearers appeared, to proclaim the Signory's decree that
all in the convent were to lay down their arms; and that Savo-
narola was sentenced to exile, and ordered to quit the Floren-
tine territory within twelve hours' time. Most of those who heard
this announcement regarded it as a device of the enemy. It
a
was difficult to credit that the Signory could order the attacked,
who were making scarcely any defense, to lay down their arms,
while the assailants, who were the sole authors of the disturb-
ance, and in far greater numbers, were not only left unmolested,


## p. 15373 (#321) ##########################################

PASQUALE VILLARI
15373
but supplied with reinforcements! Nevertheless, the proclamation
decided several to obtain safe conducts and hurry away.
Meanwhile night was falling, and the siege of the convent was
being carried on with desperate ferocity. Some fired the gates;
while others had successfully scaled the walls on the Sapienza
side, and made their way into the cloisters. After sacking the
infirmary and the cells, they all penetrated to the sacristy, sword
in hand, and broke open the door leading to the choir. When
the friars, who were kneeling there in prayer, found themselves
thus suddenly attacked, they were naturally stirred to self-defense.
Seizing the burning torches, and crucifixes of metal and wood,
they belabored their assailants with so much energy that the lat-
ter fled in dismay, believing for a moment that a band of angels
had come to the defense of the convent.
Then the other monks, who had laid down their arms at
Savonarola's behest, again resumed the defense; and there was
more skirmishing in the cloisters and corridors.
At the same
time the great bell of the convent, called the Piagnona, tolled
forth the alarm; both besiegers and besieged fought with greater
fury; all was clamor and confusion, cries of despair, and clash-
ing of steel. This was the moment when Baldo Inghirlami and
Francesco Davanzati dealt such vigorous blows, and that Fra
Luca d'Andrea della Robbia chased the foes through the clois-
ters, sword in hand. Fra Benedetto and a few others mounted
on the roof, and repeatedly drove back the enemy with a furi-
ous hail of stones and tiles. Several of the monks fired their
muskets with good effect inside the church; and a certain Fra
Enrico, a young, fair-haired, handsome German, particularly dis-
tinguished himself by his prowess. At the first beginning of the
struggle he had courageously sallied out into the midst of the
mob, and possessed himself of the weapon he wielded so valiantly;
accompanying each stroke with the cry, Salvum fac populum
tuum, Domine. '
At this juncture the victory was decidedly with St. Mark's,
and its defenders were exulting in their success; when a fresh
edict of the Signory was proclaimed, declaring all rebels who
did not forsake the convent within an hour. Thereupon several
more demanded safe-conducts and departed, thus further dimin-
ishing the too scanty garrison. And there being no longer any
doubt as to the Signory's intention of crushing St. Mark's, even
the remnant of the defenders lost hope and courage, and were


## p. 15374 (#322) ##########################################

15374
PASQUALE VILLARI
already beginning to give way. Savonarola and many of his
brethren still remained in the choir, offering up prayers, which
were interrupted from time to time by the cries of the injured
or the piteous wail of the dying. Among the latter was a youth
of the Panciatichi House, who was borne, fatally wounded, to the
steps of the high altar; and there, amid volleys of harquebuss
shots, received the communion from Fra Domenico, and joyfully
drew his last breath in the friar's arms, after kissing the cruci-
fix and exclaiming, Ecce quam bonum et quam jucundum habi-
tare fratres in unum! ” (Behold how good and how pleasant it is
for brethren to dwell together in unity! )
Night had now come; and the monks, exhausted with hunger
and agitation, devoured some dry figs one of their companions
had brought. Suddenly the defense was resumed; louder cries
were heard, and fresh volleys of shot. In the pulpit from which
Savonarola had so frequently inculcated the doctrine of peace,
Fra Enrico, the German, had now taken his stand, and was firing
his harquebuss with fatal effect. The smoke became so dense
that it was necessary to break the windows in order to escape
suffocation; and thereupon long tongues of flame poured into
the church from the burning doors. The German and another
defender retreated into the choir, and clambering upon the high
altar, planted their harquebusses beside the great crucifix, and
continued their fire.
Savonarola was overwhelmed with grief by this waste of life
in his cause, but was powerless to prevent it. No attention being
paid to his protests, he again raised the Host, and commanded
his friars to follow him. Traversing the dormitory, he had con-
ducted nearly all to the Greek library, when he caught sight of
Fra Benedetto rushing down-stairs, maddened with fury and fully
armed, to confront the assailants at close quarters. Laying his
hand on his disciple's shoulder, he gave him a severe glance, and
said in a tone of earnest reproof, “Fra Benedetto, throw down
those weapons and take up the cross: I never intended my
brethren to shed blood. ” And the monk humbled himself at his
master's feet, laid aside his arms, and followed him to the library
with the rest.
A final and still more threatening decree was now issued by
the Signory, against all who continued to resist; commanding
Savonarola, Fra Domenico, and Fra Silvestro to present them-
selves at the palace without delay, and giving their word that


## p. 15375 (#323) ##########################################

PASQUALE VILLARI
15375
»
no harm should be offered them. Fra Domenico insisted on see-
ing the order in writing; and the heralds, not having it with
them, went back to fetch it. Meanwhile Savonarola had depos-
ited the sacrament in the hall of the library beneath the noble
arches of Michelozzi's vault; and collecting the friars around
him, addressed them for the last time in these memorable words:
“My beloved children, in the presence of God, in the presence of
the consecrated wafer, with our enemies already in the convent,
I confirm the truth of my doctrines. All that I have said hath
come to me from God, and he is my witness in heaven that I
speak no lie. I had not foreseen' that all the city would so
quickly turn against me; nevertheless, may the Lord's will be
done. My last exhortation to ye is this: let faith, prayer, and
patience be your weapons.
I leave ye with anguish and grief, to
give myself into my enemies' hands. I know not whether they
will take my life; but certain am I that, once dead, I shall be
able to succor ye in heaven far better than it hath been granted
me to help ye on earth. Take comfort, embrace the cross, and
by it shall ye find the way of salvation. ”
The invaders were now masters of almost the whole of the
convent; and Gioacchino della Vecchia, captain of the palace
guard, threatened to knock down the walls with his guns unless
the orders of the Signory were obeyed. Fra Malatesta Sacra-
moro, the very man who a few days before had offered to walk
through the fire, now played the part of Judas. He treated with
the Compagnacci, and persuaded them to present a written order,
for which they sent an urgent request to the Signory; while Savo-
narola again confessed to Fra Domenico, and took the sacrament
from his hands, in preparation for their common surrender. As
for their companion, Fra Silvestro, he had hidden himself; and
in the confusion was nowhere to be found.
Just then a singular incident occurred. One of Savonarola's
disciples- a certain Girolamo Gini, who had long yearned to
assume the Dominican robe — had come to vespers that day, and
from the beginning of the riot energetically helped in the de-
fense of the convent. When Savonarola ordered all to lay down
their arms, this worthy artisan instantly obeyed; but nevertheless
could not refrain from rushing through the cloisters and showing
himself to the assailants, — in his desire, as he confessed at his
examination, to face death for the love of Jesus Christ. Having
been wounded, he now appeared in the Greek library, with blood


## p. 15376 (#324) ##########################################

15376
PASQUALE VILLARI
1-
streaming from his head; and kneeling at his master's feet, hum-
bly prayed to be invested with the habit. And his request was
granted on the spot.
Savonarola was urged by some of his friends to consent to be
lowered from the walls and seek safety in fight; since, if he once
set foot in the palace, there was little chance of his ever leaving
it alive. He hesitated, and seemed on the point of adopting this
sole means of escape; when Fra Malatesta turned on him and
said, “Should not the shepherd lay down his life for his lambs? ”
These words appeared to touch him deeply; and he accordingly
made no reply, but after kissing his brethren and folding them
to his heart, - this very Malatesta first of all, — he deliberately
gave himself up, together with his trusty and inseparable Fra
Domenico, into the hands of the mace-bearers, who had returned
from the Signory at that instant.
Translation of Linda Villari.


## p. 15377 (#325) ##########################################

15377
HERSART DE LA VILLEMARQUÉ
THE HEROIC AND LEGENDARY LITERATURE OF
BRITTANY
BY WILLIAM SHARP
>
F ONE were asked what were the three immediate influences,
the open-sesames of literature, which revealed alike to
the dreaming and the critical mind of modern Europe the
beauty and extraordinary achievement of the Celtic genius, it would
not be difficult to name them. From Scotland came Macpherson's
reweaving of ancient Gaelic legendary lore under the collective title
of Ossian); from Wales came the “Mabinogion,' obtained and trans-
lated by Lady Charlotte Guest; and from Brittany came the now cel-
ebrated life work of the Vicomte Hersart de la Villemarqué, the
(Barzaz-Breiz,' or collection of the popular songs and heroic ballads
of old Brittany,—some mediæval, some with their roots in the heart
of ancient Armorica.
The history of the influence of these three books — Ossian,' the
Mabinogion, and the Barzaz Breiz'— has never yet been properly
estimated. When a competent critic shall give us this history, in
its exact and critical relation to literature itself, the deep and far-
reaching power of what may be distinguished as fundamentally
appealing books will be made apparent.
If these were the immediate influences in the awakening of the
mind of Europe to the beauty and mystery and high significance
of the old Celtic literature, legendary lore, and racial traditions, the
general attention was attracted rather by two famous pioneers of
critical thought. In France, Ernest Renan, himself of Celtic blood
and genius, and having indeed in his name one of the most ancient
and sacred of Armorican designations (Ronan), gained the notice of
all intellectual Europe by his acute, poignantly sympathetic, and
eloquent treatise on the Poetry of the Celtic Races. ' Later, in
England, Matthew Arnold convinced his reluctant fellow-countrymen
that a new and wide domain of literary beauty lay as it were just
beyond their home pastures.
Since Renan and Matthew Arnold, there have been many keen
and ever more and more thoroughly equipped students of Celtic lit-
erature; but while admitting the immense value of the philological
XXVI–962


## p. 15378 (#326) ##########################################

15378
HERSART DE LA VILLEMARQUÉ
(
labors of men such as the German Windisch, the English Whitley
Stokes, the French Loth, the Scottish Dr. Cameron, the Welsh Profes-
sor Rhys, and the Irish Standish Hayes O'Grady, or of the more pop-
ular writings of collectors and exponents such as the late Campbell
of Islay, Mr. Alfred Nutt, Mr. Standish O'Grady, and others, it would
be at once unjust and uncritical to omit full recognition of the
labors of collectors and interpreters such as, say, Mr. Alexander Car-
michael in Scotland, and Hersart de la Villemarqué in France.
There can hardly be a student of Celtic literature who is unfamiliar
with the ‘Barzaz-Breiz,' that unique collection of Breton legendary
lore and heroic ballads so closely linked with the name of Hersart de
la Villemarqué. This celebrated man at once collector, folk-lorist,
philologist, poet, and impassioned patriot- was not only born a Bre-
ton of the Bretons, but began life among circumstances pre-eminently
conducive to his mental development along the lines where he has
made his name of world-wide repute. His great work* was not only
the outcome of his own genius and of his racial inheritance, but
was inspired by his mother, a remarkable woman of a very ancient
Armorican family. It is to her that the Barzaz-Breiz) was dedicated :
“À ma tendre et sainte mère, Marie-Ursule Feydeau du Plessix-Nizon,
Comtesse de la Villemarqué. ” So significant are the opening words
of his introduction to the new and definitive edition (1893) that they
may be given here:-
“A profound sentiment,” he says in effect, inspired the idea of this book
wherein my country stands forth self-portrayed, and in that revelation wins
our love. In sending forth this revised reprint of my work, doubtless for the
last time, and feeling myself to be as much as in my early days under the
spell of her love, I dedicate this work to her who really began it, and that
too before I was born,- to her who enthralled my childhood with old-world
ballads and legendary tales, and who herself was indeed for me one of those
good fairies who, as the old lore has it, stand by the side of happy cradles.
My mother, who was also the mother of all who were unhappy, once restored
to health a poor wandering singer of the parish of Melgren. Moved by the
sincere regrets of the poor woman at her inability to convey aright her grati-
tude to her benefactress, having indeed nothing in the world to offer but her
songs, my mother asked her to repeat one or two of her treasury of folk-
songs. So impressed was she by the original character of the Breton poetry,
that often thereafter she sought and obtained a like pleasure. At a later date,
*«< Barzaz-Breiz. Chants Populaires de la Bretagne, recueillis, traduits, et
annotés par le Vicomte Hersart de la Villemarqué, M. I. (work crowned by
the Academy of France). Among the same author's other published writings
in book form (he has written extensively in the Revue Celtique and else-
where) are - -(Merlin: Son Histoire, Ses Euvres, Son Influence,' and 'La
Légende Celtique, et la Poésie des Cloitres en Islande, en Cambrie, et en
Bretagne. ”


## p. 15379 (#327) ##########################################

HERSART DE LA VILLEMARQUÉ
15379
though this was not for herself, she made a special quest of this ancestral
country-side fugitive poetry. Such was the real origin - in a sense purely
domestic and private, and primarily the outcome of a sweet and pious nature
- of this collection of the Barzaz-Breiz); some of the finest pieces in which
I found written, in the first years of the century, on the blank leaves of an
old manuscript volume of recipes wherein my mother had her store of medical
science. ”
As for what M. de la Villemarqué himself did to qualify for his
lifelong labor of love, he writes as follows:-
« To render this collection at once more complete and worthy of the atten-
tion of literary critics, and of all students of literature and life, scrupulous
and conscientious care has been taken. I have gone hither and thither on
my quest through long years, and traversed every region of Basse-Bretagne
(Lower or Northern Brittany), the richest in old memories; taking part in
popular festivals and in private gatherings, at our national pardons (pil-
grimages], at the great fairs, at weddings, or the special fête-days of the
agricultural world and of the workers in all the national industries; ever by
preference seeking the professional beggars, the itinerant shoemakers, tail-
ors, weavers, and vagrant journeymen of all kinds,- in a word, in the whole
nomad song-loving, story-telling fraternity. Everywhere, too, I have inter-
rogated the old women, nurses, young girls, and old men; above all, those of
the hill regions, who in the last century formed part of the armed bands of
patriots, and whose recollections, when once they can be quickened, constitute
a national repertory as rich as any one could possibly consult. Even children
at their play have sometimes revealed to me unexpected old-world survivals.
Ever varying as was the degree of intelligence in all these people, they were
at one in this: that no one among them knew how to read. Naturally, there-
fore, the songs and legends and superstitions which I heard thus are not to
be found in books, and never at least as here given; for these came fresh
from the lips of an illiterate but passionately conservative, patriotic, and poetic
people. »
In a word, Brittany is, in common with Ireland or Gaelic Scotland,
the last home of the old-world Celt, of the old Celtic legendary and
mythological lore, of the passing and ever more and more fugitive
Celtic folk literature. Scotland has her Campbell of Islay, her Alex-
ander Carmichael; Brittany has Hersart de la Villemarqué.
The scientific value of M. de la Villemarqué’s ‘Barzaz-Breiz' has
been disparaged by some writers, to whom the pedantry of absolute
literality is more dear than the living spirit of which language is but
the veil; and this on the ground that his versions are often too elab-
orated, and are sometimes modern rather than archaic. The best
answer is in the words of the famous Breton himself, in the pref-
ace to the revised and definitive edition. After detailing the endless
care taken, and the comparative method pursued, he adds: “The
sole license I have permitted myself is the substitution, in place of


## p. 15380 (#328) ##########################################

15380
HERSART DE LA VILLEMARQUÉ
certain mutilated or vicious expressions, or of certain unpoetic or
less poetic verses, of corresponding but more adequate and harmo-
nious verses, or words from some other version or versions. This
was the method of Walter Scott (in his (Scottish Minstrelsy'], and I
could not follow a better guide. ”
The Barzaz-Breiz,' or Treasury of Breton Popular Chants, is a
storehouse of learned and most interesting and fascinating matter
concerning the origins and survival and inter-relations of the racial
and other legendary beliefs, and superstitions, and folk-lore generally,
of the Armorican people - Arvor, or Armorica, being the old name of
Brittany, the Wales of France. In the introductory and appendical
notes to each heroic ballad or legendary poem, Hersart de la Ville-
marqué has condensed the critical and specialistic knowledge of one
of the most indefatigable and enthusiastic of folk-lorists; and this
with the keenness of sympathy and of insight, and the new and con-
vincing charm of interpretation, of a man of genius.
It is amazing how little of his work has been translated or para-
phrased in English, especially when we consider the ever-growing
interest in literature of the kind, and particularly in Celtic literature.
It is pleasant, however, to know that an English "Barzaz-Breiz' is
promised us before long, and that from the pen of an author who
has a pre-eminent right to the task,— Mrs. Wingate Rinder; whose
volume entitled “The Shadow of Arvor (a re-telling of old Breton
tales and romances) is the most interesting and beautiful work of
its kind we have, and is, I may add, a book that won the high appro-
bation of M. de la Villemarqué himself. *
The three representative pieces which I have translated from
the ‘Barzaz-Breiz' are not only typical of the ancient and the mediæ-
val Breton romance or heroic ballad, but are given intact with their
prefatory and appendical notes.
(The Wine of the Gauls) is one of the earliest preserved utter-
ances of the ancient Armorican bards.